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Russia's Imperial Encounter with Armenians, 1801-1894

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Russia's Imperial Encounter with Armenians, 1801-1894 CLAIMING THE CAUCASUS: RUSSIA’S IMPERIAL ENCOUNTER WITH ARMENIANS, 1801-1894 Stephen B. Riegg A dissertation submitted to the faculty at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Department of History. Chapel Hill 2016 Approved by: Louise McReynolds Donald J. Raleigh Chad Bryant Cemil Aydin Eren Tasar © 2016 Stephen B. Riegg ALL RIGHTS RESERVED ii ABSTRACT Stephen B. Riegg: Claiming the Caucasus: Russia’s Imperial Encounter with Armenians, 1801-1894 (Under the direction of Louise McReynolds) My dissertation questions the relationship between the Russian empire and the Armenian diaspora that populated Russia’s territorial fringes and navigated the tsarist state’s metropolitan centers. I argue that Russia harnessed the stateless and dispersed Armenian diaspora to build its empire in the Caucasus and beyond. Russia relied on the stature of the two most influential institutions of that diaspora, the merchantry and the clergy, to project diplomatic power from Constantinople to Copenhagen; to benefit economically from the transimperial trade networks of Armenian merchants in Russia, Persia, and Turkey; and to draw political advantage from the Armenian Church’s extensive authority within that nation. Moving away from traditional dichotomies of power and resistance, this dissertation examines how Russia relied on foreign-subject Armenian peasants and elites to colonize the South Caucasus, thereby rendering Armenians both agents and recipients of European imperialism. Religion represented a defining link in the Russo-Armenian encounter and therefore shapes the narrative of my project. Driven by a shared ecumenical identity as adherents of Orthodox Christianity, Armenians embraced Russian patronage in the early nineteenth century to escape social and political marginalization in the Persian and Ottoman empires. After the tsarist state wrested the headquarters of the Armenian Church from Persia in 1828, it maneuvered to ensure the election of an Armenian ecclesiastical leader most conducive to Russia’s geopolitical objective of maintaining influence over Armenians abroad. iii Tsarist diplomats amplified the clout of the Armenian Church in European capitals and Russian generals relied on Armenian priests to gather intelligence in Turkey during wartime, but the government shuttered Armenian parish schools and imprisoned clergy when it detected links between the church and a rising nationalist movement. In the last quarter of the nineteenth century, a multifaceted Armenian nationalist sentiment that sought varied goals penetrated Armenian students, aristocrats, and clerics. Yet my research shows that even during this challenge to tsarist authority, Russian statesmen and Armenian clergy continued to pursue parallel aims. iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS What a pleasure it is to acknowledge the many individuals and institutions that made this dissertation possible. It has been a privilege to be trained at UNC’s History Department, where I studied under the direction of faculty who are exceptional scholars and wonderful people. Louise McReynolds—advisor and teacher par excellence—has guided and supported this project from its inception. Her encyclopedic knowledge of imperial Russia, unparalleled historical insight, and love of writing have left a permanent impression on me, but perhaps most importantly she has showed me the compatibility between meticulous scholarship and a fun story. Donald J. Raleigh has been a model mentor, pushing me to ask new questions, sharpen my prose, and consider new directions. I have benefitted from his incisive feedback and scalpel-like editorial pen from the start. The other members of my committee, Chad Bryant, Cemil Aydin, and Eren Tasar, generously contributed their time and provided outstanding feedback. Before my arrival at UNC, Eve Levin, Gerald Mikkelson, and Luis Corteguera at the University of Kansas inspired a young history and Russian studies co-major to pursue the advanced study of imperial Russia. My friends and colleagues at UNC have been a consistent source of camaraderie and support. First and foremost, Sarah McNamara has been my greatest champion and closest confidant, whose love and care have been unwavering. Trevor Erlacher, Andrew Ringlee, Colleen Moore, Dakota Irvin, Jeanine Navarrete, Alex Ruble, Amanda Bellows, Liz Ellis, Mikhail Skalski, and many others have made my time in Chapel Hill more enjoyable. For keeping me sane through years of graduate study, I thank my coaches and teammates from Carolina Judo, especially Bill Cabrera. v The staffs of the Russian and Armenian archives and libraries where I conducted research always provided timely and effective help, and I am particularly grateful to the employees of the Russian State Historical Archive (RGIA) for their kind assistance. Also in St. Petersburg, Alexander Semyonov and the Higher School of Economics offered a vibrant intellectual community, and I enjoyed the former imperial capital with the company of Zachary Hoffman, Michael Marsh-Soloway, Samuel Hirst, and Anatoly Pinsky. The generous support of several institutions enabled this project. An Advanced Research Fellowship from the American Councils Title VIII Research Scholar Program funded research in Moscow and St. Petersburg, while a Fulbright-Hays Doctoral Dissertation Research Abroad fellowship supported research in St. Petersburg and Yerevan. A short-term grant from the Kennan Institute of the Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars permitted me to work at the Library of Congress. A Doris G. Quinn Foundation Dissertation Completion Fellowship gave me the time to complete the writing of the dissertation after fieldwork. Everything I have accomplished I owe to my parents, who inculcated in me from childhood a passion for scholarship. Their love and support have been unconditional, and I have learned more from them than from anyone else. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................................................ ix LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS .......................................................................................................... x INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................... 1 Historical Context .................................................................................................................... 8 Historiography ........................................................................................................................ 10 Methodology and Sources ...................................................................................................... 16 Chapter Overview .................................................................................................................. 20 Terms and Dates ..................................................................................................................... 22 CHAPTER 1: THE EMBRACE OF AN EMPIRE, 1801-1814 .................................................... 24 Early Armeno-Georgian and Russo-Georgian Strife ............................................................. 27 The Napoleonic Backdrop and Imperial Ambitions .............................................................. 41 Spies and Settlers: Armenians in the Russian Service ........................................................... 59 Patriarchal Patronage .............................................................................................................. 70 Conclusion .............................................................................................................................. 81 CHAPTER 2: ARMENIANS IN THE RUSSIAN POLITICAL IMAGINATION, 1815-1830 ...................................................................................................................................... 84 The Lazarev Dynasty ............................................................................................................. 87 Old Foes, New Friends ......................................................................................................... 107 Souls and Hearts: Russia Recruits Armenians from Abroad ............................................... 122 The Evolution of Armenian Tax Obligations ....................................................................... 137 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................ 153 CHAPTER 3: ARMENIAN ECCLESIASTICS AND ECONOMICS UNDER TSAR NICHOLAS I, 1831-1854 ................................................................................................. 156 vii Imperial Policy and Context ................................................................................................. 159 Church-State Relations ......................................................................................................... 177 Economic Encounters ........................................................................................................... 196 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................ 214 CHAPTER 4: RUSSIA’S RESPONSE TO THE EASTERN QUESTION AND THE ARMENIAN DIASPORA, 1855-1881 ............................................................................... 217 Viceroys and Villains ..........................................................................................................
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