religions

Article Migrant Buddhists and Korean “Multiculturalism”—A Brief Survey of the Issues Surrounding Support for South Korea’s Immigrant Buddhist Communities

Kyungrae Kim * and Cheonghwan Park

Department of Buddhist Studies, Dongguk University, Seoul 04620, Korea; avadana@dongguk.edu * Correspondence: [email protected]



Received: 8 October 2020; Accepted: 16 November 2020; Published: 24 November 2020


Abstract: The three largest Korean religious organizations have worked to provide material, educational, medical, and social support to the various growing migrant communities. Among them, the Catholic community has been the most organized, sustained, and effective in its support of migrants by systematically providing for the legal, material, educational, and medical needs of various immigrant communities while advocating for their rights. Although lacking the centralized authority and organization of the Catholics, since the 1990s, Korea’s Protestants have also been active in supporting their country’s growing immigrant communities, which Evangelical churches also view as fertile grounds for proselytizing. The Korean Buddhist community, in comparison, has been slower to engage with Korea’s immigrants and has provided considerably fewer support services. In 2008, the Jogye Order organized the Maha Association for Supporting Immigrants to coordinate individual and localized Buddhist migrant support services at a national level. This article examines the Buddhist reactions to the increase in South Korean immigration over recent decades, with a focus on immigrant-support efforts supported by the Jogye Order for migrant Buddhist communities.

Keywords: the Jogye Order; the Maha Association; multiculturalism; immigrant Buddhist communities; the Catholic community; Korea’s protestants

1. Introduction Capitalizing on the month-long visa-free entry for tourists, in 2018, the sudden influx of over 500 Yemeni refugees to the South Korean resort island of Jeju ignited a contentious national debate over the country’s immigration policies. Fleeing the civil war in Yemen, the refugees were welcomed by many individuals and aid organizations on the island. However, rumors soon spread through Korean social media alleging anti-social and criminal behavior by the Yemenis, which, in turn, prompted a wave of public opposition from Korean conservatives, nationalists, and vocally Islamophobic Protestant groups. Decrying the Yemenis as “fake refugees” and potential terrorists or rapists, these groups feared facing a repeat of Europe’s refugee crisis in their own shores. While 49% of South Koreans polled opposed the Yemenis’ presence on Jeju, 39% of them were, in fact, sympathetic to the refugees. Recalling Korea’s own traumatic civil war, leading Catholic, Protestant, and Buddhist migrant-support organizations called for compassion and for granting the Yemenis’ requests for asylum (Haas 2018; Lee 2018). The Jogye Order of Korean Buddhism (K. Daehan Bulgyo Jogyejong, hereafter “JO”), the largest of Korea’s over 250 Buddhist sects, joined the calls for support for the refugees, issuing a statement titled “Please Warmly Welcome the Wounded Travelers”

Religions 2020, 11, 628; doi:10.3390/rel11120628 www.mdpi.com/journal/religions Religions 2020, 11, 628 2 of 11

(K. Sangcheo ib-eun nageuneleul ttatteuhage hwandaehae jusibsio).1 Authored, in part, by the order’s Maha Association for Supporting Immigrants (K. Maha ijumin jiwondanche hyeobuihoe), the statement condemned the “unfounded hatred and fear” of the refugees. Recalling Jesus’s flight to Egypt as a refugee, as well as the Buddha’s life as wandering medicant dependent on the generosity of others, the statement further implored Korea’s Buddhist and Christian communities to “welcome and embrace” the Yemenis, to “accept them as neighbors and seek a path for mutual prosperity” (Lee 2018). Despite these demonstrations of support, the South Korean government eventually bowed to negative public pressure by canceling visa-free entrance for Yemeni citizens to Jeju and granting only two of the 480 Yemeni applicants official refugee status (Choe 2018).2 The controversy over the plight of Yemenis has exposed many of the tensions underlining the rapid increase in immigration to South Korea over recent decades and the government’s subsequent campaign to transition the nation into becoming a more “multicultural” society. Historically a predominantly mono-cultural nation, over the decades following the Korean War (1950–1953), a series of South Korean military dictatorships promoted ideologies of national unity and racial purity (K. danil minjok, also known as “blood purity”). However, with its emergence as an industrialized, first-world economy in the 1990s, South Korea began importing migrant workers through temporary visa programs to fill growing labor shortages. Steady declines in the country’s birth rate and a rapidly aging population have left South Korea’s economy increasingly dependent on migrant laborers. Coupled with the growing practice of bride-importing, these trends have caused the percentage of South Korea’s foreign residents to rise from just 0.1% in 1990 to 2.3% in 2019 (United Nations 2019), disrupting long-held notions of Korean racial and cultural homogeneity in the process. Although the South Korean government has launched numerous legislative initiatives in an effort to better integrate immigrants into Korean society, along with campaigns to promote “multiculturalism” (K. damunhwa),3 many foreigners residing in South Korea continue to face sustained discrimination (Berndt 2017, p. 56). Denied the practical possibility of permanent residency, labor migrants continue to be excluded from Korean social services while remaining vulnerable to exploitation in the workplace (Berndt 2017, p. 57). Lacking adequate government support, over 1200 non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and civic organizations have become active in providing legal, material, and social support for various migrant communities living in South Korea, of which 152 are affiliated with religious organizations (Beopbo 2019). South Korea’s Catholic and Protestant communities, who make up approximately 8% and 20% of the country’s population, respectively, have worked to provide systematic support for the migrant communities in their midst. However, South Korea’s Buddhists, who make up approximately 15% of the population, have been more reluctant to do so,4 which is surprising given the competition between Catholicism, Protestantism, and Buddhism for religious market share in Korea and the fact that many labor and marriage migrants originate from Buddhist-majority countries like Vietnam, Thailand, and Myanmar. Given this reluctance, this article will investigate the Buddhist reactions to the increase in South Korean immigration over recent decades. In particular, it will focus the immigrant-support services sponsored by the Jogye Order as well as the self-organizing efforts of various migrant Buddhist communities. This paper will begin by reviewing the modern history of immigration in South Korea along with associated government policies and discourse over “multiculturalism.” Section3 will then survey immigrant support activities provided by Korea’s Catholics and Protestants, with whom the

1 Representing the historical mainstream of Korean Buddhism, the Jogye Order maintains over 3000 Buddhist temples staffed by approximately 12,000 ordained male and female monastics and claims to have approximately nine million lay followers. 2 The majority of the remaining Yemenis were permitted granted temporary humanitarian visas, which permitted them to stay until conditions had improved in Yemen, but denied them access to Korean social services or the ability to work legally. 3 Citing H.J. Kim’s 2009 doctoral dissertation Immigration Challenges and ‘Multicultural’ Responses: The State, the Dominant Elite, and Immigrants in South Korea, scholar Rory Berndt notes that the concept of damunhwa “can mean anything from multiculturalism, multicultural society, cultural diversity, international understanding, to foreigners or marriage migrants. 4 http://kosis.kr/statHtml/statHtml.do?orgId=101&tblId=DT_1PM1502&conn_path=I2. Religions 2020, 11, 628 3 of 11

Buddhists have a more than century-long relationship of creative competition. Section4 will do the same with immigrant-support services offered by the Jogye Order, followed in Section5 with a survey of the religious activities and organization efforts within various immigrant communities themselves. Section6 will conclude with a discussion of the limitations and problems surrounding the Jogye Order’s efforts to support the growing communities of Buddhist migrants residing in South Korea.

2. The Recent History of Immigration and Multiculturalism in South Korea As noted by scholar Gi-Wook Shin, South Koreans have a strong tendency to conflate race, ethnicity, and nationhood within a unified ethno-national Korean identity (Shin 2006, p. 4). While much of this ethno-national identity is undoubtedly a modern construction, it is not without a strong historical basis. Shin observes that Korea “ ... has long maintained a coherent political community within a stable territorial boundary” as well as “a fairly homogenous ethnic protonation” for hundreds of years (Shin 2006, p. 18), further noting that the nation’s collective history, including the trauma of the Japanese Annexation (1910–1945) and the Korean War (1950–1953), “ ... have been largely responsible for the rise and continued dominance of an ethnic, organic conception of nation” (Shin 2006, p. 8). From the end of the Korean War through the 1980s, the succession of dictatorships governing the South actively promoted this Korean ethno-nationalist identity, emphasizing the shared historical and cultural heritage, as well as the racial “blood purity” (K. danil minjok), of the Korean people in a concerted effort to promote national unity and rebuild the South’s shattered economy. During these decades of post-war nation-building, South Korea remained a net migrant-sending nation and, in addition to refugees and war-orphaned adoptees, the country also deployed many temporary migrant laborers abroad, who returned much-needed foreign currency to aid the nation’s economic recovery. Aside from the masses of North Korean refugees who were assimilated into South Korean society after the war, the relatively few foreigners residing in the South during this period were primarily foreign businessmen, military personal, missionaries, or aid workers from the West (Berndt 2017, p. 11; Kim 2013, pp. 227–49; Shim 2013, pp. 8–9). With South Korea’s emergence as an industrialized, first-world economy, and its coinciding transition to democracy in the late 1980s, the nation’s net flow of migration began to reverse. With the rising standard of living and decreasing birth rate, in 1991, the South Korean government instituted the “Overseas Investment Business Training System” to import guest workers needed to fill a growing shortage of labor in the country’s burgeoning manufacturing sector. In 1993, this system was expanded into the “Industrial Trainee System”, permitting foreign migrants to legally work in South Korea for fixed periods of time. The program recruited predominantly men from south and central Asian nations, with whom South Korea had established a Memorandum of Understanding (hereafter “MOU”) to work in the so-called “3D” (“dirty, dangerous, and difficult”) professions, which the increasingly educated and affluent Korean youth were reticent to join. However, by defining migrant workers as “trainees”, they were exempted from protections under South Korea’s national labor laws, leaving them vulnerable to exploitation by their employers, which, in turn, led many to leave employment and work illegally elsewhere. The program was reorganized in 2004 as the “Employment Permit System” in an attempt to rectify these issues. Under South Korea’s guest worker programs, the number of migrant laborers grew from just under 500 in 1980 to almost 500,000 by 2011. However, human rights activists have continued to charge that these programs have failed to provide sufficient material support and legal protection for migrant workers. Furthermore, the increasingly visible populations of migrants living in their midst began to challenge South Koreans’ sense of ethno-national unity, leaving migrant workers vulnerable to what scholar Rory Berndt describes as “sustained forms of discrimination” (Berndt 2017, pp. 11, 57; Shim 2013, pp. 8–9; Statistics Korea 2019a). South Korean racial and cultural homogeneity has been further challenged since the turn of the millennium by the rapid increase of foreign marriage migrants through the burgeoning practice of bride-importing. Since the early 1990s, an increasing number of young Korean women have left the countryside for the more affluent cities, with many choosing to delay marriage in pursuit of Religions 2020, 11, 628 4 of 11 professional careers—a demographic shift that has left many lower-income men predominantly in rural areas of the country without eligible marriage partners. In the early 2000s, international marriage brokers began to fill this need by providing Korean clients with a selection of suitable brides from China and Southeast Asia. This industry has proved so successful that the number of these predominantly female marriage migrants rose from 23,414 in 2002 to 144,214 in 2012. However, the children of these mixed-race families, known as kosian or onnurian in Korean, directly challenge the ideology of Korean “blood purity”, and the government has struggled to integrate these children from predominantly lower-income families into the Korean education system and wider society (Berndt 2017, pp. 47–48; Shim 2013, pp. 9–8). In direct response to these trends, in 2007, the South Korean government introduced the “The First Basic Plan for Immigration Policy (2008–2012)” (hereafter “First Basic Plan”), marking the nation’s historic shift to becoming a net immigrant-receiving nation that year. The same year, the government additionally passed the “Act on the Treatment of Foreigners in Korea”, followed in 2008 by the “Support for Multicultural Families Act.” The goal of this series of legislation was to establish standing government policy committees and programs that would work to integrate immigrants into South Korean society, protect multicultural families from discrimination, and improve their overall quality of life (Shim 2013, pp. 8–9). With the First Basic Plan, the government removed any mention of Korean “blood purity” from materials used in the schools and military while campaigning to shift the national identity towards becoming a more “multicultural” nation. Critics have noted, however, that the focus of this campaign was primarily on the assimilation of marriage migrants and their families, while non-ethnic-Korean labor migrants were largely ignored (Berndt 2017, pp. 54–55, 57; Shim 2013, p. 30). As South Korea recognizes jus sanguinis citizenship, immigrants without Korean parentage lack any practical possibility for naturalization, removing much of the motivation for either the government or the labor migrants themselves to work towards their integration into Korean society (Berndt 2017, p. 57). The increased media discourse surrounding “multiculturalism” following the passage of the First Basic Plan in South Korea has also prompted a backlash among nationalists and conservatives. Anti-multiculturalism organizations, like the “Citizen Alliance against Foreign Migrants”, “Citizens’ Alliance against Foreign Workers”, and the “International Marriage Damage and Prevention Center”, lobby conservative politicians and government officials to rescind the First Basic Plan (Shim 2013, p. 12). Since 2009, conservatives have also successfully blocked repeated efforts in South Korea’s national legislature to pass universal anti-discrimination and anti-racism legislation, which opponents fear would place an undue burden on Korean businesses to defend themselves against legal accusations of racial discrimination (Shim 2013, p. 16). Despite this opposition, however, the current trends surrounding immigration in South Korea show no indication of reversing. According to the South Korean government’s own Preliminary Results of Birth and Death Statistics in 2019, the nation’s fertility dropped below 1 for the first time in 2018 (Statistics Korea 2019b). This falling fertility rate coupled with a rapidly increasing elderly population indicates that South Korea’s demand for imported brides and reliance on migrant labor will only increase over the coming decades (Berndt 2017, pp. 37–38). As noted by International Relations Scholar Robert Kelly, a “dramatic population contraction will halt Korea’s otherwise successful rise up the G-20 ranks ... Korea will either have to become a multicultural society with sustained immigration ... or content itself to stagnation and perhaps even decline” (Kelly 2010). With the number of foreign residents surpassing two million in 2018, quadruple the number from just 12 years prior, the influx of immigrants into South Korea continues to increase each year (Song 2020). However, the government and society at large have yet to provide the support necessary to effectively integrate both long- and short-term migrants into this society. Religions 2020, 11, 628 5 of 11

3. Christian Support for Migrants in South Korea

3.1. Catholic Support Given the discrimination and accompanying financial and social disadvantages faced by both multicultural families and more temporary labor migrants in South Korea, religious aid organizations have provided valuable support for various migrant communities living in their midst. However, the support provided by South Korea’s three largest religious communities, namely the Catholics, Protestant Christians, and Buddhists, has varied. Since the late 1980s, the Korean Catholic community has worked to minister to the needs of migrants through various Catholic organizations, which have provided regular material, medical, and legal aid, as well as social support. In 1992, the Catholic Diocese of Seoul opened a counseling center and support group for foreign workers, which was gradually expanded through the establishment of branches in local dioceses throughout the country. In 2003, the Catholic Bishops’ Conference of Korea created the Committee for the Pastoral Care of Migrants and Foreign Residents Living in Korea (K. Gungnae iju samok wiwonhoe, hereafter “Committee for Pastoral Care”) formed an organic partnership with the pre-existing Catholic immigrant support groups (Park 2010b). Korean Catholic organizations have also provided medical assistance to migrant workers, many of whom are ineligible for coverage by the country’s national health insurance system, through Catholic-run clinics and hospitals. Since the 2000s, the Korean Catholic Church has also expanded its support facilities for immigrants to address the needs not only of economic migrants, but also of marriage migrants and children from multicultural families. Korean Catholic support for migrants has been directly mandated and guided by Vatican policy. In responses to the millions of refugees displaced by WWII, in 1952, Pope Pius XII issued an apostolic constitution titled Exsul Familia. Presenting the Holy Family’s flight to Egypt to escape persecution as the archetype for refugees and economic migrants, Pius XII directed local dioceses to maintain an open-door policy for all migrants and displaced persons. This policy was reaffirmed in 2004 when the Vatican presented the Erga Migrantes Caritas Christi, or “Love of Christ for Migrants”, a Pontifical Council for the Pastoral Care of Migrants and Itinerant People that provides further basis for church support for migrants around the globe. The document further mandates that the Catholic church should work to rectify human rights violations and alienation in the migration process as well as to create social systems and laws that guarantee the labor and human rights of migrants. Following these Vatican mandates, the Korean Catholic Bishops’ Committee for Pastoral Care has further decreed that Korean Catholics should give material assistance and shelter to migrants in their midst whom they should treat the same as local believers (Ju 2008). By stipulating that each diocese is responsible for the migrants residing within their boundaries, Korean Catholics are actively following Vatican mandates by advocating for and ministering to the needs of the immigrants in their communities.

3.2. Protestant Support While Korean Protestants lack the centralized organization and ecclesiastical authority of the Catholics, many in the nation’s Protestant community have also been mobilized in support of Korea’s foreign migrant communities. Of the 152 religious aid groups working with immigrants in South Korea, approximately 70 percent are affiliated with Protestant Christian organizations (Beopbo 2019). Despite the vocal Islamophobia of some conservative Protestant groups, since the early 1990s, many in the South Korean Protestant community have worked to support the human rights of migrant laborers. In November 1992, the Korean Council of Christian Churches established the Korean Council of Foreign Workers’ Missionaries, a nationwide organization backed by a coalition of 34 Protestant groups that advocates for the labor rights and human rights of migrants.5 This was followed by the formation of the Protestant-backed Foreign Immigrant Labor Association (K. Woegugin ijunodongundong hyeobuihoe)

5 https://jcmkoffice01.tistory.com. Religions 2020, 11, 628 6 of 11 in 1995, which has provided legal advocacy and social services for immigrants and migrant workers. As the number of Korea’s Protestants has been in decline since the turn of the millennium, while the number of immigrants has been steadily rising, Protestant churches have identified the immigrant communities in Korea as an emerging field for mission work, an issue openly discussed by Protestant ministers and seminarians. Thus, while Protestant aid organizations provide valued services for migrants residing in Korea, they frequently engage in proselytizing and promoting religious education alongside other support services (Park 2010a, p. 2).

4. Buddhist Support for Migrants in Korea As with the nation’s Catholics and Protestants, Korean Buddhists have well-established religious motivations for aiding their nation’s growing migrant communities. On the Bodhisattva path to Buddhahood, Mahayana Buddhists must strive to cultivate “great compassion” (Sk. Maha¯ -karuna,¯ K. Daebi), which, as described by the seventh-century Korean Buddhist master Wonhyo, is “unconditional” and “does not distinguish between self and others” (Park 1985, p. 99).6 This “great compassion” has inspired the creation of contemporary Korean “engaged” Buddhist organizations like the Jungto Society (K. Jeongto hoe, or “Society for a Pure Land”) founded by Ven. Beomnyun (b. 1953) in 1988, which has sponsored numerous international aid projects and environmental campaigns, as well as Indra’s Net Life Community (K. Indramang saengmyong gondongche, founded by Ven. Dobeop (b. 1949) in 1999, which has been involved in environmentalism, organic farming, cooperative living, and alternative schooling (Park 2010c).7 Nevertheless, unlike the country’s Catholics and Protestants, Korean Buddhists have been comparatively slow to engage with South Korea’s immigrant populations. Beginning in 1994, Korean Buddhists established the “Commission for the Protection of Human Rights of Foreign Workers” (K. Woegugin nodongja ingwonbohoreul wihan bulgyo daechaegwiwonhoe). However, the initial support services provided for migrants by Korean Buddhists were sporadic and largely lead by individual activists and temples. As immigration and the corresponding discourse around “multiculturalism” increased over the 2000s, the Jogye Order sought to provide support for migrants at a national level and, in 2006, founded the Maha Migrant Assistance Group Council (K. Maha ijumin jiwondanche hyeobuihoe) with the aim of promoting equality and protecting migrants from discrimination and human rights violations. Initially begun as a voluntary gathering to share information and promote friendship among localized Buddhist migrant-support organizations, the need for more active support from the Jogye Order for migrants, especially those from Buddhist countries, soon became apparent. In 2008, the Jogye Order reorganized the council as the Maha Association for Supporting Immigrants (K. Maha ijumin jiwondanche hyeobuihoe, hereafter “the Maha Association” or “the Association”) with funding directly provided by the order. Tasked with protecting the rights of migrants, giving “a unified voice to migrant support”, working for government policy improvements, developing education programs, and providing religious services for Buddhist migrants, the Maha Association functioned as an umbrella organization, coordinating local initiatives and temple programs (Jogye Order of Korean Buddhism 2018). Over the following decade, the association sponsored a variety of programs and activities, including Korean language classes and job-skills training for migrants, the creation of shelters for migrant workers, social and cultural activities for immigrants, and overseas volunteer programs in countries like Vietnam, Nepal, and Sri Lanka (Jogye Order of Korean Buddhism 2018). The Association has been at the forefront of protecting human rights and interests of female marriage migrants and foreign workers while participating in symposiums on immigration and working to empower immigrant-rights activists.

6 Sung Bae Park cites Wonhyo’s Commentary on the Awakening of Mahayana Faith (K. Haedongso). 7 See (Park 2010c) for more details on the Jungto Society and Indra’s Net. Religions 2020, 11, 628 7 of 11

Unlike many Protestant immigrant-support organizations, the religious conversion of non-Buddhists has not been a goal of the Maha Association. However, as the large majority of migrant workers arriving in South Korea originate from Buddhist-majority countries, such as Vietnam, Thailand, and Myanmar, the Association has been instrumental in providing religious support for immigrantReligions 2020 Buddhist, 11, x communities by organizing spaces in Korean temples where foreign Buddhist7 of 11 Sanghas could meet, conduct ceremonies, and hold Dharma talks in their native languages.8 In the earlyearly 2000s, 2000s, the the Maha Maha Association Association helped helped organize organize temples temples for for sailors sailors from from Myanmar Myanmar in in Seoul Seoul and and Bupyeong,Bupyeong, along along with with the the opening opening of of the the Mahabodhi Mahabodhi Temple Temple for for Sri Sri Lankan Lankan migrants, migrants, which which was was openedopened in in 2005. 2005. ByBy 2008,2008, additionaladditional templestemples forfor the the Thai, Thai, Cambodian, Cambodian, Mongolian, Mongolian, and and Nepalese Nepalese BuddhistsBuddhists had had been been organized organized as as well well ( Song(Song 2020 2020).). By By the the 2010s, 2010s, many many of of these these migrant migrant Sanghas Sanghas had had growngrown large large enough enough to to establish establish their their own own independently independently run run temples, temples, yet yet they they continue continue to to maintain maintain positivepositive relationships relationships with with the the Maha Maha Association Associatio andn and other other Korean Korean Buddhist Buddhist organizations organizations (Kim 2020(Kim; Song2020; 2020 Song). 2020). DespiteDespite the the Maha Maha Association’s Association’s many many successes, successes, however, however, in in 2015, 2015, the the JO JO eliminated eliminated all all of of the the Association’sAssociation’s operatingoperating budgetbudget asas partpart ofof thethe order’sorder’s eeffortffortto to reduce reduce its its expenses expenses in in response response to to 9 overalloverall declines declines inin membership.membership.9 WithWith the the number number of of annual annual monast monasticic recruits recruits declining declining steadily steadily for fordecades, decades, from from 510 510postulants postulants in 1993 in 1993to only to 151 only in 151 2017, in and 2017, the and number the number of lay practitioners of lay practitioners dropping droppingfrom 22.8% from of 22.8%the population of the population in 2005 to in 15.5% 2005 to just 15.5% ten years just ten later, years the later, Jogye the Order Jogye is Order facing is an facing internal an 10 internalcrisis. crisis. While10 Whilethe order the order has hasmaintained maintained the theMaha Maha Association Association without without conseiderable support,support, associationassociation supporters supporters such such as as Jungang Jungang Sanha Sanha University University sociology sociology professor professor Seung-moo Seung-moo Yoo Yoo claim claim thatthat the the cut cut in in funding funding has has left left the the Maha Maha Association Association unable unable to fulfillto fulfill its mandatesits mandates and and has has reduced reduced its 11 activitiesits activities to a minimum.to a minimum.11 Nevertheless, Nevertheless, the association the association has remained has remained an active an participant active participant in various in immigrationvarious immigration symposiums symposiums and national and migrant-rights national migrant-rights discussions, discussions, while the variouswhile the local various programs local organizedprograms underorganized the umbrella under the of umbr the associationella of the association have continued have co theirntinued work. their Furthermore, work. Furthermore, many of themany migrant of the Sanghas migrant initially Sanghas sponsored initially sponsored by the Maha by Association the Maha Association have continued have to continued grow and to thrive grow independentlyand thrive independently without need ofwithout the association’s need of the support. association’s In 2019, support. various foreign-runIn 2019, various Buddhist foreign-run temples inBuddhist South Korea temples joined in togetherSouth Korea with thejoined Jogye together Order towith form the the Jogye Korean Order Multicultural to form Buddhismthe Korean AssociationMulticultural (K. BuddhismDamunhwa Association bulgyo yeonhab (K. )Damunhwa to provide bulgyo inter-Buddhist yeonhab) to cross-cultural provide inter-Buddhist exchanges while cross- continuingcultural exchanges to work togetherwhile continuing in mutual to support work toge (Kimther 2020 in ;mutual Song 2020 support). (Kim 2020; Song 2020).

5.5. The The Activities Activities of of the the Immigrant Immigrant Buddhist Buddhist Communities Communities in in Korea Korea InIn 2016, 2016, the the Maha Maha Association Association conducted conducted a a survey survey on on the the status status of of various various migrant migrant Buddhist Buddhist communitiescommunities inin SouthSouth Korea.Korea. Titled Titled “A “A Study Study on on Migrant Migrant Buddhist Buddhist Communities: Communities: Focusing Focusing on onMigrant Migrant Temples” Temples” (K. (K. 이주민 불교공동체 조사연구 : 이주민 법당을 중심으로 , hereafterhereafter ‘Jogye‘Jogye OrderOrder 2016 20160 ′or or‘the ‘the survey’), survey’),the the survey survey provided provided insight insight into into the the establishment establishment and and evolution evolution of of foreignforeign Buddhist Buddhist communities communities in Southin South Korea Korea since sinc thee early the 1970s.early 1970s. The survey The identifiedsurvey identified seven foreign seven Buddhistforeign Buddhist national national communities communiti that currentlyes that currently operate templesoperate temple and religiouss and religious centers incenters South in Korea, South namelyKorea, thenamely Myanmarese the Myanmarese (also known (also as known Burmese) as Bu community,rmese) community, which, in 2015,which, had in 18,123 2015, registeredhad 18,123 residentsregistered in residents South Korea, in South the SriKorea, Lankan the community,Sri Lankan withcommunity 25,171, residents,with 25,171 the residents, Thai community, the Thai withcommunity, 27,927 residents, with 27,927 the residents, Cambodian the community, Cambodian with community, 41,991 residents, with 41,991 the residents, Nepalese the community, Nepalese withcommunity, 29,189 residents, with 29,189 the Vietnamese residents, community, the Vietnam withese 128,042 community, residents, with and 128,042 the Mongolian residents, community, and the withMongolian 18,493 residents community, (Jogye with Order 18,493 2016 residents, pp. 8–11). (Jogye Order 2016; pp. 8–11). While the number of Burmese residents in South Korea is comparatively small, the fact that Burmese Buddhism is the oldest foreign Buddhist community in Korea is due to a significant amount 8 of Halfinitial of the involvement 16 countries South from Korea Korean has signed Buddhists an MOU with themselves. regarding temporary Since the employment late 1980s, are Buddhist Burmese-style countries. VipassanaOf these, as meditation of 2017, Thailand became and Vietnam popu providedlarized forby the books largest written numbers ofby migrant both Western workers following and Korean those from authors, China. 9 http://cafe.daum.net/43sudawon/5sXX/706?q=%EB%A7%88%ED%95%98%EC%9D%B4%EC%A3%BC%EB%AF%BC% inspiringEC%A7%80%EC%9B%90%EB%8B%A8%EC%B2%B4%ED%98%91%EC%9D%98%ED%9A%8C many Korean Buddhists to travel to Myanmar for extended meditation. retreats under 10BurmeseFor further masters. discussion, Returning see (Kim et al.home, 2019). these Koreans founded a variety of Vipassana centers and 11 http://cafe.daum.net/43sudawon/5sXX/706?q=%EB%A7%88%ED%95%98%EC%9D%B4%EC%A3%BC%EB%AF%BC% Burmese-styleEC%A7%80%EC%9B%90%EB%8B%A8%EC%B2%B4%ED%98%91%EC%9D%98%ED%9A%8C temples in the 1990s and began inviting Burmese monks to. Korea as meditation

9 http://cafe.daum.net/43sudawon/5sXX/706?q=%EB%A7%88%ED%95%98%EC%9D%B4%EC%A3%BC %EB%AF%BC%EC%A7%80%EC%9B%90%EB%8B%A8%EC%B2%B4%ED%98%91%EC%9D%98%ED%9A %8C. 10 For further discussion, see Kim et al. 2019. 11 http://cafe.daum.net/43sudawon/5sXX/706?q=%EB%A7%88%ED%95%98%EC%9D%B4%EC%A3%BC %EB%AF%BC%EC%A7%80%EC%9B%90%EB%8B%A8%EC%B2%B4%ED%98%91%EC%9D%98%ED%9A %8C.

Religions 2020, 11, 628 8 of 11

While the number of Burmese residents in South Korea is comparatively small, the fact that Burmese Buddhism is the oldest foreign Buddhist community in Korea is due to a significant amount of initial involvement from Korean Buddhists themselves. Since the late 1980s, Burmese-style Vipassana Religions 2020meditation, 11, x became popularized by books written by both Western and Korean authors,8inspiring of 11 many Religions 2020, 11, x 8 of 11 Religions 2020, 11Korean, x Buddhists to travel to Myanmar for extended meditation retreatsReligions under 20208 Burmeseof, 1111, x masters. 8 of 11 12 teachers.12 Returning As the number home, of these Burmese Koreans migrant founded workers a variety began of to Vipassana increase over centers the same and Burmese-style decade, the temples teachers.12 As the number of Burmese migrant workers began to increase over the same decade, the teachers. As the number of Burmese migrant workers began to increase over the same decade,12 the migrants werein the naturally 1990s and welcomed began inviting by these Burmese temples monks and monks. to Korea The as “Myanmar meditation teachers.Community” teachers.12 AsAs (K.the the number number of Burmese migrant workers began to increase over the same decade, the migrantsmigrants were were naturally naturally welcomed welcomed by by these these te templesmples and and monks. monks. The The “Myanmar “Myanmar Community” Community” (K. (K. 미얀마 공동체of Burmese migrant workers began to increase over the same decade, themigrants migrants were were naturally naturally welcomed by these temples and monks. The “Myanmar Community” (K. 미얀마 공동체 ) was) was formed formed in in 1996 1996 and and has has since since worked worked for for the the welfare welfare of of Myanmarese Myanmarese migrants migrants 미얀마 공동체 welcomed) was formed by these in 1996 temples and has and since monks. worked The “Myanmar for the welfare Community” of Myanmarese (K. 미얀마 migrants 공동체 ) was formedformed in 1996 and has since worked for the welfare of Myanmarese migrants throughoutthroughout the the country country as as well well as as organizing organizing Burm Burmeseese Buddhist Buddhist festivals festivals and and events. events. As As of of 2016, 2016, over over throughout thein country 1996 and as has well since as organizing worked for Burm the welfareese Buddhist of Myanmarese festivals and migrants events. throughout Asthroughout of 2016, theover the country country as wellas well as organizing Burmese Buddhist festivals and events. As of 2016, over 1414 Burmese Burmese temples temples associated associated with with the the Myanmar Myanmar Community Community organiza organizationtion had had been been established established in in 14 Burmese templesas organizing associated Burmese with the Buddhist Myanmar festivals Community and events. organiza As oftion 2016, had over been 14 Burmese14established Burmese temples intemples associated associated with the Myanmar Community organization had been established in SouthSouth Korea, Korea, providing providing Burmese Burmese migrants migrants with with family family rituals rituals and and social social activities activities (Jogye (Jogye Order Order 2016, 2016, South Korea, providingwith the Myanmar Burmese Community migrants with organization family rituals had and been social established activities in South(JogyeSouthKorea, Order Korea, providing2016, providing Burmese Burmese migrants with family rituals and social activities (Jogye Order 2016, pp.pp. 16–42). 16–42). pp. 16–42). migrants with family rituals and social activities (Jogye Order 2016, pp. 16–42).pp. 16–42). FormingForming perhaps perhaps the the second second oldest oldest foreign foreign Bu Buddhistddhist community community in in the the country, country, Sri Sri Lankan Lankan Forming perhapsForming the perhapssecond oldest the second foreign oldest Bu foreignddhist Buddhistcommunity community in the country, in the country, SriForming Lankan Sri Lankan perhaps migrant the second oldest foreign Buddhist community in the country, Sri Lankan migrantmigrant workers workers began began entering entering South South Korea Korea in in the the late late 1980s. 1980s. Many Many settled settled near near Ansan, Ansan, an an industrial industrial migrant workersworkers began began entering entering South South Korea Korea in the in late the 1980s. late 1980s. Many Manysettled settled near Ansan, near Ansan,migrant an industrial an workers industrial began suburb entering South Korea in the late 1980s. Many settled near Ansan, an industrial suburbsuburb of of Incheon, Incheon, where where the the first first Sri Sri Lankan Lankan Temple Temple was was soon soon established. established. Since Since then, then, Sri Sri Lankan Lankan suburb of Incheon,of Incheon, where where the first the Sri first Lankan Sri Lankan Temple Temple was wassoon soon established. established. Since Since then,suburb then, Sri Lankan Sriof Incheon, Lankan migrants where the first Sri Lankan Temple was soon established. Since then, Sri Lankan migrantsmigrants living living in in various various parts parts of of the the countr country yhave have created created the the “Sri “Sri Lankan Lankan Buddhist Buddhist Culture Culture migrants livingliving in various in various parts parts of ofthe the countr countryy have have created created the the “Sri “Sri Lankan Lankan Buddhist Buddhist Culture Culture Association” Association” (K. 스리랑카 불교문화 협회), which has worked in conjunction with migrantssupport from living the in various parts of the country have created the “Sri Lankan Buddhist Culture Association”Association” (K. (K. 스리랑카 스리랑카 불교문화 불교문화 협회 협회), ),which which has has worked worked in in in conjunction conjunction conjunction with with with support support support from from from the the the Jogye Order Jogye Order to establish religious centers for Sri Lankan migrants. Since then,Association” the Sri Lankan (K. 스리랑카 불교문화 협회), which has worked in conjunction with support from the JogyeJogye Order Order toto to establishestablish establish religiousreligious religious centers centers centers for for Srifor Sri LankanSri Lankan Lankan migrants. migrants. migrants. Since Since Since then, then, then, the Srithe the LankanSri Sri Lankan Lankan Buddhist Culture Buddhist Culture Association has assisted in building seven Sri Lankan temples acrossJogye the Order country, to establish religious centers for Sri Lankan migrants. Since then, the Sri Lankan BuddhistBuddhist Culture CultureAssociation Association Association has assistedhas has assisted assisted in building in in buildi buildi sevenngng seven seven Sri Sri Lankan Sri Lankan Lankan temples temples temples across across across the the country,the country, country, which provide which provide cultural education and religious activities as well as social and materialBuddhist support Culture for Association has assisted in building seven Sri Lankan temples across the country, whichwhich provide providecultural cultural cultural education education education and and religiousand religious religious activities activities activities as well as as well as well social as as social andsocial material and and material material support support support for Sri Lankanfor for migrants Sri Lankan migrants (Jogye Order 2016, pp. 43–65). which provide cultural education and religious activities as well as social and material support for SriSri Lankan Lankan migrants migrants(Jogye Order(Jogye (Jogye 2016 Order Order, pp. 2016, 2016, 43–65). pp. pp. 43–65). 43–65). The Buddhist gatherings of Nepalese immigrants in South Korea began inSri 1996 Lankan with migrants the (Jogye Order 2016, pp. 43–65). TheThe Buddhist BuddhistThe gatherings gatherings Buddhist of gatheringsof Nepalese Nepalese of immigran Nepalese immigran immigrantsts tsin in South South inKorea SouthKorea began Koreabegan beganin in 1996 1996 in 1996with with withthe the the founding 네팔불자모임 The Buddhist gatherings of Nepalese immigrants in South Korea began in 1996 with the foundingfounding of of the the “Nepalese “Nepalese“Nepalese Buddhists BuddhistsBuddhists Group” Group”Group” (K. (K.(K. 네팔불자모임 ) to)to to provideprovide provide socialsocial social and and and religious religious religious activities for founding of the “Nepalese Buddhists Group” (K. 네팔불자모임 ) to provide social foundingand religious of the “Nepalese Buddhists Group” (K. 네팔불자모임 ) to provide social and religious activities forNepalese Nepalese migrant migrant workers workers during during their th stayeir stay in Korea. in Korea. Although Although the organizationthe organization suff ered from activitiesactivities for for Nepalese Nepalese migrant migrant workers workers during during th theireir stay stay in in Korea. Korea. Although Although the the organization organization suffered frominternal internal conflicts conflicts regarding regarding the organization’s the organization’s function, function, Nepalese Nepalese Buddhist activitiesBuddhist monks have formonks heldNepalese meetings migrant workers during their stay in Korea. Although the organization sufferedsuffered from from internal internal conflicts conflicts regarding regarding the the organization’s organization’s function, function, Nepalese Nepalese Buddhist Buddhist monks monks have held intermittentlymeetings intermittently at the request at the of immigrantsrequest of alongimmigrants with religious along with events religioussuffered on Buddha’s events from Birthdayoninternal andconflicts regarding the organization’s function, Nepalese Buddhist monks havehave held held meetings meetings intermittently intermittently at at the the reques request tof of immigrants immigrants along along with with religious religious events events on on Buddha’s Birthdayvarious holidays. and various While holidays. the number While of the Nepalese number immigrants of Nepalese in immigrants South Koreahave in isSouth held increasing, Koreameetings as of intermittently 2016, at the request of immigrants along with religious events on Buddha’sBuddha’s Birthday Birthday and and various various holidays. holidays. While While the the number number of of Nepalese Nepalese immigrants immigrants in in South South Korea Korea is increasing,the as Nepalese of 2016, the Buddhist Nepalese Group Buddhist has showed Group fewhas showed signs of few growth signs or of expanding growthBuddha’s or itsexpanding involvementBirthday and with various holidays. While the number of Nepalese immigrants in South Korea is isincreasing, increasing, as as of of 2016, 2016, the the Nepalese Nepalese Buddhist Buddhist Group Group has has showed showed few few signs signs of of growth growth or or expanding expanding its involvementmore recentlywith more arriving recently Nepalese arriving migrants Nepalese (Jogye migrants Order (Jogye 2016 ,Order pp. 91–100). 2016, pp.is increasing, 91–100). as of 2016, the Nepalese Buddhist Group has showed few signs of growth or expanding itsits involvement involvement with with more more recently recently arriving arriving Nepalese Nepalese migrants migrants (Jogye (Jogye Order Order 2016, 2016, pp. pp. 91–100). 91–100). Although introducedAlthough introduced comparatively comparatively recently, Cambodian recently, Cambodian Buddhism Buddhism has been hasits growing involvement been growing quickly with quickly more in recently arriving Nepalese migrants (Jogye Order 2016, pp. 91–100). AlthoughAlthough introduced introduced comparatively comparatively recently, recently, Cambodian Cambodian Buddhism Buddhism has has been been growing growing quickly quickly in South Korea,South as Korea, many asCambodian many Cambodian migrantsmigrants have shown have strong shown interest strong in interest maintaining in maintainingAlthough their native introduced their native comparatively recently, Cambodian Buddhism has been growing quickly inin South South Korea, Korea, as as many many Cambodian Cambodian migrants migrants have have shown shown strong strong interest interest in in maintaining maintaining their their native native religious practices.religious practices. In 2006, In th 2006,e “Cambodia the “Cambodia Buddhist Buddhist Center” Center” (K. (K. 캄보디아 in 불교센터 South Korea,) waswas as established many Cambodian migrants have shown strong interest in maintaining their native religiousreligious practices. practices. In In 2006, 2006, th the e“Cambodia “Cambodia Buddhist Buddhist Center” Center” (K. (K. 캄보디아 캄보디아 불교센터 불교센터) )was was in Gunpo, south of Seoul, and has since provided religious activities, counseling,religious and practices. medical supportIn 2006, the “Cambodia Buddhist Center” (K. 캄보디아 불교센터) was establishedestablished in in Gunpo, Gunpo, south south of of Seoul, Seoul, and and has has since since provided provided religious religious activities, activities, counseling, counseling, and and established infunded Gunpo, by south active of supportSeoul, and from has Cambodian since provided migrant religious workers. activities, The Cambodia counseling,established Buddhist and in Gunpo, center south has of Seoul, and has since provided religious activities, counseling, and medicalmedical support support funded funded by by active active support support fr fromom Cambodian Cambodian migrant migrant workers. workers. The The Cambodia Cambodia medical supportcontinued funded to by expand, active maintaining support from close Cambodian ties with Buddhistsmigrant workers. in Cambodia. Themedical Cambodia The centersupport additionally funded by active support from Cambodian migrant workers. The Cambodia BuddhistBuddhist center center has has continued continued to to expand, expand, maintaining maintaining close close ties ties with with Buddhists Buddhists in in Cambodia. Cambodia. The The Buddhist centerappears has continued to have taken to expand, on an maintaining important role close in internationalties with Buddhists relations in betweenCambodia.Buddhist the centerThe governments has continued of to expand, maintaining close ties with Buddhists in Cambodia. The centercenter additionally additionally appears appears to to have have taken taken on on an an im importantportant role role in in international international relations relations between between the the center additionallySouth appears Korea and to have Cambodia taken on (Jogye an im Orderportant 2016 role, pp. in 81–90).international relationscenter between additionally the appears to have taken on an important role in international relations between the governmentsgovernments of of South South Korea Korea and and Cambod Cambodiaia (Jogye (Jogye Order Order 2016, 2016, pp. pp. 81–90). 81–90). governments of SouthThe firstKorea Thai and Buddhist Cambod communityia (Jogye Order in Korea 2016, began pp. 81–90). informally in 2008governments through social of gatherings South Korea of and Cambodia (Jogye Order 2016, pp. 81–90). TheThe first first Thai Thai Buddhist Buddhist community community in in Korea Korea began began informally informally in in 2008 2008 through through social social gatherings gatherings The first migrantThai Buddhist wives community from Thailand, in Korea which began soon grewinformally into regular in 2008 religious through eventssocial gatherings hostedThe first at aThai local Buddhist Korean community in Korea began informally in 2008 through social gatherings ofof migrant migrant wives wives from from Thailand, Thailand, which which soon soon grew grew into into regular regular religious religious events events hosted hosted at at a alocal local of migrant wivesBuddhist from temple,Thailand,Bulgwangsa, which soonin Seokchon-dong.grew into regular Outgrowing religious events its relationship hostedof migrant at witha local thewives Korean from hostThailand, which soon grew into regular religious events hosted at a local KoreanKorean Buddhist Buddhist temple, temple, Bulgwangsa, Bulgwangsa, in in Seokchon-dong. Seokchon-dong. Outgrowing Outgrowing its its relationship relationship with with the the Korean Buddhisttemple, temple, the community Bulgwangsa, constructed in Seokchon-dong. its own independent Outgrowing Thai its temple relationship nearKorean Ansan with Buddhist inthe 2011. However,temple, Bulgwangsa, in Seokchon-dong. Outgrowing its relationship with the KoreanKorean host host temple, temple, the the community community constructed constructed its its own own independent independent Thai Thai temple temple near near Ansan Ansan in in Korean host temple,this temple the hascommunity subsequently constructed suffered its from own financial independent problems. Thai Since temple 2011, nearKorean there Ansan have host beenin temple, attempts the community to constructed its own independent Thai temple near Ansan in 2011.2011. However, However, this this temple temple has has subsequently subsequently suffered suffered from from financial financial problems. problems. Since Since 2011, 2011, there there have have 2011. However,build this severaltemple additionalhas subsequently Thai temples suffered around from thefinancial country problems. independently Since 2011, of2011. involvement there However, have from this temple Korean has subsequently suffered from financial problems. Since 2011, there have beenbeen attempts attempts to to build build several several additional additional Thai Thai temples temples around around the the country country independently independently of of been attemptsBuddhists. to build However,several additional they have Thai also sutemplesffered fromaround financial the country difficulties, independentlybeen possibly attempts owning of to to build the fact several additional Thai temples around the country independently of involvementinvolvement from from Korean Korean Buddhists. Buddhists. However, However, they they have have also also suffered suffered from from financial financial difficulties, difficulties, involvement from Korean Buddhists. However, they have also suffered from financialinvolvement difficulties, from Korean Buddhists. However, they have also suffered from financial difficulties, possiblypossibly owning owning to to the the fact fact that that the the large large majority majority of of their their patrons patrons are are housewives—a housewives—a situation situation that that possibly owning to the fact that the large majority of their patrons are housewives—a possiblysituation owning that to the fact that the large majority of their patrons are housewives—a situation that isis not not the the case case in in Thailand Thailand itself itself (Jogye (Jogye Order Order 2016, 2016, pp. pp. 66–80). 66–80). is not the case12 in Thailand itself (Jogye Order 2016, pp. 66–80). is not the case in Thailand itself (Jogye Order 2016, pp. 66–80). WhileWhile maintaining maintainingFor further discussionsimilar similar numbers ofnumbers the Vipassana of of residents residents movement in inin South South Korea, Korea Korea see toJoo to those’s those (2011 )of articleof the the “CountercurrentsBurmese, Burmese, the the from the West: While maintaining‘Blue-Eyed’ similar Zen Masters, numbers Vipassana of residents Meditation, in and South Buddhist Korea Psychotherapy to those in of Contemporary the Burmese,While Korea.” themaintaining similar numbers of residents in South Korea to those of the Burmese, the religiousreligious activities activities of of Mongolian Mongolian migrants migrants have have b eenbeen far far less less prominent, prominent, perhaps perhaps owing owing to to the the effects effects religious activities of Mongolian migrants have been far less prominent, perhaps owingreligious to the effects activities of Mongolian migrants have been far less prominent, perhaps owing to the effects ofof decades decades of of religious religious suppression suppression in in Mongolia Mongolia under under Communist Communist rule. rule. The The first first Buddhist Buddhist services services of decades of religious suppression in Mongolia under Communist rule. The first Buddhistof decades services of religious suppression in Mongolia under Communist rule. The first Buddhist services forfor Mongolians Mongolians were were held held in in Daegu Daegu in in 2008. 2008. However, However, participation participation was was limited, limited, at at best, best, and and the the for Mongolians were held in Daegu in 2008. However, participation was limited, at forbest, Mongolians and the were held in Daegu in 2008. However, participation was limited, at best, and the servicesservices were were discontinued discontinued after after the the monk monk invo involvedlved returned returned to to Mongolia. Mongolia. Mongolian Mongolian Buddhist Buddhist services were discontinued after the monk involved returned to Mongolia. Mongolianservices Buddhist were discontinued after the monk involved returned to Mongolia. Mongolian Buddhist migrantsmigrants have have since since requested requested subsidies subsidies from from the the Jogye Jogye Order Order for for supporting supporting Mongolian Mongolian Buddhist Buddhist migrants have since requested subsidies from the Jogye Order for supporting Mongolianmigrants Buddhist have since requested subsidies from the Jogye Order for supporting Mongolian Buddhist

12 12 For further discussion of the Vipassana movement in South Korea, see Ryan Bongseok Joo’s 2011 article 12 For further discussion of the Vipassana movement in South Korea, see Ryan Bongseok Joo’s 2011 article For “Countercurrentsfurther discussion fromof the theVipassana West: movement‘Blue-Eyed’ in Zen South Masters, Korea, seeVipassana Ryan Bongseok Meditation, Joo’s12 2011 Forand further articleBuddhist discussion of the Vipassana movement in South Korea, see Ryan Bongseok Joo’s 2011 article “Countercurrents from the West: ‘Blue-Eyed’ Zen Masters, Vipassana Meditation, and Buddhist “CountercurrentsPsychotherapy infrom Contemporary the West: Korea.”‘Blue-Eyed’ Zen Masters, Vipassana Meditation, and“Countercurrents Buddhist from the West: ‘Blue-Eyed’ Zen Masters, Vipassana Meditation, and Buddhist Psychotherapy in Contemporary Korea.” Psychotherapy in Contemporary Korea.” Psychotherapy in Contemporary Korea.”

Religions 2020, 11, 628 9 of 11 that the large majority of their patrons are housewives—a situation that is not the case in Thailand itself (Jogye Order 2016, pp. 66–80). While maintaining similar numbers of residents in South Korea to those of the Burmese, the religious activities of Mongolian migrants have been far less prominent, perhaps owing to the effects of decades of religious suppression in Mongolia under Communist rule. The first Buddhist services for Mongolians were held in Daegu in 2008. However, participation was limited, at best, and theReligions services 2020 were, 11, x discontinued after the monk involved returned to Mongolia. Mongolian Buddhist 9 of 11 migrants have since requested subsidies from the Jogye Order for supporting Mongolian Buddhist religiousreligious and cultural and cultural activities. activities. However, However, the order’s the order’s decision decision regarding regarding financial financial support support remains remains pendingpending (Jogye (Jogye Order Order2016, pp.2016, 110–116). pp. 110–116). WhileWhile the Vietnamese the Vietnamese community community in Korea in Korea is the largestis the largest in the in Maha the Maha Association’s Association’s survey, survey, it is it is also thealso most the most recent recent to become to become active active as aas Buddhist a Buddhi community.st community. As As with with thethe Thai Buddhists Buddhists in in Korea, Korea,religious religious activities activities for for the the Vietn Vietnameseamese community were initially organizedorganized byby immigrantimmigrant wiveswives who, who, inin2013, 2013, establishedestablished thethe “Vietnamese“Vietnamese BuddhistBuddhist CommunityCommunity in Korea” (재한베트남불교공동체 ). Since Since 2014, the organization organization has has been been chaired chaired by by a abili bilingualngual Vietnamese Vietnamese woman woman un underder whom whom its activities its activitieshave have flourished. flourished. The Vietnamese The Vietnamese Buddhist Buddhist Community Community in Korea in Korea has brought has brought educated educated Vietnamese Vietnamesemonks monks to Korea to Korea to lead to lead regular regular Dharma Dharma services services and and form partnershipspartnerships with with Korean Korean temples. temples. In In additionaddition to providing to providing religious religious activities activities for Vietnamese for Vietnamese Buddhists, Buddhists, these these monks mo arenks also are trying also trying to to build abuild Vietnamese a Vietnamese temple temple that can that also can play also various play various roles as roles a cultural as a cultural center. center. This organization This organization was was also activealso active in advocating in advocating for the for rights the rights of Vietnamese of Vietnamese migrants migrants in Korea in Korea and petitioning and petitioning the Korean the Korean governmentgovernment for active for supportactive support for marriage for marriage migrants migran and theirts and children their children (Jogye Order (Jogye 2016 Order, pp. 2016, 101–9). pp. 101– It9). is clear from the Maha Association’s “A Study on Migrant Buddhist Communities: Focusing on Migrant Temples”It is clear that from many the BuddhistMaha Association’s immigrants “A in St Southudy on Korea Migrant are activelyBuddhist seeking Communities: to establish Focusing templeson and Migrant centers Temples” to continue that their many native Buddhist religious immigrants communities. in South Not Korea only are does actively the establishment seeking to establish of such centerstemples provide and centers for the to migrants’ continue spiritual their native needs, reli butgious they communities. also offer valued Not socialonly does and educationalthe establishment activitiesof such and other centers forms provide of support, for the along migrants’ with means spiritua forl maintaining needs, but athey connection also offer with valued their native social and traditionseducational and cultural activities identities and whileother forms living inof asupport foreign, country.along with However, means for while maintaining requiring furthera connection study,with the survey their native also shows traditions that theand success cultural and identities long-term while viability living of in these a foreign immigrant country. temples However, have while variedrequiring widely, depending further study, on a variety the survey of factors. also Most,shows at th leastat the in theirsuccess early and stages, long-term were supported viability byof these individualimmigrant leaders temples or localized have varied communities, widely, withdepending some declining on a variety as aof result factors. of Most, internal at strifeleast in or their the early removalstages, of their were leadership. supported In addition,by individual the size leaders of the immigrantor localized communities communities, appears with lesssome relevant declining to as a the successresult of of their internal corresponding strife or templesthe removal than theof their extent leadership. to which these In addition, temples havethe size been of adequately the immigrant funded.communities Furthermore, appears partnerships less relevant with Korean to the Buddhistssuccess of also their appear corresponding to be an important temples factorthan the in theextent to successwhich and continuedthese temples growth have of foreign been Buddhistadequately communities funded. Furthermore, in Korea (Jogye partnerships Order 2013). with Korean Buddhists also appear to be an important factor in the success and continued growth of foreign 6. Conclusions Buddhist communities in Korea (Jogye Order 2013). As surveyed above, South Korea’s declining birth rate coupled with its aging population indicate that the6. nation’sConclusions economic dependence on migrant labor and imported brides will only increase over the coming decades.As surveyed Despite above, legislative South initiatives Korea’s declining and media birth campaigns rate coupled promoting with its “multiculturalism”,aging population indicate many migrantsthat the nation’s and their economic families dependence continue to faceon migrant discrimination, labor and economic imported disadvantages, brides will only and increase social over barriersthe preventing coming theirdecades. successful Despite integration legislative into Southinitiatives Korean society.and media Given thecampaigns government’s promoting failure“multiculturalism,” to provide adequate many support migrants for these and migrants, their famili Koreanes continue NGOs andto face religious discrimination, organizations economic have workeddisadvantages, to provide and material, social barriers educational, preventing medical, their andsuccessful social supportintegration to theinto various South Korean growing society. migrantGiven communities. the government’s Of South failure Korea’s to threeprovide largest adequa religions,te support the Catholic for these community migrants, Korean has been NGOs the and most organized,religious organizations sustained, and have effective worked in its to supportprovide ofmaterial, migrants educational, by systematically medical, providing and social for support the to legal, material,the various educational, growing migrant and medical communities. needs of various Of South immigrant Korea’s communitiesthree largest whilereligions, advocating the Catholic for theircommunity rights. Although has been lacking the most the centralized organized, authority sustained, and and organization effective ofin theits Catholics,support of since migrants the by 1990s,systematically Korea’s Protestants providing have for also the been legal, active material, in supporting educational, their and country’s medical needs growing of various immigrant immigrant communities,communities which while Evangelical advocating churches for alsotheir view rights. as fertile Although grounds lacking for proselytizing. the centralized authority and organization of the Catholics, since the 1990s, Korea’s Protestants have also been active in supporting their country’s growing immigrant communities, which Evangelical churches also view as fertile grounds for proselytizing. The Korean Buddhist community, in comparison, has been much slower to engage with Korea’s immigrants and has provided considerably fewer support services. In 2008, the Jogye Order organized the Maha Association for Supporting Immigrants to coordinate individual and localized Buddhist migrant support services at a national level. While the Maha Association saw many successes, particularly in aiding the establishment of temples servicing migrant Buddhist communities, the association’s funding was cut in 2015, leaving the local initiatives and temple programs to continue without centralized support from the order. Nevertheless, it is clear from the Maha Association’s own 2016 study that many migrants from Buddhist countries do desire to

Religions 2020, 11, 628 10 of 11

The Korean Buddhist community, in comparison, has been much slower to engage with Korea’s immigrants and has provided considerably fewer support services. In 2008, the Jogye Order organized the Maha Association for Supporting Immigrants to coordinate individual and localized Buddhist migrant support services at a national level. While the Maha Association saw many successes, particularly in aiding the establishment of temples servicing migrant Buddhist communities, the association’s funding was cut in 2015, leaving the local initiatives and temple programs to continue without centralized support from the order. Nevertheless, it is clear from the Maha Association’s own 2016 study that many migrants from Buddhist countries do desire to continue their native Buddhist traditions and practices while living in Korea. Although several foreign Buddhist communities, such as the Burmese and Vietnamese, have been successful in establishing a network of temples in Korea, other migrant Buddhist communities have struggled to do so due to organizational difficulties, inadequate funding, or a failure to partner effectively with Korean Buddhists. Korean Buddhism places a high value on compassionate action, and many foreign and domestic aid projects already operate under the aegis of the Jogye Order, so it remains unclear why providing support for migrant communities in Korea has not been a higher priority for the order, especially considering that the majority of these migrants are Buddhists themselves. It is possible that Korean Buddhists are less oriented towards international aid work and proselytizing than Catholics and Protestants, or perhaps the Jogye Order has been more preoccupied over recent decades with its own internal scandals and the on-going crisis over declining membership. However, in addition to humanitarian and religious motivations for the Jogye Order to prioritize their involvement with migrants, many of the Buddhist immigrants themselves are actively seeking support for continuing their religious practices. Yet, as noted in the Beopbo Sinmun Newspaper, many migrants arrive thinking that South Korea is a predominantly Christian nation, unaware that the country even has an active Buddhist tradition. Furthermore, when foreign Buddhists do visit Korean temples, they often fail to feel welcome, as the majority of the Korean lay practitioners are elderly (Lee 2017). Many Buddhist migrants thus cease their religious practices after arriving in Korea and become suspectable to conversion by many of the Christian organizations actively offering them assistance. It is the author’s opinion that the Jogye Order has a duty to support the growing communities of migrants in South Korea by revitalizing, reorganizing, and expanding the Maha Association to better support the migrant Buddhist communities in Korea. Not only would this put the Buddha’s “great compassion” into action and aid fellow Buddhists, it would be an investment in Korea’s own future and help maintain the Jogye Order’s social involvement as the nation continues on the path to becoming a truly multicultural nation.

Author Contributions: Investigation, C.P.; Supervision, K.K.; Writing—original draft, C.P.; Writing—review & editing, K.K. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. Funding: This research received no external funding. Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References

Beopbo. 2019. Beopbo Sinmun. Available online: https://www.beopbo.com/news/articleView.html?idxno=206636 (accessed on 24 June 2020). Berndt, Rory. 2017. Between the Ideals and Realities of ‘Multicultural Korea’—The Effects of International Migration on the Discursive Position of the South Korean State towards Multiculturalism. Nijmegen School of Management, Radboud University Nijmegen. Available online: https://theses.ubn.ru.nl/bitstream/handle/ 123456789/5421/Berndt%2C_Rory_1.pdf?sequence=1 (accessed on 24 June 2020). Choe, Sang-Hun. 2018. Just 2 of More Than 480 Yemenis Receive Refugee Status in South Korea. The New York Times. December 14. Available online: https://www.nytimes.com/2018/12/14/world/asia/yemen-south-korea- refugees.html (accessed on 24 June 2020). Haas, Benjamin. 2018. Influx of Refugees from Yemen Divides South Korean resort island. Guardian. July 11. Available online: https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/jul/12/refugees-from-yemen-divides-south- korean-resort-island-of-jeju (accessed on 24 June 2020). ReligionsReligions 2020 2020, 11,, 11x , x 10 of10 11of 11 continuecontinue their their native native Buddhist Buddhist traditions traditions and and practices practices while while living living in inKorea. Korea. Although Although several several foreignforeign Buddhist Buddhist communities, communities, such such as asthe the Burm Burmeseese and and Vietnamese, Vietnamese, have have been been successful successful in in establishingestablishing a networka network of oftemples temples in inKorea, Korea, othe other migrantr migrant Buddhist Buddhist communities communities have have struggled struggled to to dodo so sodue due to toorganizational organizational difficulties, difficulties, inadequate inadequate funding, funding, or ora failurea failure to topartner partner effectively effectively with with KoreanKorean Buddhists. Buddhists. KoreanKorean Buddhism Buddhism places places a high a high value value on on compassionate compassionate action, action, and and many many foreign foreign and and domestic domestic aidaid projects projects already already operate operate under under the the aegis aegis of ofthe the Jogye Jogye Order, Order, so soit remainsit remains unclear unclear why why providing providing supportsupport for for migrant migrant communities communities in inKorea Korea has has not not been been a highera higher priority priority for for the the order, order, especially especially consideringconsidering that that the the majority majority of ofthesethese migrants migrants are are Buddhists Buddhists themse themselves.lves. It isIt possibleis possible that that Korean Korean BuddhistsBuddhists are are less less oriented oriented towards towards international international aid aid work work and and proselytizing proselytizing than than Catholics Catholics and and Protestants,Protestants, or orperhaps perhaps the the Jogye Jogye Order Order has has been been mo morere preoccupied preoccupied over over recent recent decades decades with with its its own own internalinternal scandals scandals and and the the on-going on-going crisis crisis over over declining declining membership. membership. However, However, in inaddition addition to to humanitarianhumanitarian and and religious religious motivations motivations for for the the Jogye Jogye Order Order to toprioritize prioritize their their involvement involvement with with migrants,migrants, many many of ofthe the Buddhist Buddhist immigrants immigrants themse themselveslves are are actively actively seeking seeking support support for for continuing continuing theirtheir religious religious practices. practices. Yet, Yet, as asnoted noted in inthe the Beopbo Beopbo Sinmun Sinmun Newspaper, Newspaper, many many migrants migrants arrive arrive thinkingthinking that that South South Korea Korea is ais predominantly a predominantly Christ Christianian nation, nation, unaware unaware that that the the country country even even has has an an activeactive Buddhist Buddhist tradition. tradition. Furthermore, Furthermore, when when foreig foreign Buddhistsn Buddhists do do visit visit Korean Korean temples, temples, they they often often failfail to tofeel feel welcome, welcome, as asthe the majority majority of ofthe the Kore Koreanan lay lay practitioners practitioners are are elderly elderly (Lee (Lee 2017). 2017). Many Many BuddhistBuddhist migrants migrants thus thus cease cease their their religious religious practices practices after after arriving arriving in inKorea Korea and and become become suspectable suspectable to toconversion conversion by by many many of ofthe the Ch Christianristian organizations organizations actively actively offering offering them them assistance. assistance. It Itis isthe the author’sauthor’s opinion opinion that that the the Jogye Jogye Order Order has has a duty a duty to tosupport support the the growing growing communities communities of ofmigrants migrants in in SouthSouth Korea Korea by by revitalizing, revitalizing, reorganizing, reorganizing, and and expa expandingnding the the Maha Maha Association Association to tobetter better support support the the migrantmigrant Buddhist Buddhist communities communities in inKorea. Korea. Not Not only only would would this this put put the the Buddha’s Buddha’s “great “great compassion” compassion” intointo action action and and aid aid fellow fellow Buddhists, Buddhists, it wouldit would be be an an investment investment in inKorea’s Korea’s own own future future and and help help maintainmaintain the the Jogye Jogye Order’s Order’s social social involvement involvement as asthe the nation nation continues continues on on the the path path to tobecoming becoming a a trulytruly multicultural multicultural nation. nation.

AuthorAuthor Contributions: Contributions: Investigation, Investigation, C.P.; C.P.; Supervision, Supervision, K.K; K.K; Writ Writing–originaling–original draft, draft, C.P.; C.P.; Writing–review Writing–review & & editing,editing, K.K. K.K. All All authors authors have have read read and and agreed agreed to theto the publis publishedhed version version of ofthe the manuscript. manuscript.

Funding:Funding: ThisThis research research received received no no external external funding. funding.

ConflictsConflicts of ofInterest: Interest: The The authors authors declare declare no noconflict conflict of ofinterest. interest.

ReferencesReferences

(Beopbo(Beopbo 2019)2019) Beopbo.Beopbo. 2019.2019. BeopboBeopbo SinmunSinmun. . AvailableAvailable online:online: https://www.beopbo.com/news/articleView.hthttps://www.beopbo.com/news/articleView.html?idxno=206636ml?idxno=206636 (accessed (accessed on on 24 24June June 2020). 2020). (Berndt(Berndt 2017) 2017) Berndt, Berndt, Rory. Rory. 2017. 2017. Between Between the the Ideals Ideals and and Realities Realities of of‘Multicultural ‘Multicultural Korea’—The Korea’—The Effects Effects of of InternationalInternational Migration Migration on onthe the Discursive Discursive Position Position of ofthe the South South Korean Korean State State towards towards Multiculturalism. Multiculturalism. NijmegenNijmegen SchoolSchool of of Management,Management, RadboudRadboud UniversityUniversity Nijmegen.Nijmegen. AvailableAvailable Online:Online: https://theses.ubn.ru.nl/bitstream/handle/123456789/https://theses.ubn.ru.nl/bitstream/handle/123456789/5421/Berndt%2C_Rory_1.pdf?sequence=15421/Berndt%2C_Rory_1.pdf?sequence=1 (accessed (accessed onon 24 24June June 2020). 2020). (Choe(Choe 2018) 2018) Choe, Choe, Sang-Hun. Sang-Hun. 2018. 2018. Just Just 2 of 2 Moreof More Than Than 480 480 Yemenis Yemenis Receive Receive Refugee Refugee Status Status in Southin South Korea. Korea. The The NewNew York York Times Times, December, December 14. 14. Available Available Online: Online: https://w https://www.nytimes.com/2018/12/14/world/asia/yemen-ww.nytimes.com/2018/12/14/world/asia/yemen- south-korea-refugees.htmlsouth-korea-refugees.html (accessed (accessed on on 24 24June June 2020). 2020). (Haas 2018) Haas, Benjamin. 2018. Influx of Refugees from Yemen Divides South Korean resort island. Guardian, (Haas 2018) Haas, Benjamin.Religions 2020 2018., 11 Influx, x of Refugees from Yemen Divides South Korean resort island. Guardian, 11 of 11 ReligionsReligionsReligions 2020 20202020, ,11, 1111, ,x, 628 x 111111 of ofof 11 1111 JulyJuly 11. 11. Available AvailableReligions online: online: 2020 http ,http 11s://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/ju, xs://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/ju l/12/refugees-from-yemen-divides-l/12/refugees-from-yemen-divides- 11 of 11 south-korean-resort-island-of-jejusouth-korean-resort-island-of-jejuhttp://buddhism.or.kr/bbs/board.php?bo_tabl (accessed (accessed on on24 24June June 2020). 2020). e=DN_Content_soc&wr_id=17&DNUX=society_05_01 http://buddhism.or.kr/bbs/board.php?bo_tablhttp://buddhism.or.kr/bbs/board.php?bo_table=DN_Content_soc&wr_id=17&DNUX=society_05_01e=DN_Content_soc&wr_id=17&DNUX=society_05_01 (Jogye Order 2013) Jogye Order.http://buddhism.or.kr/bbs/board.php?bo_tabl 2013. 다문화 사회와 한국불교의 역할. Seoul:e=DN_Content_soc&wr_id=17&DNUX=society_05_01 Jogye Order. (Jogye Order 2013) JogyeJogye(accessed (accessedOrder. Order. 2013. 2013. on on 25 25다문화 June June 2020). 2020).사회와 한국불교의 역할. Seoul: Jogye Order. (accessed(accessed on on 25 25 June June 2020). 2020). (Jogye(Jogye Order Order 2016) 2016) Jogye(JuReligions Jogye(JuJogye 2008) 2008) Order. Order. Order.2020 Ju, Ju, ,Ho-sik. 2016. 11 2016.Ho-sik. ,2016. x 이주민 2008. 이주민2008. Order 불교공동체Order 불교공동체조사연구 of of the the 조사연구 Pontifical Pontifical: 이주민Coun : Coun이주민cil cil법당을 of of법당을중심으로 Migrant Migrant 중심으로 Pastors. Pastors... Seoul:. Seoul:Good Good JogyeJogye News-Jogye News- Order. Reference Reference (In Korean) Room. 11Room. of 11 (Ju(Ju 2008) 2008) Ju, Ju, Ho-sik. Ho-sik. 2008. 2008. Order Order of of the the Pontifical Pontifical Coun Councilcil of of Migrant Migrant Pastors. Pastors. Good Good News- News- Reference Reference Room. Room. Order. (In Korean).Jogye AvailableAvailable Order of Korean Buddhism. 2018. Maha Association for Supporting Migrants. Available online:online:online: http: Order. (In Korean).Available Available online:online: http://buddhism.or.kr/bbs/board.php?bo_tabl//http://home.catholic.or.kr/pdsm/bbs_view.asbuddhism.or.kr/bbs/board.php?bo_table=DN_Content_soc&wr_idp?num=419&id=26581&SORT=R&mene=DN_Content_soc&wr_id=17&DNUX=society_05_01=17&DNUX=society_05_01u=4805 (accessed (accessed on (Jogye(Jogye Order Order of ofKorean Korean Buddhismhttp://home.catholic.or.kr/pdsm/bbs_view.as http://home.catholic.or.kr/pdsm/bbs_view.asBuddhism 2018) 2018) Jogye Jogye Order Order of ofKorean Korean Buddhism. p?num=419&id=26581&SORT=R&menBuddhism.p?num=419&id=26581&SORT=R&men 2018. 2018. Maha Maha Association Association for u=4805for u=4805 (accessed(accessed onon http://home.catholic.or.kr/pdsm/bbs_view.as(accessed on 25 June 2020). p?num=419&id=26581&SORT=R&menu=4805 (accessed on Supporting 2525 June June 2020). 2020).Migrants. Available online: Supporting 2525 June June 2020). 2020). Migrants. Available online: (JuJoo,(Kelly 2008) Ryan 2010) Ju, Bongseok. Ho-sik.Kelly, Robert. 2008. 2011. OrderZen2010. Masters, Korea’sof the Pontifical Vipassana Slow Boiling Coun Meditation, Decilmographic of Migrant and Buddhist Crisis. Pastors. Blogpost Psychotherapy Good News-on Robert Reference in Contemporary Kelly—Asian Room. (Kelly(Kelly 2010) 2010) Kelly, Kelly, Robert. Robert. 2010. 2010. Korea’s Korea’s Slow Slow Boiling Boiling De Demographicmographic Crisis. Crisis. Blogpost Blogpost on on Robert Robert Kelly—Asian Kelly—Asian (KellyAvailable 2010) Kelly, Robert. 2010. Korea’s Slow Boiling Demographic Crisis. Blogpost on Robert Kelly—Asianonline: SecurityKorea.Security Journal Blog:Blog: of AmericanInternationalInternational Academy RelationsRelations of Religion of79:of 3.AsiaAsia [CrossRef && US][USPubMed ForeignForeign] PolicyPolicy. . AvailableAvailable online:online: SecuritySecurity Blog:Blog: InternationalInternational RelationsRelations ofof AsiaAsia && USUS ForeignForeign PolicyPolicy. . AvailableAvailable online:online: Ju, Ho-sik.http://home.catholic.or.kr/pdsm/bbs_view.ashttps://asiansecurityblog.wordpre 2008. Order of the Pontifical Councilss.com/2010/03/26/koreas-slow-boiling- of Migrantp?num=419&id=26581&SORT=R&men Pastors. Good News- Referencedemographic-crisis/ Room.u=4805 Available (accessed (accessed online: on https://asiansecurityblog.wordprehttps://asiansecurityblog.wordpress.com/2010/03/26/koreas-slow-boiling-ss.com/2010/03/26/koreas-slow-boiling-demographic-crisis/demographic-crisis/ (accessed(accessed https://asiansecurityblog.wordpre25 June 2020). ss.com/2010/03/26/koreas-slow-boiling-demographic-crisis/ (accessed onhttp:on 24 24 //June Junehome.catholic.or.kr 2020). 2020). /pdsm/bbs_view.asp?num=419&id=26581&SORT=R&menu=4805 (accessed on onon 24 24 June June 2020). 2020). (Kelly(Kim 25 2013)2010) June Kim,Kelly, 2020). Bangryong. Robert. 2010. 2013. Korea’s An IdentitySlow Boiling Problem Demographic of Korean Crisis.Buddhism Blogpost in the on MulticulturalRobert Kelly—Asian Society. (Kim(Kim 2013) 2013) Kim, Kim, Bangryong. Bangryong. 2013. 2013. An An Identity Identity Problem Problem of of Korean Korean Buddhism Buddhism in in the the Multicultural Multicultural Society. Society. (Kim Security2013) Kim, Blog: Bangryong. International 2013. An Relations Identity Problemof Asia of Korean& US Buddhism Foreign inPolicy the Multicultural. Available Society.online: Kelly,한국교수불자연합학회지 Robert. 2010. Korea’s Slow 19:Boiling 227–49. Demographic Crisis. Blogpost on Robert Kelly—Asian Security Blog: 한국교수불자연합학회지한국교수불자연합학회지 19: 19: 227–49. 227–49. 한국교수불자연합학회지https://asiansecurityblog.wordpreInternational Relations of 19: Asia 227–49. & USss.com/2010/03/26/koreas-slow-boiling- Foreign Policy. Available online: https:demographic-crisis///asiansecurityblog.wordpress. (accessed (Kim(Kim 2020)2020) Kim,Kim, Naeyoung.Naeyoung. 2020.2020. BeopboBeopbo SinmunSinmun. . AvailableAvailable online:online: (Kim(Kim on com 24/2020)2010 June2020)/ 032020). /26/koreas-slow-boiling-demographic-crisisKim, Kim, Naeyoung.Naeyoung. 2020.2020. BeopboBeopbo/ (accessed onSinmunSinmun 24 June. . 2020).AvailableAvailable online:online: https://www.beopbo.com/news/articleView.htmlhttps://www.beopbo.com/news/articleView.html?idxno=211940?idxno=211940 (accessed (accessed on on 28 28 August August 2020). 2020). (KimKim,https://www.beopbo.com/news/articleView.html https://www.beopbo.com/news/articleView.html2013) Bangryong. Kim, Bangryong. 2013. 2013. An IdentityAn Identity Problem Problem?idxno=211940?idxno=211940 of of Korean Korean Buddhism(accessed (accessedBuddhism on on in in28 28 theAugustthe August Multicultural 2020). 2020). Society. Society. (Kim(Kim etet al.al. 2019)2019) Kim,Kim, Kyungrae,Kyungrae, EunyoungEunyoung KiKim,m, SeoSeo Wangmo,Wangmo, andand ParkPark Chenghwan.Chenghwan. 2019.2019. SomeSome (Kim(Kim 한국교수불자연합학회지 etet al.al. 2019)2019) Kim,Kim, Kyungrae,Kyungrae, 19:19: 227–49. 227–49. EunyoungEunyoung KiKim,m, SeoSeo Wangmo,Wangmo, andand ParkPark Chenghwan.Chenghwan. 2019.2019. SomeSome ContemporaryContemporary Dilemmas Dilemmas of of Korean Korean Buddhism: Buddhism: A A Crit Criticalical Review Review of of the the Jogye Jogye Order’s Order’s 2018 2018 Periodic Periodic Kim,Contemporary Naeyoung.Contemporary 2020. Dilemmas Dilemmas Beopbo of of Sinmun. Korean Korean Buddhism: AvailableBuddhism: online: A A Crit Crit https:icalical Review Review//www.beopbo.com of of the the Jogye Jogye /newsOrder’s Order’s/articleView.html? 2018 2018 Periodic Periodic (Kim Report.2020) Religions Kim, 10: 234. Naeyoung. 2020. Beopbo Sinmun. Available online: Report.Report. Religions Religions 10: 10: 234. 234. Report.https://www.beopbo.com/news/articleView.htmlidxno= Religions211940 (accessed 10: 234. on 28 August 2020). ?idxno=211940 (accessed on 28 August 2020). (Lee(Lee 2017) 2017) Lee, Lee, Jungnam. Jungnam. 2017. 2017. Another Another Persepctive Persepctive on on the the Change Change in in Religious Religious Po Populations.pulations. Beopbo Beopbo Sinmun. Sinmun. (LeeKim,(Lee 2017) 2017) Kyungrae, Lee, Lee, Jungnam. Jungnam. Eunyoung 2017. 2017. Kim, Another Another Seo Wangmo, Persepctive Persepctive and Parkon on the the Chenghwan. Change Change in in Religious 2019.Religious Some Po Po Contemporarypulations.pulations. Beopbo Beopbo Dilemmas Sinmun. Sinmun. of (Kim Availableet al. 2019) online: Kim, https://www.beopbo.com/news/art Kyungrae, Eunyoung Kim, SeoicleView.html?idxno=95990 Wangmo, and Park Chenghwan. (accessed 2019.on 25 Some June AvailableAvailable online:online: https://www.beopbo.com/news/arthttps://www.beopbo.com/news/articleView.html?idxno=95990icleView.html?idxno=95990 (accessed(accessed onon 2525 JuneJune AvailableContemporaryKorean Buddhism: online: Dilemmas https://www.beopbo.com/news/art A Critical of ReviewKorean ofBuddhism: the Jogye Order’sA CriticleView.html?idxno=95990ical 2018 Review Periodic of Report. the JogyeReligions (accessedOrder’s10: 234. 2018on [ CrossRef25Periodic June ] 2020).2020). Lee,2020). Jungnam.2020). 2017. Another Persepctive on the Change in Religious Populations. Beopbo Sinmun. (Lee Report.2018) Religions 10:Lee, 234. Sungjin. 2018. Bulgyo Sinmun. Available online: (Lee(Lee 2018)2018) Lee,Lee, Sungjin.Sungjin. 2018.2018. BulBulgyogyo Sinmun.Sinmun. AvailableAvailable online:online: (Lee(Lee 2017)Available 2018)Lee, online:Jungnam.Lee, https: 2017. //www.beopbo.com AnotherSungjin. Persepctive2018./news on/articleView.html?idxno theBul Changegyo in ReligiousSinmun.=95990 Populations. (accessedAvailable Beopbo on 25 June Sinmun.online: 2020). http://www.ibulgyo.com/news/articleView.hthttp://www.ibulgyo.com/news/articleView.html?idxno=167423ml?idxno=167423 (accessed (accessed on on 25 25 June June 2020). 2020). Lee,http://www.ibulgyo.com/news/articleView.ht Sungjin.http://www.ibulgyo.com/news/articleView.ht 2018. Bulgyo Sinmun. Available online:ml?idxno=167423ml?idxno=167423 http://www.ibulgyo.com (accessed (accessed on on/news 25 25 June June/articleView.html?idxno 2020). 2020). = (ParkAvailable 1985) Park, online: Sung Bae.https://www.beopbo.com/news/art 1985. Buddhist Faith and Sudden EnlightenmenticleView.html?idxno=95990. Albany: State University(accessed ofon New 25 JuneYork (Park(Park 1985) 1985) Park, Park, Sung Sung Bae. Bae. 1985. 1985. Buddhist Buddhist Faith Faith and and Sudden Sudden Enlightenment Enlightenment. Albany:. Albany: State State University University of of New New York York (Park 2020).1985)167423 Park, (accessed Sung Bae. on 25 1985. June Buddhist 2020). Faith and Sudden Enlightenment. Albany: State University of New York Press.Press. Park,Press. SungPress. Bae. 1985. Buddhist Faith and Sudden Enlightenment. Albany: State University of New York Press. (Lee 2018) Lee, Sungjin. 2018. Bulgyo Sinmun. Available 『 online: (Park(Park 2010a)2010a) Park,Park, Chuneung.Chuneung. 2010a.2010a. 박천응박천응 , , 다문화다문화 이주민을이주민을 향한향한 한국교회의한국교회의 선교적선교적 과제과제, , 『『20102010년년 (ParkPark,(Park http://www.ibulgyo.com/news/articleView.ht 2010a)2010a) Chuneung. Park,Park, Chuneung.Chuneung. 2010a. 2010a.2010a. 박천응박천응 , , 다문화다문화ml?idxno=167423 이주민을이주민을 향한향한 (accessed 한국교회의한국교회의 on 25 June 선교적선교적 2020). 과제과제 , , 『 20102010년년 기독교사회복지기독교사회복지 엑스포 엑스포 자료집 자료집 』』. .Seoul: Seoul: Christian Christian Social Social Welfare. Welfare. (In (In Korean). Korean). (Park기독교사회복지 1985)기독교사회복지 Park, Sung 엑스포 엑스포Bae. 1985. 자료집 자료집 Buddhist』』. .Seoul:. Seoul: Faith Christian Christian Christianand Sudden Social Social Enlightenment Welfare. Welfare. (In .(In Albany: Korean). Korean). Korean) State University of New York (Park(Park 2010b)2010b) Park,Park, Munsu.Munsu. 2010b.2010b. 박문수박문수, , 다문화사회의다문화사회의 도전에도전에 직면한직면한 한국한국 천주교회의천주교회의 진로진로, , 『『다문화다문화 (ParkPark,(Park Press. 2010b)2010b) Munsu. Park,Park, Munsu.Munsu. 2010b. 2010b.2010b. 박문수박문수, , 다문화사회의다문화사회의 도전에도전에 직면한직면한 한국한국 천주교회의천주교회의 진로진로, , 『『다문화다문화 (Park사회의 사회의2010a) 종교를 종교를Park, 묻는다 Chuneung.묻는다』』. ..Seoul: Seoul:Seoul: 2010a. The The 박천응 Korea Korea ,Institute Institute다문화 for 이주민을 for Religion Religion 향한 and andand 한국교회의Culture. Culture.Culture. (In (In Korean)선교적 Korean) 과제 , 『 2010 년 사회의사회의 종교를 종교를 묻는다 묻는다』』. Seoul:. Seoul: The The Korea Korea Institute Institute for for Religion Religion and and Culture. Culture. (In (In Korean) Korean) Park,(Park Pori.2010c) 2010c. Park, NewPori. Visions2010c. New for Engaged Visions for Buddhism: Engaged TheBuddhism: Jungto SocietyThe Jungto and theSociety Indra’s and Net the CommunityIndra’s Net (Park(Park 기독교사회복지2010c) 2010c) Park, Park, Pori. Pori. 엑스포 2010c. 2010c. 자료집 New New 』Vi Vi.sions Seoul:sions for forChristian Engaged Engaged Social Buddhism: Buddhism: Welfare. The The(In Ju Korean).Jungtongto Society Society and and the the Indra’s Indra’s Net Net (Park 2010c) Park, Pori. 2010c. New VisionsContemporary for Engaged Buddhism Buddhism: The Jungto Society and the Indra’s Net CommunityMovementCommunity inMovement Movement Contemporary in in Contemporary Contemporary Korea. Korea. Korea. Contemporary Contemporary11: Buddhism Buddhism 1. [CrossRef 11: 11: 1. ]1. (ParkCommunity Community2010b) Park, Movement Movement Munsu. in 2010b.in Contemporary Contemporary 박문수, 다문화사회의 Korea. Korea. Contemporary Contemporary 도전에 Buddhism Buddhism직면한 한국11: 11: 1. 1. 천주교회의 진로, 『 다문화 (ShimShim,(Shim 2013) Nari.2013) Shim, 2013.Shim, Nari. Korea’sNari. 2013. 2013. Multiculturalism Korea’s Korea’s Multiculturalism Multiculturalism (Damunhwa) (D (Damunhwa)amunhwa) Policy and Policy MediaPolicy and and Discourse Medi Mediaa Discourse FocusingDiscourse onFocusing Focusing Television on on (Shim(Shim사회의 2013) 2013) Shim, 종교를Shim, Nari. Nari. 묻는다 2013. 2013.』 Korea’s. Korea’sSeoul: TheMulticulturalism Multiculturalism Korea Institute (D (D foramunhwa)amunhwa) Religion Policyand Policy Culture. and and Medi Medi (In aKorean) aDiscourse Discourse Focusing Focusing on on NewsTelevision Coverage. News Master’sCoverage. dissertation, Master’s dissertation Tufts University,, Tufts University, Boston, MA, Boston, USA. (InMA, Korean). USA. (In Korean) TelevisionTelevision News News Coverage. Coverage. Master’s Master’s dissertation dissertation, Tufts, Tufts University, University, Boston, Boston, MA, MA, USA. USA. (In (In Korean) Korean) (ParkShin,Television Gi-Wook.2010c) Park, 2006.News Pori.Ethnic Coverage. 2010c. Nationalism New Master’s Vi insions Korea:dissertation for Genealogy, Engaged, Tufts Politics, Buddhism: University, and Legacy The Boston, Ju. Stanford:ngto MA, Society USA. Stanford and(In Korean) Universitythe Indra’s Press. Net (Shin(Shin 2006) 2006) Shin, Shin, Gi-Wook. Gi-Wook. 2006. 2006. Ethnic Ethnic Nationalism Nationalism in in Korea: Korea: Ge Genealogy,nealogy, Politics, Politics, and and Legacy Legacy. .Stanford: Stanford: Stanford Stanford (Shin(Shin 2006) 2006) Shin, Shin, Gi-Wook. Gi-Wook. 2006. 2006. Ethnic Ethnic Nationalism Nationalism in in Korea: Korea: Ge Genealogy,nealogy, Politics, Politics, and and Legacy Legacy. .Stanford: Stanford: Stanford Stanford Song,CommunityUniversity Jihee. 2020. Press. Movement Beopbo Sinmun. in Contemporary Available online: Korea. https:Contemporary//www.beopbo.com Buddhism 11:/news 1. /articleView.html?idxno= UniversityUniversity Press. Press. (ShimUniversity208703 2013) Shim,(accessed Press. Nari. on 2013. 1 July Korea’s 2020). Multiculturalism (Damunhwa) Policy and Media Discourse Focusing on (Song(Song 2020)2020) Song,Song, Jihee.Jihee. 2020.2020. BeopBeopbobo Sinmun.Sinmun. AvaiAvailablelable online:online: (Song(Song 2020)2020) Song,Song, Jihee.Jihee. 2020.2020. BeopBeopbobo Sinmun.Sinmun. AvaiAvailablelable online:online: StatisticsTelevisionhttps://www.beopbo.com/news/articleView.ht Korea. News 2019a. Coverage. International Master’s Migration dissertation Statisticsml?idxno=208703, Tufts in 2019. University, Available (accessed Boston, online: on MA, http: 1 July USA.//kostat.go.kr 2020). (In Korean) /portal /eng/ https://www.beopbo.com/news/articleView.hthttps://www.beopbo.com/news/articleView.html?idxno=208703ml?idxno=208703 (accessed (accessed on on 1 1July July 2020). 2020). (Shinhttps://www.beopbo.com/news/articleView.ht pressReleases2006) Shin, Gi-Wook./8/5/index.board 2006. Ethnic (accessed Nationalism on 24ml?idxno=208703 Junein Korea: 2020). Genealogy, (accessed Politics, on and 1 July Legacy 2020).. Stanford: Stanford (Statistics(Statistics Korea Korea 2019a) 2019a) Statistics Statistics Kore Korea.a. 2019a. 2019a. International International Migration Migration Stat Statisticsistics in in 2019. 2019. Available Available online: online: (Statistics(Statistics Korea Korea 2019a) 2019a) Statistics Statistics Kore Korea.a. 2019a. 2019a. International International Migration Migration Stat Statisticsistics in in 2019. 2019. Available Available online: online: StatisticsUniversityhttp://kostat.go.kr/portal/eng/pressReleases/ Korea. Press. 2019b. Preliminary Results8/5/index.board of Birth and Death (accessed Statistics on 24 June in 2019. 2020). Available online: http://kostat.go.kr/portal/eng/pressReleases/http://kostat.go.kr/portal/eng/pressReleases/8/5/index.board8/5/index.board (accessed (accessed on on 24 24 June June 2020). 2020). (Songhttp://kostat.go.kr/portal/eng/pressReleases/http: //kostat.go.kr2020) /Song,portal /eng/pressReleasesJihee. 2020.8/5/index.board/8/10 /index.board?bmodeBeopbo (accessed Sinmun. on=read&aSeq 24 June 2020).=Avai382775&pageNo lable online:= (Statistics(Statistics KoreaKorea 2019b)2019b) StatisticsStatistics Korea.Korea. 2019b.2019b. PrelimPreliminaryinary ResultsResults ofof BirthBirth andand DeathDeath StatisticsStatistics inin 2019.2019. (Statistics(Statistics Korea Korea 2019b) 2019b) Statistics Statistics Korea. Korea. 2019b. 2019b. Prelim Preliminaryinary Results Results of of Birth Birth and and Death Death Statistics Statistics in in 2019. 2019. https://www.beopbo.com/news/articleView.ht&rowNumAvailable =10&amSeq=&sTarget=&sTxt= (accessedml?idxno=208703 on 24 June 2020).(accessed on 1 July 2020). online: AvailableAvailable online:online: (StatisticsUnitedAvailable Nations. Korea 2019.2019a) UN Statistics Migrant StockKorea. Total 2019a. 2019. International United Nations Migration Population Stat Divisionistics in Department2019. Available of Economic online:online: http://kostat.go.kr/portal/eng/pressReleases/8/http://kostat.go.kr/portal/eng/pressReleases/8/10/index.board?bmode=read&aSeq=382775&pageNo=&row10/index.board?bmode=read&aSeq=382775&pageNo=&row http://kostat.go.kr/portal/eng/pressReleases/8/http://kostat.go.kr/portal/eng/pressReleases/8/10/index.board?bmode=read&aSeq=382775&pageNo=&row10/index.board?bmode=read&aSeq=382775&pageNo=&row http://kostat.go.kr/portal/eng/pressReleases/andNum=10&amSeq=&sTarget=&sTxt= Social Affairs. Available online: (accessedhttps://www.un.org8/5/index.board on 24 June/en 2020)./development (accessed on /24desa June/population 2020). /migration/data/ Num=10&amSeq=&sTarget=&sTxt=Num=10&amSeq=&sTarget=&sTxt= (accessed (accessed on on 24 24 June June 2020). 2020). (StatisticsNum=10&amSeq=&sTarget=&sTxt=estimates2 Korea/ data2019b)/UN_MigrantStockTotal_2019.xlsx Statistics Korea. (accessed 2019b. Prelimon 24 (accessed Juneinary 2020). Results on 24 Juneof Birth 2020). and Death Statistics in 2019. (United(United Nations Nations 2019) 2019) United United Nations. Nations. 2019. 2019. UN UN Migrant Migrant Stock Stock Total Total 2019. 2019. United United Nati Nationsons Population Population Division Division (United(United Nations Nations 2019) 2019) United United Nations. Nations. 2019. 2019. UN UN Migrant Migrant Stock Stock Total Total 2019. 2019. United United Nati Nationsons Population Population Division Division AvailableDepartment of Economic and Social Affairs. Available online:online: DepartmentDepartment ofof EconomicEconomic andand SocialSocial Affairs.Affairs. AvailableAvailable online:online: Publisher’sDepartmenthttp://kostat.go.kr/portal/eng/pressReleases/8/ Note: MDPIof stays neutralEconomic with regardand10/index.board?bmode=read&aSeq=382775&pageNo=&row to jurisdictionalSocial claimsAffairs. in published Available maps and institutionalonline: https://www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/https://www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/migration/data/estimates2/data/UN_MigrantStockmigration/data/estimates2/data/UN_MigrantStock affiliations.https://www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/https://www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/migration/data/estimates2/data/UN_MigrantStockmigration/data/estimates2/data/UN_MigrantStock Num=10&amSeq=&sTarget=&sTxt=Total_2019.xlsx (accessed on 24 June (accessed 2020). on 24 June 2020). Total_2019.xlsxTotal_2019.xlsx (accessed (accessed on on 24 24 June June 2020). 2020). (UnitedTotal_2019.xlsx Nations 2019) (accessed United© 2020 Nations.on by 24 the June authors. 2019. 2020). UN Licensee Migrant MDPI, Stock Basel,Total Switzerland.2019. United Nati Thisons article Population is an open Division access Publisher’sPublisher’sDepartment Note: Note: MDPI MDPIarticle staysof stays neutraldistributed neutralEconomic with with under regard regard the andto to termsjurisdictional jurisdictional andSocial conditions claims claims inAffairs. ofin published thepublished Creative maps mapsAvailable Commons and and institutional institutional Attributiononline: Publisher’sPublisher’s Note: Note: MDPI MDPI stays stays neutral neutral with with regard regard to to jurisdictional jurisdictional claims claims in in published published maps maps and and institutional institutional affiliations.affiliations.https://www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/ (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.orgmigration/data/estimates2/data/UN_MigrantStock/licenses/by/4.0/). affiliations.affiliations. Total_2019.xlsx (accessed on 24 June 2020). ©© 2020 2020 by by the the authors. authors. Submitted Submitted for for possible possible open open access access publication publication under under the the terms terms ©© 2020 2020 by by the the authors. authors. Submitted Submitted for for possible possible open open access access publication publication under under the the terms terms Publisher’s Note: MDPIand stays conditions neutral with of regard the toCreative jurisdictional Commons claims in Attributionpublished maps (CC and BY)institutional license andand conditionsconditions ofof thethe CreativeCreative CoCommonsmmons AttributionAttribution (CC(CC BY)BY) licenselicense affiliations. and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

© 2020 by the authors. Submitted for possible open access publication under the terms

and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).