religions

Article Korean Single-Sheet Buddhist Woodblock Illustrated Prints Produced for Protection and Worship

Jahyun Kim Department of History and Culture, University of Ulsan, Ulsan 44610, Korea; [email protected]



Received: 24 October 2020; Accepted: 28 November 2020; Published: 2 December 2020


Abstract: This paper examines the characteristics and production background of major examples of single-sheet Buddhist woodblock illustrated prints. In the form a single sheet of paper, the original first prints were not easily handed down, and in most cases the date and place of production are not clearly known. These factors made systematic research difficult, but the release of various related materials has recently enabled comprehensive study of the subject. As materials substantiating Buddhism’s religious role in society and the propagation activities of temples, single-sheet Buddhist prints hold great value. Research showed that two major types of single-sheet Buddhist prints were made: dharani-type prints used as talismans and prints used for worship or spiritual practice. The former type was likely made for self-protection or Buddhist enshrinement in statues for their protection and to seek blessings for this meritorious deed or to protect the dharma. The latter type was used as a visual aid in worship and chanting. They can be divided into prints featuring universally loved icons and prints featuring icons reflecting the trends of certain periods. They were analyzed in relation to popular beliefs and methods of spiritual practice in the Buddhist circle as well as trends in faith among the ordinary people.

Keywords: single-sheet woodblock illustrated Buddhist print; dharani; talismans; protection of the dharma; objects of worship or spiritual practice; Three Gates Buddhist Practice 三門修業; Suryukjae 水陸齋 ritual; belief in Chilseong 七星

1. Introduction Single-sheet Buddhist woodblock illustrated prints, the subject of this paper, were conceived and produced as independent, complete prints with all the content on a single sheet of paper. These single-sheet prints featuring Buddhist icons have not attracted great attention for research compared to prints of sutra illustrations, either on the frontispiece or inserted in the sutra. This can be primarily attributed to their form as a print on a single sheet of paper, which means the original imprints were not easily handed down, and the fact that in most cases the date and place of their publication is not clearly known. These factors have made it difficult to conduct systematic research on single-sheet Buddhist prints. However, as printing woodblocks and related materials preserved at Buddhist temples have gradually been made public in recent times, it was confirmed that diverse single-sheet Buddhist prints were produced during the Goryeo and Joseon dynasties. As they were works made in the woodblock print form and hence intended for mass production, the content carved on a single woodblock gives insight into the forms of faith that were popular among the people at the time. In this sense, they hold great value as materials that can substantiate Buddhism’s religious role in society and the propagation activities of temples. Moreover, some of these single-sheet Buddhist prints can be examined in direct relation with Buddhist paintings of the same period, which makes them a worthwhile subject of study from the perspective of art history. The iconography of single-sheet Buddhist prints can be divided into three types: dharani and pictures of Buddhas and bodhisattvas, which function as a kind of talisman; solo pictures of the

Religions 2020, 11, 647; doi:10.3390/rel11120647 www.mdpi.com/journal/religions Religions 2020, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 21

The iconography of single-sheet Buddhist prints can be divided into three types: dharani and pictures of Buddhas and bodhisattvas, which function as a kind of talisman; solo pictures of the Buddhist dharma protectors; and pictures of sermons featuring the Buddha and the holy ones. As with the publication of sutras, single-sheet prints were seemingly produced “to propagate the dharma and accumulate merit”. In this regard, if we look at records from China, where woodblock printing techniques originated, Fascicle 5 of Miscellaneous Records of the Cloud Immortals (Yun xian san lu)1 by the scholar Feng Zhi 馮贄 of the late Tang dynasty says “Every year Xuanzang

玄奘

玄

Religions 2020, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 21 奘 The iconography of single-sheet Buddhist prints can be divided into three types: dharani and Religions 2020, 11, 647 2 of 20 pictures of Buddhas and bodhisattvas, which function as a kind of talisman; solo pictures of the Buddhist dharma protectors; and pictures of sermons featuring the Buddha and the holy ones. As

with the publication of sutras, single-sheet prints were seemingly produced “to propagate the Buddhist dharma protectors; and pictures of sermons featuring the Buddha and the holy ones. As with dharma and accumulate merit”. In this regard, if we look at records from China, where woodblock the publication of sutras, single-sheet prints were seemingly produced “toprinting propagate techniques the dharma originated, Fascicle 5 of Miscellaneous Records of the Cloud Immortals (Yun xian san and accumulate merit”. In this regard, if we look at records from China, where woodblock printing lu)1 by the scholar Feng Zhi 馮贄 of the late Tang dynasty says “Every year Xuanzang techniques originated, Fascicle 5 of Miscellaneous printed enough Records images of the of CloudSamantabhadra Immortals on(Yun huifengzhi xian san lu)1 by the scholar Feng Zhi 馮贄 of the late Tang dynasty says “Every year Xuanzang 玄奘 printed enough images of Samantabhadra on huifengzhi 回鎽紙 [a kind of paper] to load on the backs of five horses and 玄 distributed them to monks, nuns and male and female lay believers and none were ever left over”, quoting Seng guo yi lu 僧國逸錄. In addition,回 in the Song dynasty Tripitaka preserved at Chion-in 知恩院 Temple in Kyoto, Japan, the end of Fascicle 6 of Daciensi sanzangfashi zhuan奘 大唐大慈恩寺三 藏法師傳 (a biography of Xuanzang) says鎽 “Monk Rizhi 日智, after witnessing the Jingkang Incident and seeing people suffering the pain of war, out of his love for sentient beings held a Suryukjae rite [rite for deliverance of beings of water紙 and land] to liberate them from suffering and printed 20,000 copies of pictures of Amitabha and Avalokitesvara [for the occasion]”.2 Such records from the Tang dynasty indicate that monks made copies of single-sheet prints for distribution to sentient beings and [a kind of paper] to load on the backs of five horses and distributed them to monks, nuns and propagation of the dharma. As such, it appears that single-sheet Buddhist prints were largely used for male and female lay believers and none were ever left over”, quoting Seng guo yi lu 僧國逸錄 . In two main purposes. First, the dharani type, produced under the belief that simply printed carrying enough them images on of Samantabhadra on huifengzhi the body meant protection by the dharma,addition, served in the asSong a kind dynasty of talisman. Tripitaka Second,preserved prints at Chion-in of a Buddha 知恩院 or Temple in Kyoto, Japan, the 回鎽紙 bodhisattva or a sermon by the Buddhaend of were Fascicle used 6 forof Daciensi worship sanzangfashi purposes, zhuan in the 大唐大慈恩寺三藏法師傳 same way as Buddhist(a biography of Xuanzang) paintings. Buddhist iconography carvedsays “Monk onto Rizhi woodblocks 日智, after in witnessing the form ofthe Buddhist Jingkang paintingsIncident and and seeing in people suffering the pain 回 the form of dharani may be superficiallyof war, out diff oferent his love in type,for sentient but in beings that theyheld a both Suryukjae manifest rite [rite trends for deliverance in of beings of water people’s faith at the time and directlyand and land] immediately to liberate reflectthem from the wishessuffering of theand peopleprinted in 20,000 a single-sheet copies of pictures of Amitabha and 鎽 print they were both made with theAvalokitesvara same objectives. [for the Of occasion]”. course, Buddhist2 Such records books from composed the Tang of dynasty many indicate that monks made sheets of printed material functionedcopies as a of conduit single-she foret knowledge, prints for distribution object of worship to sentient and beings talisman. and propagation It is of the dharma. As 紙 important to note, however, that thesuch, function it appears of suchthat single-sheet books was Buddhist limited prints to the were literate largely class. used Just for astwo main purposes. First, the dharani type, produced under the belief that simply carrying them on the body meant protection by Buddhist iconography was developed to convey Buddhism’s complex philosophy to the masses in an the dharma, served as a kind of talisman. Second, prints of a Buddha or bodhisattva or a sermon by easier and more intuitive way, single-sheetthe Buddha Buddhist were used prints for expressedworship purposes, the content in [athe of kind Buddhistsame of paper]way books,as to Buddhis load ont thepaintings. backs of Buddhist five horses and distributed them to monks, nuns and expounded in a written language thaticonography was diffi cultcarved to understand,onto woodblocks in a in single-sheet the formmale ofand pictureBuddhist female or paintingslay dharani believers and and in the none form were of dharaniever left over”, quoting Seng guo yi lu 僧國逸錄 . In comprised of icons representing that content. These prints were made to be distributed to the masses. addition, in the Song dynasty Tripitaka preserved at Chion-in 知恩院 Temple in Kyoto, Japan, the The people who were the consumers of single-sheet Buddhist prints used these prints, based on the 1 Feng Zhi, Yun xian san lu 雲仙散錄, Fascicle 5 (Wengend ofand Fascicle Hongbo 6 2014, of Daciensi p. 19). sanzangfashi zhuan 大唐大慈恩寺三藏法師傳 (a biography of Xuanzang) forms of Buddhist faith with which2 they were familiar rather than the complex contents of Buddhist Daciensi sanzang fashi zhuan 大唐大慈恩寺三藏法師傳says, “MonkFascicle Rizhi6, preserved 日智, atafter Chion-in witnessing Temple, the Kyoto, Jingkang Japan. Incident and seeing people suffering the pain books, as a device to realize their prayersThe “Jinkang and wishes. incident” In mentioned this context, here refers it can to bethe saidsiege thatand sacking single-sheet of the Northern Song capital Kaifeng of war, out of his love for sentient beings held a Suryukjae rite [rite for deliverance of beings of water Buddhist prints serving as paintingsby or Jin as dynasty dharani forces were during made the forJinkang the era same (1126–1127). purpose. This Therefore, provides evidence this that it was during the Song and land] to liberate them from suffering and printed 20,000 copies of pictures of Amitabha and paper divides single-sheet Buddhist printsdynasty into that the the dharaniMonk Rizhi type, made containing prints of Amitabha prayers and for Avalokitesvara. self-protection Avalokitesvara [for the occasion]”.2 Such records from the Tang dynasty indicate that monks made and protection of the dharma, and prints made for the purpose of spiritual practice and worship. copies of single-sheet prints for distribution to sentient beings and propagation of the dharma. As Through the investigation of major examples of both types, this paper exploressuch, theirit appears characteristics that single-sheet Buddhist prints were largely used for two main purposes. First, the and the background to their production. dharani type, produced under the belief that simply carrying them on the body meant protection by the dharma, served as a kind of talisman. Second, prints of a Buddha or bodhisattva or a sermon by 2. Dharani-Type Prints Functioning as Talismans the Buddha were used for worship purposes, in the same way as Buddhist paintings. Buddhist Printed copies of dharani were steadily produced from the time Buddhisticonography prints began carved to appear. onto woodblocks in the form of Buddhist paintings and in the form of dharani The word “dharani” generally means a Buddhist mantra which has been visualized and materialized by writing it down or printing it on paper or silk. The oldest extant single-sheet1 Feng Zhi, Yun dharani xian san print lu 雲仙散錄, Fascicle 5 (Weng and Hongbo 2014, p. 19). is a stamped picture of the Amitabha Triad3 on the back of a hand-written2 Daciensi copy of sanzang Fascicle fashi zhuan 10 of 大唐大慈恩寺三藏法師傳, Fascicle 6, preserved at Chion-in Temple, Kyoto, Japan. The “Jinkang incident” mentioned here refers to the siege and sacking of the Northern Song capital Kaifeng Misrakabhidharmahr.daya sastra (Ch. Za a pitan xin lun 雜阿毗曇心論), which was discovered in the by Jin dynasty forces during the Jinkang era (1126–1127). This provides evidence that it was during the Song dynasty that the Monk Rizhi made prints of Amitabha and Avalokitesvara.

1 Feng Zhi, Yun xian san lu 雲仙散錄, Fascicle 5 (Weng and Hongbo 2014, p. 19). 2 Daciensi sanzang fashi zhuan 大唐大慈恩寺三藏法師傳, Fascicle 6, preserved at Chion-in Temple, Kyoto, Japan. The “Jinkang incident” mentioned here refers to the siege and sacking of the Northern Song capital Kaifeng by Jin dynasty forces during the Jinkang era (1126–1127). This provides evidence that it was during the Song dynasty that the Monk Rizhi made prints of Amitabha and Avalokitesvara. 3 The date is estimated based on the seal reading “seal of Yongxing prefecture” 永興郡印 stamped on the back of this dharani, but the opinions of scholars differ, ranging from Northern Qi, Eastern Jin, and Northern Zhou depending on material used Religions 2020, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 20

Religions 2020, 11, 647 3 of 20 stamped picture of the Amitabha Triad 3 on the back of a hand-written copy of Fascicle 10 of Misrakabhidharmahṛdaya sastra (Ch. Za a pitan xin lun 雜雜雜雜雜雜), which was discovered in the Mogao caves in Dunhuang and is now preserved at the National Library of ChinaChina (Figure(Figure1 1).). ThisThis print shows the Amitabha triad in the center surrounded by a dharani written in Sanskrit and can be regarded as an early form of Sanskrit dharani. This kind kind of dharani in the form of a seal stamped on paper was later carved onto woodblocks for printing.printing. The composition also changed as the icon was gradually reduced in size and the space for the Sanskrit dharani increased.

Figure 1. Misrakabhidharmahṛdaya sastra (Ch. Za a pitan xin lun), Fascicle 10, “Amitabha Triad Seal”, Figure 1. Misrakabhidharmahr.daya sastra (Ch. Za a pitan xin lun), Fascicle 10, “Amitabha Triad Seal”, Dunhuang Manuscripts, Manuscripts, Southern Southern and and Northern Northern Dyna Dynasties,sties, National National Library Library of ofChina. China. Source: Source: Li 2008,(Li 2008 Figure, Figure 1. 1).

The PratisaraPratisara DharaniDharani (Ch. (Ch. Suiqui Suiqui tuoluoni tuoluoni隨 求隨隨隨隨隨陀罹尼) preserved) preserved at the at National the National Library Library of China of China(presumed (presumed eighth eighth century) century) was discovered was discovered in a Tang in dynastya Tang dynasty brick tomb brick on tomb the grounds on the grounds of Sichuan of 4 SichuanUniversity University in Chengdu, in Chengdu, Sichuan Province. Sichuan Province.This dharani4 This print dharani features print the features eight-armed the eight-armed bodhisattva bodhisattvaMahapratisara Mahapratisara in the center surroundedin the center by thesurrounded dharani in by Sanskrit, the dharani which isin then Sanskrit, surrounded which by is thethen 33 surroundedritual objects by of esotericthe 33 ritual Buddhism, objects mudras, of esoteric and bodhisattvasBuddhism, mudras, on lotus and pedestals bodhisattvas (Figure2 ).on It lotus was pedestalsfound inside (Figure the silver 2). It braceletwas found on theinside right the arm silver of the bracelet occupant on ofthe the right tomb. arm That of the such occupant dharani of prints the tomb.were used That assuch burial dharani items prints clearly were indicates used as that burial they items functioned clearly as indicates a kind of that talisman they functioned from the Tang as a kinddynasty. of talisman The sutras from on whichthe Tang the extantdynasty. dharani The issutr basedas on are which the Mahapratisara the extant dharani Dharani Sutrais based(Ch. areFoshuo the suiqiu jide dazizai tuoluoni shenzhou jing 佛說隨求卽得大自在陀罹尼神呪經; translated into Chinese by Mahapratisara Dharani Sutra (Ch. Foshuo suiqiu jide dazizai tuoluoni shenzhou jing 佛佛隨隨佛佛大佛佛 Manicinta, ?–721) from 639 and Mahapratisara Vidyarajni Sutra (Ch. Pubian guangming qingjing chisheng 隨羅隨羅羅羅ruyi baoyinxin wunengshengdamingwang; translated into Chinese dasuiqiuby Manicinta, tuoluoni ?–721) jing普 from遍光明 639淨 熾and盛 如Mahapratisara意寶印心無能 Vidyarajni勝大明王 Sutra大隨求 (Ch.陀罹 Pubian尼經; translatedguangming into qingjing Chinese chisheng by Amoghvajra, ruyi baoyinxin 705–74). wunengshengdamingwang The Chinese-character dasuiqiu translations tuoluoni jingof both普普普普 these sutras清淨淨淨淨淨淨淨雜淨淨淨大普淨大隨隨隨隨隨羅 state that if this dharani is written down on paper and; translated worn around into Chinese the arms by or neck, one can benefit from its miraculous power.5 Moreover, by carrying this dharana, one will have all sins extinguished, regardless of their gravity, attain infinite merit, and see one’s wishes come true; 3after The death, date is oneestimated will have based an on easy the seal passage reading to paradise“seal of Yongxing and attain prefecture” Buddhahood. 永永永淨 This stamped particular on the copy back of of this dharani, but the opinions of scholars differ, ranging from Northern Qi, Eastern Jin, and Northern Zhou depending on material used for evidence. However, generally, it is agreed that it was made during the Southern and Northern Dynasties. For more detail, see Weng and Hongbo 2014, pp. 19–20; Li 2008, Figure 1 for evidence. However, generally, it is agreed that it was made during the Southern and Northern Dynasties. For more explanation.detail, see (Weng and Hongbo 2014, pp. 19–20; Li 2008, Figure 1 explanation). 4 BasedBased on on the the imprint on on this this dharani dharan mentioningi mentioning the placethe place name name Chengdufu Chengdufu成都府 ,成成成 which was, which established was established in 757, this dharani is thought to have been printed in the eighth century. (Lee 2018, p. 293). For more information regarding the inpublication 757, this period,dharani see is (Feng thought 1957). to have been printed in the eighth century. (Lee 2018, p. 293). For more 5 informationTaisho¯ 20, no.1153_001:617b04, regarding the publicationTaisho¯ 20, no.1154:637b19. period, see (Feng In regard 1957). to the carrying of dharani on the body and accepting and maintaining faith shou chi 受持 in the dharani based on the sutras, see (Copp 2014, pp. 79–87).

Religions 2020, 11, 647 4 of 20 the Pratisara Dharani, discovered near the body of the deceased, is thought to be closely connected to the legend of the bhikku of little faith 小信心比丘 (K. sosinsim bigu),6 which goes, “A bhikku who had sinned suffered a terrible disease but a Brahman upasaka wrote the Pratisara Dharani for him and cured him. Later, when the bhikku died he fell to Avici [the lowest hell], but since the dharani was placed on his body he was not punished, though he was in hell, and was reborn in Trayastrim. sa heaven [second 7 Religionsheaven 2020 of the, 11, desirex FOR PEER realm]”. REVIEW 5 of 20

FigureFigure 2. PratisaraPratisara Dharani Dharani (Ch.(Ch. SuiquiSuiqui tuoluoni tuoluoni),), Tang Tang (presumed (presumed around around 8th 8th century), century), 31.0 31.0 × 24.024.0 cm, cm, × NationalNational Library of China. Source: Source: (Li (Li 2008,2008, Figure Figure 4). 4).

AnotherConsidering example the many of a examplesdharani enshrined of Pratisara inside Dharani a Buddhistbeing buried statue in tombsis the print during of thethe GoryeoCasket Seal and DharaniJoseon dynasties, (K. Bohyeopin the dharani darani evidently淨篋淨隨隨隨 also functioned) (Figure as 4) a talismandiscovered for theinside dead the in Korea.Wooden However, Seated Avalokitesvarain Korea, the Pratisara at Bogwangsa Dharani Templewas often in Andong. found enshrined This dharani inside consists a Buddhist of the statue Sutra asof the a votive Whole-Body object, Relicsuggesting Treasure that Chest other Seal than Dhara prayingṇi, The for Heart the Secret soul of of theAll deceasedTathagatas to printed be guided on a to large the nextsingle world sheet the of 8 paper.dharani The was sutra used inwas a widerfirst context.publishedIn in two pocket-book Goryeo prints size of (to the bePratisara carried Dahrani insidefound the sleeve) enshrined by inside the Wooden Seated Amitabha (twelfth-thirteenth century) at Jaunsa 紫雲寺 Temple in Gwangju Chongjinsa 摠受慈 Temple in 1007, the tenth year of the reign of King Yejong 睿睿 of Goryeo. The and the Wooden Seated Avalokitesvara at Bogwangsa 普光寺 Temple in Andong (eleventh-twelfth statue-enshrined print of the sutra, considering its condition and the publication date of the books century), respectively, the principle icon in the center is depicted in the form of a bodhisattva with the discovered with it, was likely printed around the time the statue was made between the eleventh and right knee on the ground and holding an attribute in the left hand (Figure3). 9 The diversity of the twelfth centuries. The front part features a sutra frontispiece illustration that depicts the contents of principle icons appearing in Pratisara Dharani is thought to be rooted in the sutras which say different the prologue of the sutra, so strictly speaking it is not the print of a dharani but a sutra illustration in deities must be depicted according to the rank of the patrons.10 This aspect aside, in overall form, print form. However, as this dharani is not in the form of a scroll but a print on a single large sheet composition and iconography the Korean Pratisara Dharani prints are very closely related to their Tang of paper, containing the sutra text and illustration, presumably it was printed from the outset for dynasty counterparts, including the abovementioned dharani discovered in a Tang dynasty tomb in enshrinement as a votive offering. Enshrining the Casket Seal Dharani in this way, based on the contents of the sutra saying “If this dharani is written down and enshrined in a Buddhist pagoda or statue, the pagoda or statue will be protected while the patrons who made the offering will have their 6 Taisho¯ 20, no.1153_001:0620c09, 0621b06, Taisho¯ 20, no.1154:640b29. 11 wishes7 (Lee 2018come, pp. true”, 291–92). suggests that it was made as a kind of talisman. 8 (Uiduk University Press 2004, p. 8). 9 For information on the Pratisara Dhrani enshrined in the Buddhist statue at Jaunsa Temple, see (Song 2004, pp. 85–87; Sudeoksa Museum 2004, Figure 57). 10 Taisho¯ 20, no.1153:624a12-b08; Taisho¯ 20, no.1154:641c29-642a08. (Kim 2018a, pp. 13–14).

11 Taishō 19, no, 1022B_001:713a02, 714a19.

Religions 2020, 11, 647 5 of 20

Sichuan. Moreover, the discovery of Pratisara Dharani prints with such iconography in Korea, where most examples consist only of Sanskrit writing, is a matter of great interest. Discovered in almost perfect condition they provide clear evidence that the tradition of Pratisara Dharani produced from the Tang dynasty of China was transmitted to Korea’s Goryeo dynasty. As the Pratisara Dharani was also found as a votive object enshrined in Goryeo Buddhist statues, its function was apparently expanded from the supernatural protection of the deceased to imbuing the Buddhist statue with sacredness and expressing the prayers and wishes of the patron. Religions 2020, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 20

Figure 3. Pratisara Dharani (K. Sugu darani), Goryeo (12th century), woodblockwoodblock print, 32.3 × 34.834.8 cm, × enshrined in the statuestatue WoodenWooden SeatedSeated AvalokitesvaraAvalokitesvara ofof BogwangsaBogwangsa Temple.Temple. Source:Source: ((ResearchResearch Institute of Buddhist Cultural Heritage 20092009,, p.p. 52).

AnotherFinally, the example Dharani of of a the dharani Buddha enshrined of Immeasurable inside aLife Buddhist (K. Muryangsu statue is yeorae the print darani of the淨無無淨無隨Casket Seal Dharani (K. Bohyeopin darani 寶篋印陀羅尼 ) (Figure4) discovered inside the Wooden Seated Avalokitesvara 隨隨), presumably produced in the seventeenth to eighteenth century, has a slightly different at Bogwangsa Temple in Andong. This dharani consists of the Sutra of the Whole-Body Relic Treasure meaning to the talisman-type豐 dharani mentioned above (Figure 5). A picture of Amitabha in the Pure Chest Seal Dharan. i, The Heart Secret德 of All Tathagatas printed on a large single sheet of paper. The sutra wasLand first and published Diagram inof pocket-bookthe Avataṃsaka size Single (to be Vehicle carried insideDharmadhatu the sleeve) (K. by Hwaeom Chongjinsa ilseung摠持 beopgaydo寺 Temple 華 in嚴嚴嚴慈嚴嚴 1007, the tenth) are year arranged of the reignin the of center King with Yejong various睿宗 of ta Goryeo.lismans and The statue-enshrinedmantras on both sides. print ofFirst, the sutra,the Buddha considering triad sitting its condition on a lotus and pedestal the publication arising from date ofthe the lotus books pond discovered and the phrase with it, “Picture was likely of printedthe nine-tiered around lotus the time leaf theplatform statue in was Sukhavati made between [Western the Pure eleventh Land]” and carved twelfth on top centuries. indicate The that front the particonography features ais sutrathe Amitabha frontispiece Buddha illustration triad in that the depicts lotus pond the contents of the Western of the prologue Pure Land. of the To sutra, the left so strictlyand right speaking of the ittriad is not are the the print names of a dharaniJajaewang but chiondok a sutra illustration darani 佛佛淨自自自隨隨隨 in print form. However, and as thisIlja dharani is not in the form of a scroll but a print on a single large sheet of paper, containing the sutra jeongyunwang darani 嚴一一一淨隨隨隨 (Dharani of the One-syllable Wheel-turning Ruler). At the text and illustration, presumably it was printed from the outset for enshrinement as a votive offering. Enshriningbottom, along the Casketwith the Seal name Dharani “Haeinin this way,海淨 based”, is the on theDiagram contents of ofthe the Avata sutraṃ sayingsaka “IfSingle this dharaniVehicle isDharmadhatu. written down On and either enshrined side of in Amitabha a Buddhist in pagodathe Pure or Land, statue, along the pagodawith the or phrases statue will“dandeukgyeon be protected bulbu 當佛當佛當 ” (meaning “if one carries this talisman and makes a sincere effort one will be able to meet the Buddha”) and “wonisamjaebu 遠遠三遠當 ” (meaning “talisman to keep the three disasters far away”), there are 16 talismans arranged in two columns in four rows. Beside the talismans on the right side are mantras related to Amitabha Buddha such as Amitabul simjung simju 雜阿隨佛雜阿雜羅, Muryangsu yeoraebul simju 淨無無淨無佛雜羅 , Muryangsu yeorae geunbon darani 淨無無淨無無無隨隨隨(Root Dharani of Infinite Life Tathagata), and Bulgong daegwanjeonggwang jineon 不不大不一普不不 (Gwangmyeong jineon 普普不不 , or the Mantra of Light), and on the left side mantras related to Avalokitesvara such as Gwanseeum bosal simuoesu jineon 觀觀觀觀觀施淨施施不 不, Baekbulsu jineon 白白施不不, Baengnyeonhwasu jineon 白白華施不不 and Cheongnyeonhwasu jineon 靑白靑施不不 .12

12 Dongguk University Academy of Buddhist Studies 2017, p. 469.

1

Religions 2020, 11, 647 6 of 20

while the patrons who made the offering will have their wishes come true”,11 suggests that it was made as a kind of talisman. Religions 2020, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 20

FigureFigure 4. 4. CasketCasket Seal Seal Dharani Dharani (K.(K. Bohyeopin daranidarani),), Goryeo Goryeo (1007), (1007), 32.3 32.3 × 4545 cm, cm, Enshrined Enshrined in in the the statue statue × Wooden SeatedSeated AvalokitesvaraAvalokitesvara of of Bogwangsa Bogwangsa Temple. Temple. Source: Source: (Central (Central Buddhist Buddhist Museum Museum 2014 2014,, p. 99). p. 99). Finally, the Dharani of the Buddha of Immeasurable Life (K. Muryangsu yeorae darani 無量壽如來陀罹 尼), presumably produced in the seventeenth to eighteenth century, has a slightly different meaning to the talisman-type dharani mentioned above (Figure5). A picture of Amitabha in the Pure Land and Diagram of the Avatam. saka Single Vehicle Dharmadhatu (K. Hwaeom ilseung beopgaydo 華嚴一乘法界 圖) are arranged in the center with various talismans and mantras on both sides. First, the Buddha triad sitting on a lotus pedestal arising from the lotus pond and the phrase “Picture of the nine-tiered lotus leaf platform in Sukhavati [Western Pure Land]” carved on top indicate that the iconography is the Amitabha Buddha triad in the lotus pond of the Western Pure Land. To the left and right of the triad are the names Jajaewang chiondok darani 自在王治溫毒陀罹尼 and Ilja jeongyunwang darani 一字頂輪王 陀罹尼 (Dharani of the One-syllable Wheel-turning Ruler). At the bottom, along with the name “Haein 海印”, is the Diagram of the Avatam. saka Single Vehicle Dharmadhatu. On either side of Amitabha in the Pure Land, along with the phrases “dandeukgyeon bulbu 當得見佛符” (meaning “if one carries this talisman and makes a sincere effort one will be able to meet the Buddha”) and “wonisamjaebu 遠 離三災符” (meaning “talisman to keep the three disasters far away”), there are 16 talismans arranged in two columns in four rows. Beside the talismans on the right side are mantras related to Amitabha Buddha such as Amitabul simjung simju 阿彌陀佛心中心呪, Muryangsu yeoraebul simju 無 量壽如來佛心 呪, MuryangsuFigure 5. Dharani yeorae of geunbon the Buddha darani of Immeasurable無量壽如來 根本Life (K.陀 罹Muryangsu尼(Root Dharaniyeorae darani of Infinite), Joseon Life(presumed Tathagata), and Bulgong17th-18th daegwanjeonggwang century), 39.0 × 50.0 jineon cm, Wongaksa不空大灌頂 Te光mple.眞言 (Source:Gwangmyeong (Dongguk jineon University光明眞 言Academy, or the Mantraof of Light),Buddhist and Studies on the 2017, left p. side 469). mantras related to Avalokitesvara such as Gwanseeum bosal simuoesu jineon 觀世音菩薩施無畏手眞言, Baekbulsu jineon 白拂手眞言, Baengnyeonhwasu jineon 白蓮華手眞言 and CheongnyeonhwasuThis arrangement of jineon Amitabha靑蓮花 in手 the眞言 Pure.12 Land and Diagram of the Avataṃsaka Single Vehicle Dharmadhatu along with various mantras related to Amitabha and Avalokitesvara in one single dharani print is highly interesting for it clearly reflects the spread of Three Gates Buddhist Practice

(sammun11 Taisho¯ 19, sueop no, 1022B_001:713a02, 三三三三-teachings 714a19. of the Seon 禪 and Gyo 敎 [Doctrine] schools plus prayer).13 12 When(Dongguk considering University the Academy structure of Buddhist of the Studiesdharani 2017 in, p.which 469). the various talismans and mantras seem to be protecting the icons in the center from the outside, this print, rather than being an object of worship, is thought to be a dharani with a strong talismanic nature for the protection of the dharma, reflecting the personal religious tendencies of the monks who made it. That is, the Diagram of the Avataṃsaka Single Vehicle Dharmadhatu has been arranged in the center of the lower half of the print and above it Amitabha, one of the many incarnations of the Buddha, flanked by attendant

13 (Lee 2010, pp. 187–91; Lee 2015, pp. 67–72).

Religions 2020, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 20

Figure 4. Casket Seal Dharani (K. Bohyeopin darani), Goryeo (1007), 32.3 × 45 cm, Enshrined in the statue ReligionsWooden2020, 11 Seated, 647 Avalokitesvara of Bogwangsa Temple. Source: (Central Buddhist Museum 2014, p.7 of 20 99).

Figure 5.5. Dharani of the Buddha of ImmeasurableImmeasurable Life (K.(K. MuryangsuMuryangsu yeorae daranidarani),), JoseonJoseon (presumed(presumed 17th-18th17th-18th century),century), 39.039.0 × 50.050.0 cm,cm, WongaksaWongaksa Temple.Temple. Source:Source: ((DonggukDongguk University Academy of × Buddhist Studies 20172017,, p. 469).

This arrangement of Amitabha in the Pure Land and Diagram of the Avata mṃ. saka Single Vehicle Dharmadhatu along with various mantras related to Amitabha and Avalokitesvara in one single dharani print is highly interesting for it clearly reflectsreflects the spread ofof ThreeThree GatesGates BuddhistBuddhist PracticePractice (sammun(sammun sueop 三三三三三門修業-teachings-teachings ofof the Seon 禪 andand GyoGyo 敎敎[Doctrine] [Doctrine] schools schoolsplus plus prayer).prayer).1313 WhenWhen considering the the structure structure of of the the dharani dharani in in which which the the various various talismans talismans and and mantras mantras seem seem to tobe beprotecting protecting the the icons icons in inthe the center center from from the the outs outside,ide, this this print, print, rather rather than than being being an an object ofof worship, is thought to be a dharani with a strong talismanic nature for the protection of the dharma, reflectingreflecting the personalpersonal religious tendencies of thethe monksmonks whowho mademade it.it. That is, the Diagram of the Avatamṃ. sakasaka SingleSingle Vehicle DharmadhatuDharmadhatu hashas beenbeen arrangedarranged in the center of the lower half of the print and aboveabove itit Amitabha,Amitabha, one of thethe manymany incarnationsincarnations ofof thethe Buddha,Buddha, flankedflanked byby attendantattendant bodhisattvas. The arrangement of varied Buddhism-related talismans and dharani related to Amitabha and Avalokitesvara on the left and right sides can be interpreted as a visual representation of the Buddhist13 (Lee 2010, world pp. 187–91; adorned Lee and 2015, externally pp. 67–72). protected by countless Buddhas and bodhisattvas. In this light, we can consider the possibility that it was made specifically for enshrinement as a votive offering for external protection of the dharma, that is, protection of a Buddhist statue or painting.

3. Single-Sheet Buddhist Prints as Objects of Worship

3.1. Prints with Popular Icons for Worship Across all regions where Mahayana Buddhism is followed, the favored icons of Buddhist art, regardless of time and region, are Sakyamuni Buddha, Amitabha Buddha and the bodhisattva Avalokitesvara. Artworks featuring them greatly surpass others in both number and kind. That such works were also produced in the form of prints to be used as objects of worship can be easily confirmed through written records and extant examples. For example, Fascicle 5 of Pure Talks of the Jade Mug (Ch. Yu hu qing hua 玉壺淸話) compiled by Wenying 文瑩 is a Chinese record that states, “A print of Avalokitesvara was hanging in the sutra room of Beichan Temple 北禪寺 in Changsha during the Song dynasty”.14 An example of an extant woodblock used to produce prints for such purposes is the

13 (Lee 2010, pp. 187–91; Lee 2015, pp. 67–72). 14 Wenying, Yu hu qing hua 玉壺淸話, Fascicle 5. Religions 2020, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 20

bodhisattvas. The arrangement of varied Buddhism-related talismans and dharani related to Amitabha and Avalokitesvara on the left and right sides can be interpreted as a visual representation of the Buddhist world adorned and externally protected by countless Buddhas and bodhisattvas. In this light, we can consider the possibility that it was made specifically for enshrinement as a votive offering for external protection of the dharma, that is, protection of a Buddhist statue or painting.

3. Single-Sheet Buddhist Prints as Objects of Worship

3.1. Prints with Popular Icons for Worship Across all regions where Mahayana Buddhism is followed, the favored icons of Buddhist art, regardless of time and region, are Sakyamuni Buddha, Amitabha Buddha and the bodhisattva Avalokitesvara. Artworks featuring them greatly surpass others in both number and kind. That such works were also produced in the form of prints to be used as objects of worship can be easily confirmed through written records and extant examples. For example, Fascicle 5 of Pure Talks of the Jade Mug (Ch. Yu hu qing hua 玉玉玉玉) compiled by Wenying 文文 is a Chinese record that states,

Religions“A print2020 of, 11Avalokitesvara, 647 was hanging in the sutra room of Beichan Temple 北禪慈 in Changsha8 of 20 during the Song dynasty”.14 An example of an extant woodblock used to produce prints for such purposes is the woodblock for the vertically long Descent of Amitabha (estimated to late Ming–early woodblock for the vertically long Descent of Amitabha (estimated to late Ming–early Qing), which is Qing), which is bordered on all four sides by a lotus blossom scroll design like a mounted Buddhist bordered on all four sides by a lotus blossom scroll design like a mounted Buddhist painting (Figure6). painting (Figure 6).

Figure 6.6. Descent of Amitabha (Ch.(Ch. AmituoAmituo laiyingtu ),), late late Ming–early Qi Qing,ng, 150.0 × 50.5 cm, The × Museum of Ancient Asian WoodblockWoodblock Prints.Prints. Source:Source: ((NationalNational Folk Museum of Korea 20162016,, p.p. 80).

In Korea, in in Janggyeongpanjeon Janggyeongpanjeon 慈羅藏藏藏經版殿 (woodblock repository) repository) at at Haeinsa Haeinsa 海淨慈海印寺 Temple,Temple, there isis oneone woodblockwoodblock thatthat isis carvedcarved withwith thethe DescentDescent of AmitabhaAmitabha on thethe frontfront andand thethe AmitabhaAmitabha Triad onon thethe backback (Figure7 7).). TheThe expressionexpression ofof thethe postureposture andand attireattire ofof Amitabha,Amitabha, whowho standsstands slightlyslightly turned to the sideside withwith rightright handhand heldheld outout toto welcomewelcome the soulsoul ofof aa deceaseddeceased individual,individual, and the way Sthamaprapta, the bodhisattva who along with Av Avalokitesvaraalokitesvara forms part of the Amitabha triad, is replaced in in the the woodblock woodblock with with Ksitigarbha Ksitigarbha in in response response to totrends trends in faith in faith at the at thetime time are points are points that thatmake make the woodblock the woodblock very verysimilar similar to Descent to Descent of Amitabha of Amitabha and andAmitabha Amitabha Triad Triad paintings paintings from from the 15 the Goryeo dynasty. Moreover, the repository at Haeinsa Temple where the woodblock is stored contains woodblocks only from the Goryeo and Joseon periods. However, there are no confirmed 14 Wenying, Yu hu qing hua 玉玉玉玉, Fascicle 5. Joseon examples of the iconography of the pictures carved on the front and back. Hence, it is presumed that the woodblock was made during the Goryeo period or close to that time. The Amitabha Triad has a pattern band carved at the top and bottom. Decorative banners are also depicted hanging down at the top, and in the center of the bottom band is a space for the imprint, or the inscription giving the details of the woodblock (gangi 刊記), just like the space for the inscription on a painting (hwagi 畵記). These points suggest that the woodblock was made to produce prints with the same composition as a scroll painting. The fact that a large temple such as Haeinsa produced prints with the same visual form as Buddhist paintings gives us an idea of the efforts made to propagate Buddhism by mass-producing and distributing such prints to the ordinary people, for whom possession of a Buddhist painting was not realistically possible (due to the immense cost and time involved), thereby expanding the base of Buddhism and make it popular among the people.

15 For information regarding Descent of Amitabha and Amitabha Triad paintings from the Goryeo dynasty, see (Kikutake and Utaek 1997, pp. 66–99). Religions 2020, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 20

Goryeo dynasty. 15 Moreover, the repository at Haeinsa Temple where the woodblock is stored contains woodblocks only from the Goryeo and Joseon periods. However, there are no confirmed Joseon examples of the iconography of the pictures carved on the front and back. Hence, it is presumed that the woodblock was made during the Goryeo period or close to that time. The Amitabha Triad has a pattern band carved at the top and bottom. Decorative banners are also depicted hanging down at the top, and in the center of the bottom band is a space for the imprint, or the inscription giving the details of the woodblock (gangi 刊刊), just like the space for the inscription on a painting (hwagi 畵刊). These points suggest that the woodblock was made to produce prints with the same composition as a scroll painting. The fact that a large temple such as Haeinsa produced prints with the same visual form as Buddhist paintings gives us an idea of the efforts made to propagate Buddhism by mass-producing and distributing such prints to the ordinary people, for whom possession of a Buddhist painting was not realistically possible (due to the immense cost and time involved), thereby expanding the base of Buddhism and make it popular among the people. Consequently, it can also be surmised that, by late Goryeo to early Joseon at the latest, single- Religions 2020, 11, 647 9 of 20 sheet Buddhist prints were being made and hung as objects of worship in place of paintings.16

(a) (b)

FigureFigure 7. ((aa)) DescentDescent of of Amitabha Amitabha (K.(K. AmitabaAmitaba dokjon dokjon naeyeongdo naeyeongdo)) and and ( (bb)) AmitabhaAmitabha Triad Triad (K.(K. Amitaba samjondosamjondo),), presumed presumed late late Joseon—early Joseon—early Joseon, Joseon, 50.0 50.0 × 33.033.0 cm, cm, Haeinsa Haeinsa Temple. Temple. Source: Source: (Park (Park 1987, 1987 p. , × 365).p. 365).

AnotherConsequently, woodblock it can alsocarved be surmisedwith the Assembly that, by late at Vulture Goryeo Peak to early (1571) Joseon and at currently the latest, preserved single-sheet at 16 GaesimsaBuddhist prints開雜慈 were Temple being in made Seosan and shows hungas that objects the tradition of worship ofin producing place of paintings. single-sheet Buddhist Another woodblock carved with the Assembly at Vulture Peak (1571) and currently preserved at prints as objects of worship continued into the Joseon dynasty (Figure 8). Though a small print Gaesimsa 開心寺 Temple in Seosan shows that the tradition of producing single-sheet Buddhist prints measuring 25.5 × 18.0 cm, it consists of the picture of the sermon and the imprint at the bottom, as as objects of worship continued into the Joseon dynasty (Figure8). Though a small print measuring commonly seen in altar paintings hung behind the icons in temple halls. The iconography is that of 25.5 18.0 cm, it consists of the picture of the sermon and the imprint at the bottom, as commonly seen Sakyamuni× giving a sermon on Vulture Peak. According to the inscription at the bottom, the print in altar paintings hung behind the icons in temple halls. The iconography is that of Sakyamuni giving was produced for the purpose of “worshiping while looking at the picture to receive good fortune a sermon on Vulture Peak. According to the inscription at the bottom, the print was produced for the for one thousand lives, giving praise and having one’s sufferings extinguished for ten thousand eons, purpose of “worshiping while looking at the picture to receive good fortune for one thousand lives, and doing pious deeds together so that all can attain enlightenment”. The inscription also says that, giving praise and having one’s sufferings extinguished for ten thousand eons, and寶 doing篋印陀羅尼 pious deeds together so that all can attain enlightenment”. The inscription also says that, under the lead of Hyeseon 15惠 For禪, information the patron regarding and carver Descent of the of woodblock, Amitabha and Park Amitabha Eonmun Triad朴 paintings彦文, Pungdeok from the 豐Goryeo德, and dynasty, Jiheon see智 軒(Kikutakealso gave and alms, Jeong and 1997, the firstpp. 66–99). printing was carried out in the third month of the fifth Yunggeong 隆慶 16 (Kim 2017, pp. 232–39). year (1571) at Bowonsa 普願寺 Temple. Hyeseon, the person in charge of this project, is also mentioned as the carver and patron in the inscription of other works published at Bowonsa Temple, including the ritual texts Tiantai Perfect Meditation in the Shuilu Fahui Dharma Ritual (1565), Compendium of Ritual Texts (K. Jebanmun 諸般文) (1571)17 and Master Gaofeng’s Essentials of Chan (1571, Ch. Gaofeng hesang chanyo 高峰和尙禪要). Based on this evidence, it is believed that Hyeseon held a considerably high position at Bowonsa Temple at the time and led the publication of many Buddhist texts. From the stated objective of the Assembly at Vulture Peak print—“to engage in spiritual practice and attain enlightenment together”—it is evident that the work was not printed simply as an object of worship but to encourage spiritual practice. Moreover, on the left side of the print is an inscription (象王山普願 寺佛殿造成供養勸 後世同成正覺) that tells us the picture was printed in large numbers in an effort #

16 (Kim 2017, pp. 232–39). 17 Jebanmun is a compendium of ritual texts from temples around the Korea that was put together for easy reference.

1

Religions 2020, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 20 under the lead of Hyeseon 惠禪, the patron and carver of the woodblock, Park Eonmun 朴朴文, Pungdeok 豐德, and Jiheon 日智 also gave alms, and the first printing was carried out in the third month of the fifth Yunggeong 隆隆 year (1571) at Bowonsa 普普慈 Temple. Hyeseon, the person in charge of this project, is also mentioned as the carver and patron in the inscription of other works published at Bowonsa Temple, including the ritual texts Tiantai Perfect Meditation in the Shuilu Fahui Dharma Ritual (1565), Compendium of Ritual Texts (K. Jebanmun 諸諸文 ) (1571) 17 and Master Gaofeng’s Essentials of Chan (1571, Ch. Gaofeng hesang chanyo 高高和和禪和). Based on this evidence, it is believed that Hyeseon held a considerably high position at Bowonsa Temple at the time and led the publication of many Buddhist texts. From the stated objective of the Assembly at Vulture Peak print— “to engage in spiritual practice and attain enlightenment together”—it is evident that the work was notReligions printed2020, 11simply, 647 as an object of worship but to encourage spiritual practice. Moreover, on the10 ofleft 20 side of the print is an inscription (象淨象普普慈佛藏象成象象象 ○後觀後成後後) that tells us the picture was printed in large numbers in an effort to raise funds for construction of a temple hall at to raise funds for construction of a temple hall at Bowonsa Temple, located on Mt. Sangwangsan.18 Bowonsa Temple, located on Mt. Sangwangsan.18 To sum up, this print of Assembly on Vulture Peak To sum up, this print of Assembly on Vulture Peak was produced by Hyeseon at Bowonsa Temple to raise was produced by Hyeseon at Bowonsa Temple to raise funds for the construction of a new temple funds for the construction of a new temple hall. It is therefore a valuable item whose inscription shows hall. It is therefore a valuable item whose inscription shows that the people of the time made Buddhist that the people of the time made Buddhist prints to be used for worship and for spiritual practice. prints to be used for worship and for spiritual practice.

Figure 8. AssemblyAssembly atat Vulture Vulture Peak Peak(K. (K.Yeongsan Yeongsan selbeopdo selbeopdo), Woodblock), Woodblock carved carved at Bowonsa at Bowonsa Temple, Temple, Joseon Joseon(1571), (1571), 26.0 17.526.0 cm,× 17.5 Gaesimsa cm, Gaesimsa Temple, Temp Seosan.le, Seosan. Source: Source: (Park 1987 (Park, p. 1987, 190). p. 190). × 3.2. Prints Prints for for Worship Worship Reflecting Reflecting Trends in Faith Prints handed down from the Joseon dynasty sh showow greater diversity in in their iconography, and among them are some with distinctive iconography th thatat not only serve as Buddhist prints as objects of worship but were produced in response to the trends and demands of Joseon Buddhism. In In fact, fact, the aforementioned aforementioned DharaniDharani of of the the Buddha Buddha of of Immeasurable Immeasurable Life Life cancan also also be be placed placed in in this this category category as asit clearlyit clearly reflects reflects trends trends in inspiritual spiritual practice practice during during the the latter latter half half of the of the Joseon Joseon dynasty. dynasty. However, However, as discussedas discussed above, above, it was it was made made for for the the purpose purpose of of “external “external protection protection of of the the dharma” dharma” and and is is thus judged to be a dharani with the nature of a talisman. On the other hand, the works to be dealt with in this section are prints that reflect trends in faith at the time and were used for worship or 17spiritual Jebanmun practice is a compendium and as such of they ritual have texts the from same temples function around as the the prints Korea forthat worship was put mentioned together for above easy inreference. Section 3.1 . However, they differ in that prints were made with new iconography or iconography 18 that (Research had been Institute changed of Buddhist to reflect Cultural trends Heritage in faith, 2015, making pp. them482–83). distinct from the prints of the preceding period featuring universal iconography. These prints, therefore, not only help us to understand aspects of Joseon Buddhist faith, through comparative study of Buddhist paintings from the periods before and after they also enable examination of the process of iconographic change in Joseon Buddhist paintings. They are hence important visual materials requiring in-depth research. First, Shortcut to Rebirth through Buddha Mindfulness (K. Gwonsu jeongeop wangsaeng cheopgyeongdo 勸修淨業往生捷徑圖), which was repeatedly printed at many temples during the Joseon period, is a woodblock print produced to recommend, as the title says, a shortcut to rebirth in the Western Pure Land through right conduct (K. jeongeop 淨業), that is, practice through chanting the Buddha’s

18 (Research Institute of Buddhist Cultural Heritage 2015, pp. 482–83). Religions 2020, 11, 647 11 of 20 name (Amitabha). The oldest extant example is the print made at Ssanggyesa 雙溪寺 Temple on Mt. Bulmyeongsan 佛明山 (1571), preserved at Dongguk University Museum. Others include the print from Sinansa 身安寺 Temple, Geumsan 錦山 (1576); the print from Yeongwonsa 靈源寺 Temple, Mt. Jirisan 智異山 (1640), which is preserved at Ssanggyesa 雙溪寺 Temple in Hadong; the print from Unheungsa 雲興寺 Temple, Mt. Wonjeoksan 圓寂山 (1678), now preserved at Tongdosa 通度寺 Temple; and the print from Yeongwonam 靈源庵 Hermitage (1781) now preserved at Songgwangsa 松廣寺 Temple. All of these woodblock prints have been handed down intact. The earliest of these prints, from Ssanggyesa Temple on Mt. Bulmyeongsan (1571) (Figure9), has an imprint in perfect condition at the bottom that includes a list of patrons and states that the print was produced in the fifth Yunggyeong year (1571) with alms donated by many people. This picture of Shortcut to Rebirth through Buddha Mindfulness was carved on two woodblocks and the iconography on the print is composed of upper and lower tiers. The upper tier features a picture of Amitabha preaching, with Amitabha Buddha sitting on a high pedestal surrounded by a large aureole and flanked by eight bodhisattvas, four on each side. The lower tier features nine circles bordered with a bead design, set against a lotus pond background. This is an expression of the nine stages of rebirth in the Pure Land. The circles are arranged in three tiers, the upper tier, central tier and lower tier, each illustrating the middle grade, upper grade and lower grade of rebirth, respectively. Inside the circles, the icons in each of the nine grades are distinguished from each other. Those in the upper tier are expressed as bodhisattvas sitting on lotus pedestals, those in the upper and lower grade in the middle tier and the upper grade in the lower tier as monks sitting on lotus pedestals, while that in the middle grade of the lower tier is a torso on a lotus pedestal, and that in the lower grade of the lower tier is only a lotus pedestal. At the top of the print is the title of the work in Chinese characters, each character inside a circle. On the left and right sides of the title are three circles, each containing a separate character for the six-character Om mani pedme hum mantra. The record regarding carving of the woodblock is inscribed on the left and right sides of the illustrations. It details the conditions and methods of spiritual practice to achieve rebirth in the Pure Land through chanting, as well as the results of right conduct. To summarize, it says that, at the wishes of the monk Fazang 法藏, who later became the buddha Amitabha, anyone who chants the name of Amitabha can be reborn in the Western Paradise, and anyone who chants the name of Amitabha with true piety can be reborn in the pool of seven treasures in the Pure Land. As to the method, if one chants the name of Amitabha and makes offerings before this picture of the nine grades of rebirth at dawn every day for one year, facing the west, one will be reborn and be able to save bewildered sentient beings and lead them to nirvana. Religions 2020, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 20

Buddhism.19 During the first half of the Joseon dynasty when different schools of Buddhism were merged under the Seon school, the widespread practice of chanting was combined with spiritual practice and developed as so-called “chanting Seon 念佛禪” (K. yeombulseon).20 If the meaning of this print is interpreted in light of the methods of spiritual practice at the time and the content of the written prayer that goes with it, this print of Shortcut to Rebirth through Buddha Mindfulness was produced for chanting practice and mediation to achieve rebirth in the Pure Land. Judging by its size and the content of the inscription, it was likely hung up on the western wall, the direction of Amitabha’s Pure Land, while engaged in chanting practice. Therefore, it is presumed that Shortcut to Rebirth through Buddha Mindfulness, which reflects trends in faith at the time, was printed in large numbers and distributed to many people to encourage them to engage in chanting and meditation for spiritual practice. Moreover, the popularity of chanting Seon can be confirmed from the fact that, as previously mentioned, prints of Shortcut to Rebirth through Buddha Mindfulness with the same iconography as the abovementioned Ssanggyesa Temple print (the earliest example) continued to be made thereafter. The various prints of the same subject made afterwards at several other temples Religionsshow slight2020, 11 differences, 647 in arrangement of the icons and the finer details but have the same12 basic of 20 composition featuring Amitabha preaching and the nine grades of rebirth.

Figure 9. Shortcut to Rebirth through Buddha Mindfulness (K.(K. Gwonsu jeongeop jeongeop wangsaeng wangsaeng cheopgyeongdo cheopgyeongdo), WoodblockWoodblock carvedcarved atat SsanggyesaSsanggyesa Temple,Temple, Eunjin,Eunjin, JoseonJoseon (1571),(1571), 39.039.0 × 56.4 cm, Dongguk University × Museum. Photo by the author.

ThisNext concept to be discussed of right conduct are prints (or of pure the karma), Three Bodhisattvas a method of of spiritual the Three practice Stores, thatfeaturing involves the focusing heaven thestore mind bodhisattva and chanting (Divyagarbhah, the name of theK. BuddhaCheonjang to achieve bosal rebirth天慈觀觀 and enlightenment), the earth store at the bodhisattva same time, underlies the tradition of the dual practice of Seon 禪 (Ch. Chan, J. Zen) and Pure Land Buddhism.19 (Kṣitigarbha, K. Jiji bosal 受持觀觀), and the earth holder bodhisattva (also Kṣitigarbha, K. Jijang During the first half of the Joseon dynasty when different schools of Buddhism were merged under the Seonbosal school,持慈觀觀 the widespread) with their practicerespective of chanting followers. was It combinedappears that with paintings spiritual practiceas objects and of developed worship asshowing so-called the “chanting three bodhisattvas Seon 念佛 as禪 ”an (K. independent yeombulseon). icon20 firstIf the appeared meaning during of this the print Joseon is interpreted dynasty. inIn lightregard of to the their methods origin, of pictures spiritual of practice the Three at the Bo timedhisattvas and the of content the Three of the Stores written (K. prayerSamjang that bosal goes 三慈 with it, this print of Shortcut to Rebirth through Buddha Mindfulness was produced for chanting practice and mediation to achieve rebirth in the Pure Land. Judging by its size and the content of the inscription, 19 Chan jing shuang xiu 禪淨雙三 emerged after the Tang dynasty in China when Chan temples introduced it was likely hung up on the western wall, the direction of Amitabha’s Pure Land, while engaged in chanting into their spiritual practice and hence refers to combined meditation and chanting, which is the chanting practice. Therefore, it is presumed that Shortcut to Rebirth through Buddha Mindfulness, which practice method of Pure Land Buddhism. reflects20 (Lee 2014, trends p. 197). in faith at the time, was printed in large numbers and distributed to many people to encourage them to engage in chanting and meditation for spiritual practice. Moreover, the popularity of chanting Seon can be confirmed from the fact that, as previously mentioned, prints of Shortcut to Rebirth through Buddha Mindfulness with the same iconography as the abovementioned Ssanggyesa Temple print (the earliest example) continued to be made thereafter. The various prints of the same subject made afterwards at several other temples show slight differences in arrangement of the icons and the finer details but have the same basic composition featuring Amitabha preaching and the nine grades of rebirth. Next to be discussed are prints of the Three Bodhisattvas of the Three Stores, featuring the heaven store bodhisattva (Divyagarbhah, K. Cheonjang bosal 天藏菩薩), the earth store bodhisattva (Ks.itigarbha,

19 Chan jing shuang xiu 禪淨雙修 emerged after the Tang dynasty in China when Chan temples introduced chanting into their spiritual practice and hence refers to combined meditation and chanting, which is the practice method of Pure Land Buddhism. 20 (Lee 2014, p. 197). Religions 2020, 11, 647 13 of 20

K. Jiji bosal 持地菩薩), and the earth holder bodhisattva (also Ks.itigarbha, K. Jijang bosal 地藏菩薩) with their respective followers. It appears that paintings as objects of worship showing the three bodhisattvas as an independent icon first appeared during the Joseon dynasty. In regard to their origin, pictures of the Three Bodhisattvas of the Three Stores (K. Samjang bosal 三藏菩薩) were initially thought to have emerged as a reflection of the trikaya ideology (theory of the Buddha’s threefold bodies) and its expansion to belief in the three bodhisattvas who ruled the three realms. However, according to recent research, the origin of the Three Bodhisattvas of the Three Stores can be found in Suryukjae 水陸齋 ritual texts such as Suryuk mucha pyeongdeung jaeui chwaryo 水陸無遮平等齋儀撮要 from 1469 and Cheonji myeongyang suryukjaeui chanyo 天地冥陽水陸齋儀纂要 from 1470, where they are depicted on the middle altar of the rite.21 However, the argument has been raised that even prints and paintings of Three Bodhisattvas of the Three Stores thus produced show changes in iconography to reflect trends in faith.22 It is not known exactly when pictures of the three bodhisattvas were first produced. However, as the Joseon painting Three Bodhisattvas of the Three Stores dating to 1541 (preserved at Tamonji 多 聞寺Temple, Japan) has been handed down to the present, it seems they were produced at least by the first half of the sixteenth century. Moreover, “Record of Dosoram 兜率庵 Hermitage on Mt. Geumgangsan” (“Geumgangsan dosoramgi 金剛山兜率庵記”) from 1548 states that “When Hyujeong 休 靜 visited Dosoram on Mt. Geumgangsan he saw that an altar painting featuring the bodhisattvas Jiji-bosal [Ks.itigarbha, earth-store], Cheonjang-bosal [Divyagarbhah, heaven store] and Jijang [also Ks.itigarbha, earth holder] and twenty-four attendant devas and immortals hung on the Western wall”. This record confirms that in the mid-sixteenth century paintings of the three bodhisattvas of the three stores were enshrined in temple halls or hermitages.23 That the same iconography was also produced in prints around this time is evidenced by the print handed down at Hoeansa 會安寺 Temple in 1581 (Figure 10). This print shows Cheonjang-bosal sitting in the center flanked by Jiji-bosal and Jijang-bosal on the left and right, respectively, all of them sitting on high pedestals. Standing around them are countless followers. The iconography in this print reflects the transition from early paintings of the Three Bodhisattvas of the Three Stores, where their followers were not clearly identified, to the establishment of Jijang-bosal as ruler of hell beings, Cheonjang-bosal as ruler of devas and immortals, and Jiji-bosal as ruler of divinities. The Hoeansa print is, therefore, an important work that sheds light on the changing iconography of the Three Bodhisattvas of the Three Stores. The fact that pictures of the Three Bodhisattvas were carved onto woodblocks to be printed in mass quantities shows that belief in the Three Bodhisattvas had become widespread in the latter half of Joseon, influenced by the Suryukjae rites, which were frequently held on a private basis as a rite to guide souls of the dead to the next world. The popularity of the Three Bodhisattvas cult accompanying the popularity of Suryukjae is also confirmed by the concentrated production of pictures of the Three Bodhisattvas of the Three Stores during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, when temples were actively rebuilt and Buddhist paintings made in the aftermath of the Japanese invasion of Korea in 1592 and the Second Manchu invasion of Korea in 1636.

21 In Chinese ritual texts, the Suryukjae altar is divided into upper and lower altars, but, in Korean ritual texts, it is divided into upper, middle and lower altars. 22 For information regarding changes in iconography according to Suryukjae ritual texts, see (Park 2008, pp. 370–84); for information regarding changes in pictures of Samjang bosal according to Suryukjae ritual texts, see (Lee 2005, pp. 91–122); for information regarding changes in iconography reflecting trends in faith, see (Jeong 2013, pp. 140–44). 23 “Geumgangsan dosoramgi” 金剛山兜率庵記, Cheongheojip 淸虛集, Fascicle 3, Record 11 (Dongguk University Press 1979, p. 707). Religions 2020, 11, 647 14 of 20 Religions 2020, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 20

Figure 10. ThreeThree Bodhisattvas Bodhisattvas of of the the Three Stores (K. Samjang bosaldo ),), Woodblock carved at Hoeansa Temple, Joseon (1581), 46.046.0 × 50.0 cm, Private collection. Source: Source: (Gonggansa (Gonggansa 1979,1979, p. p. 42). 42). × Lastly, the DescentDescent ofof TejaprabhaTejaprabha BuddhaBuddha printprint mademade atat Ssanggyesa Ssanggyesa雙 雙雙慈溪寺 Temple Temple in in Eunjin Eunjin in 1580in 1580 (Figure (Figure 11) is11) another is another example example that reflects that reflects the forms the of forms Buddhist of Buddhist faith that faith were that popular were among popular the amongordinary the people. ordinary The people. imprint The at the imprint bottom at says the botto that them says printing that woodblockthe printing was woodblock carved at was Ssanggyesa carved 萬曆 atTemple Ssanggyesa on Mt. Temple Bulmyeongsan on Mt. inBulmyeongs Eunjin in thean eighthin Eunjin Mallyeok in the eighthyear Mallyeok (1580). Tejaprabha 萬萬 year Buddha (1580). (Buddha of blazing light, K. Chiseonggwang yeorae 熾盛光如來) pictures emerged as Buddhism was Tejaprabha Buddha (Buddha of blazing light, K. Chiseonggwang yeorae 淨淨普淨無) pictures syncretized with native folk beliefs. That they were also made in the form of single-sheet Buddhist emergedprints indicates as Buddhism the widespread was syncretized belief in with Chilseong native folk七星 beliefs., deification That they of the were Seven also Stars made (Big in the Dipper), form ofwith single-sheet Tejaprabha Buddhist at the center. prints As indicates a realistic the measure widespread to maintain belief in the Chilseong religious body七七, duringdeification the Joseonof the Sevendynasty, Stars when (Big the Dipper), ruling ideology with Tejaprabha shifted to Confucianism,at the center. theAs Buddhista realistic circle measure conducted to maintain varied ritesthe religiousto pray for body good during fortune the in Joseon this life dynasty, in response when to the the ruling demands ideology of the people.shifted 24to InConfucianism, relation to belief the Buddhistin the stars, circle rites conducted were held varied frequently rites to to pray Tejaprabha, for good the fortune Big Dipper in this life and in other response stars, to and the thedemands oldest ofextant the people. related24 ritual In relation text is Bukduchilseong to belief in the gongyangmun stars, rites were北斗 七held星供 frequently養文 (ritual to text Tejaprabha, for veneration the Big of Dipperthe Big and Dipper) other published stars, and at the Gwangheungsa oldest extant related廣興寺 ritualTemple text in is Andong. Bukduchilseong Moreover, gongyangmun the woodblock 北北 of a ritual text of the same title preserved at Gapsa 甲寺 Temple (Figure 12) confirms that a copy 七七象象文 (ritual text for veneration of the Big Dipper) published at Gwangheungsa 松永慈 from the same woodblocks was published at Ssanggyesa Temple in Eunjin in 1580.25 That is, the Templeabovementioned in Andong. print Moreover, Descent the of Tejaprabha woodblock Buddha of a ritual and text the of ritual the same text Bukduchilseong title preserved gongyangmun at Gapsa 甲 慈were Temple both published (Figure 12) at confirms the same that temple a copy in the from same theyear. same Consequently, woodblocks was it can published be presumed at Ssanggyesa that rites Templeto the constellations in Eunjin in 1580. were25 held That so is, often the abovementioned that the woodblocks print for Descent the ritual of Tejaprabha text were carved Buddha again andand the ritualthat prints text Bukduchilseong of the Descent gongyangmun of Tejaprabha were Buddha both would published have at been the madesame fortemple the distributionin the same toyear. the Consequently,many people taking it can part be inpresumed the rites. that rites to the constellations were held so often that the woodblocks for the ritual text were carved again and that prints of the Descent of Tejaprabha Buddha would have been made for the distribution to the many people taking part in the rites. 24 (Nam 2004, pp. 136–39). 25 (Kim 2018b, pp. 161–62).

24 (Nam 2004, pp. 136–39). 25 (Kim 2018b, pp. 161–62).

Religions 2020, 11, 647 15 of 20

Religions 2020, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 20

Figure 11. DescentDescent of of Tejaprabha Tejaprabha Buddha (K. Chiseonggwang yeorae gangnimdo ), Published at Ssanggyesa Temple, Eunjin,Eunjin, JoseonJoseon (1580),(1580), 83.083.0 × 39.5 cm,cm, Private collection. Photo by the author. ×

Figure 12. Ritual text for veneration of the Big Dipper (K. Bukduchilseong gongyangmun), Published at Figure 12. Ritual text for veneration of the Big Dipper (K. Bukduchilseong gongyangmun ), Published at Ssanggyesa Temple, Eunjin, Joseon (1580), 19.2 × 11.5 cm, Gapsa Temple. Source: (Park 1987, p. 179). Ssanggyesa Temple, Eunjin,Eunjin, JoseonJoseon (1580),(1580), 19.219.2 × 11.5 cm, Gapsa Temple. Source:Source: (Park (Park 1987,1987, p. 179). 179). × The Ssanggyesa Temple print of the Descent of Tejaprabha Buddha depicts the Buddha in the center descending on the clouds sitting in an ox-drawn cart, flanked by saints and attendant bodhisattvas. The twelve palaces (constellations) and the Big Dipper have been arranged in the upper

Religions 2020, 11, 647 16 of 20

The Ssanggyesa Temple print of the Descent of Tejaprabha Buddha depicts the Buddha in the center descending on the clouds sitting in an ox-drawn cart, flanked by saints and attendant bodhisattvas. The twelve palaces (constellations) and the Big Dipper have been arranged in the upper part of the picture and the twenty-eight mansions in three tiers in the lower part. When the Descent of Tejaprabha Buddha from Ssanggyesa Temple is compared with two earlier paintings of the same subject, one from the Goryeo dynasty in the collection of the Boston Museum of Fine Arts and a Joseon print made in 1569 and preserved at Korai 高麗 Museum in Kyoto, Japan (Figure 13), its overall structure is similar to the Joseon painting but the composition of the icons surrounding the Buddha and the order of the twelve palaces shows a connection with the Goryeo painting. In both of the earlier paintings, the twenty-eight mansions are arranged with seven each on the left and right sides of the Buddha and on the left and right sides of the bottom tier. The Ssanggyesa print, however, has them all arranged in three rows at the bottom, while Samtaeyukseong 三台六星 (six stars at the feet of the Big Bear constellation) and Namduyukseong 南斗六星 (six stars of the Southern Dipper), which are in the bottom tier of the other paintings, have been moved to the left and right. In the process of such change, some of the varied constellations were omitted and the number arrangement mixed up in the Ssanggyesa print. Of course, these changes can be regarded as iconographic stylization or simplification but they can also be interpreted in the context of the popularity of belief in Chilseong. That is, the changes are thought to be related to the shift in direction in Tejaprabha worship during the first half of the Joseon period from protection against natural disasters to prayers for longevity and health, thus resulting in a similar shift in object of worship to Chilseong, who controls life span and disease.26 Due to these trends in faith, the role of constellation deities in the Tejaprabha cult, aside from Tejaprabha, Chilseong, and the twenty-eight mansions, gradually weakened during the first half of Joseon. In the process, the artist monk who made the base drawing for the printing woodblocks may not have properly recognized stars such as Samtaeyukseong and Namduyukseong.

26 (Jeong 2017, pp. 118–20). Religions 2020, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 20 part of the picture and the twenty-eight mansions in three tiers in the lower part. When the Descent of Tejaprabha Buddha from Ssanggyesa Temple is compared with two earlier paintings of the same subject, one from the Goryeo dynasty in the collection of the Boston Museum of Fine Arts and a Joseon print made in 1569 and preserved at Korai 高高 Museum in Kyoto, Japan (Figure 13), its overall structure is similar to the Joseon painting but the composition of the icons surrounding the Buddha and the order of the twelve palaces shows a connection with the Goryeo painting. In both of the earlier paintings, the twenty-eight mansions are arranged with seven each on the left and right sides of the Buddha and on the left and right sides of the bottom tier. The Ssanggyesa print, however, has them all arranged in three rows at the bottom, while Samtaeyukseong 三三三七 (six stars at the feet of the Big Bear constellation) and Namduyukseong 南北南七 (six stars of the Southern Dipper), which are in the bottom tier of the other paintings, have been moved to the left and right. In the process of such change, some of the varied constellations were omitted and the number arrangement mixed up in the Ssanggyesa print. Of course, these changes can be regarded as iconographic stylization or simplification but they can also be interpreted in the context of the popularity of belief in Chilseong. That is, the changes are thought to be related to the shift in direction in Tejaprabha worship during the first half of the Joseon period from protection against natural disasters to prayers for longevity and health, thus resulting in a similar shift in object of worship to Chilseong, who controls life span and disease.26 Due to these trends in faith, the role of constellation deities in the Tejaprabha cult, aside from Tejaprabha, Chilseong, and the twenty-eight mansions, gradually weakened during the first half of Joseon. In the process, the artist monk who made the base drawing Religionsfor the 2020printing, 11, 647 woodblocks may not have properly recognized stars such as Samtaeyukseong17 ofand 20 Namduyukseong.

Figure 13. Descent of Tejaprabha Tejaprabha Buddha (K. Chiseonggwang yeorae gangnimdo), Joseon (1569), Ink and colors on hemp cloth, 84.8 × 66.1 cm, Korai Muse Museumum in Kyoto, Japan. Phot Photoo by by Utaek Utaek Jeong in 2003. × 4. Conclusions In the history of Buddhist printmaking, single-sheet prints were produced before prints inserted as sutra illustrations. Therefore, early single-sheet Buddhist prints that have been handed down are very26 (Jeong important 2017, pp. materials 118–20). not only in the history of printing but in terms of Buddhist iconography. Moreover, that the iconography of certain dharani or Buddhist paintings was carved onto woodblocks for mass printing reflected increased demand for such prints according to the popularity of cults related to certain icons. Hence, research on single-sheet Buddhist prints must be carried out not only in the field of Buddhist art history but also the history of Buddhism. However, despite the importance of the subject, the time and place of production and patron for single-sheet prints is in many cases unknown and related materials are scattered and not easily accessible. Consequently, for a long time no systematic research on single-sheet Buddhist prints was carried out. The turning point came when China began to publish compilations of Buddhist prints. In Korea, surveys were conducted on the number of printing woodblocks kept at temples and prints in private collections were made public. Based on these materials, this paper analyzed some of the major single-sheet Buddhist prints in terms of type and usage, and their content and significance. The results show that two major types of single-sheet Buddhist prints were made: dharani-type prints that served as talismans and prints that were used for worship or spiritual practice. It is thought that the former types were made for the purpose of self-protection through acceptance and maintenance of faith, or for enshrinement in a Buddhist statue for the protection of that statue and to seek good fortune or protection through the merit of doing so, or to express one’s will to protect the dharma. Extant prints of Pratisara Dharani (an incantation for wish fulfillment), made only for the deceased in China, confirm that the same beliefs and iconography were transmitted to the Goryeo dynasty. However, considering that the same dharani was frequently enshrined in Buddhist statues as a votive offering, we can guess that it took on expanded meaning in Korea. In addition, Dharani of the Buddha of Immeasurable Life has a picture of Amitabha in the Pure Land and Diagram of the Avatam. saka Single Vehicle Religions 2020, 11, 647 18 of 20

Dharmadhatu arranged in the center with various talismans and mantras arranged on both sides, and it is interesting to see how clearly this reflects the popularity of Three Gates Buddhist practice during the latter half of Joseon. The various talismans and mantras on either side of the pictures in the center, when considering the structure of the dharani which seems to be protecting the icons from the outside, suggest that the print was made for enshrinement “to protect the dharma, that is, a sacred object”. Buddhist prints made for worship and spiritual practice were generally used as visual aids in worship and chanting. They can be divided into those featuring icons universally loved throughout the ages such as Sakyamuni, Amitabha and Avalokitesvara, and those featuring icons reflecting the trends of certain periods. In the latter case, the prints were analyzed not only in relation to the favored Buddhist beliefs and methods of Buddhist spiritual practice but also the trends in faith among the ordinary people. For example, prints of Shortcut to Rebirth through Buddha Mindfulness gives us a glimpse at chanting Seon as a method of spiritual practice to achieve rebirth in the Pure Land. I also examined prints of the Three Bodhisattvas of the Three Stores, whose production was stimulated by the popularity of Suryukjae rites in the latter half of the Joseon period, and Descent of Tejaprabha Buddha, which reflect flourishing belief in the constellations, represented by the cult of Chilseong. From these works, it was possible to confirm that changes occurred in iconography according to trends in faith at different times.

Funding: This research received no external funding. Conflicts of Interest: The author declares no conflict of interest.

References

Primary Sources

Datang daci ensi sanzang fashi zhuan 大唐大慈恩寺三藏法師傳 Fascicle 6, Preserved at Chion-in Temple, Kyoto, Japan. Foshuo suiqiu jide dazizai tuoluoni shenzhou jing佛說隨求卽得大自在陀罹尼神呪經 Taisho¯ 20, no.1153. Geumgangsan dosoramgi 金剛山兜率庵記, Cheongheojip 淸虛集. Pubian guangming qing jing chisheng ruyi bao yin xin wu neng sheng da ming wang da sui qiu tuoluoni jing 普 遍光明淨熾盛如意寶印心無能勝大明王大隨求陀罹尼經 Taisho¯ 20, no.1154. Yuhu qinghua 玉壺淸話, Fascicle 5. Yunxian sanlu 雲仙散錄, Fascicle 5.

Secondary Sources

Central Buddhist Museum (佛敎中央博物館). 2014. Nirvana, the Ultimate Happiness. Yeolban, gungeukjeokui haengbok (涅槃, ÏãÎFG_ᅴ 'Ÿ4Ÿ¤). Seoul: Central Buddhist Museum. Copp, Paul. 2014. The Body Incantatory: Spells and the Ritual Imagination in Medieval Chinese Buddhism. New York: Columbia University Press. Dongguk University Academy of Buddhist Studies (1lx²DG@/ Ô¦“ᅭ†Æ<Õüt"é¶). 2017. Archives of Buddhist Culture Catalog of Old Buddhist Documents 1: Buddhist Documents of Wongaksa Temple (Ô¦“ᅭlᅵ2Ÿ¤ëHoÄ»íᆫß 아카sᅵÚÔ사\Oéᆫß “ᅩ ëH‰³ •¸2Ÿ¤ 1-"é¶yŒᆨ사_ᅴ Ô¦“ᅭëH‰³ ). Seoul: Dongguk University Academy of Buddhist Studies. Dongguk University Press (1lx²DG@/†Æ<“ᅭئóÍøÂÒ). 1979. Complete Works of Korean Buddhism. (韓國佛敎全書). Seoul: Dongguk University Press, vol. 7. Feng, Hanji (馮漢驥). 1957. Jitangyinben Tuoluoni Jingzhoude Fajian (記唐印本陀罹尼經呪的發見). Wenwu Cankao Ziliao (文物參考資料). Beijing: Zhonghua Renmin Gonghe Guo Wenhuabu Wenywuju Ziliaoshi (中華人民共 和國文化部文物局資料室). Gonggansa (空間社). 1979. Space (空間) 139. Seoul: Gonggansa. Jeong, Myeonghee (& "ñ îB). 2013. Study on Rites at the Three-level Altar and Buddhist Paintings in Buddhist Rituals of the Joseon Dynasty (Joseon sidae bulgyo uisikui samdanuirye wa bulhwa yeongu 朝鮮時代 佛敎 儀式_ᅴ 三壇儀禮ü< 佛畵 硏究). Ph.D. dissertation, Hongik University, Seoul, Korea. Religions 2020, 11, 647 19 of 20

Jeong, Jinhui (& ñ”B). 2017. Study on Belief in and Iconography of Chiseonggwang Buddha in the Joseon Dynasty (Hanguk chiseonggwan yeorae sinanggwa dosang yeongu 韓國 熾盛光如來 信仰õᅪ 圖像 硏究). Ph.D. dissertation, Dongguk University, Seoul, South Korea. Kikutake, Junichi, and Jeong Utaek. 1997. (菊竹淳一 & ñĺþט). Goryeo Dynasty Buddhist Paintings (Goryeo sidaeui · bulhwa 高麗時代_ᅴ 佛畵). Seoul: Sigongsa. Kim, Bomin (”^˜Ð). 2018a. Study on Goryeo Dynasty Pratisara Dharani: Focusing on Items Excavated from Buddhist Statues and Tombs (Goryeo sidae sugu tarani yeongu: Bulbokjang mit bunmyo chultopumeul jungsimeuro“ᅩ 9rᅵ@/ 隨求陀罹尼 ƒ½ᅮ: Ô¦4Ÿ¤ᆼ© 9 x ìr¬¹ ئžÐ¾¡§`¦æ הdܼ–Ð). Master’s dissertation, Myongji University, Seoul, South Korea. Kim, Jahyeon (Kim Jahyun). 2018b. “Sixteenth Century Single-leaf Woodblock Prints from the Ssanggyesa Temple in Eunjin” (Eunjin ssanggyesaui 16 segi danpok byeonsang panhwa yeongu 恩津 雙溪寺_ᅴ 16[jlᅵ 單幅變相版畵 硏 究). Misul sahak yeongu (pᅵÕüt사†Æƒ<½ᅮ) 300. Seoul: Hanguk misul sahakhoe (ôDzDGpᅵÕüt사†Æ<r), pp. 137–66. Kim, Jahyeon (Kim, Jahyun ”^자‰³&). 2017. Study on Early Joseon Buddhist Sutra Illustration Prints (Joseon jeongi bulgyo byeonsang panhwa yeongu朝鮮前期 佛敎變相版 硏究). Ph.D. dissertation, Dongguk University, Seoul, South Korea. Lee, Jongsu (sᅵ7áxú). 2010. Study of Later Joseon Spiritual Practice: Focusing on Three Gates Practice (Joseon hugi bulgyoui suhaeng chegye yeongu-sammun suhakeul jungsimeuro›¸‚Êêlᅵ Ô¦“ᅭ_ᅴ ú'Ÿ^‰>ᅨ ƒ½ᅮ- 三 門修學`¦æ הdܼ–Ð). Ph.D. dissertation, Dongguk University, Seoul, South Korea. Lee, Jongsu (sᅵ7áxú). 2015. “Background and Popularity of Later Joseon Avatamsaka Studies” (Joseon hugi hwaeomhakui yuhaenggwa geu baegyeong›¸‚Êêlᅵ o%3†Æ<_ᅴ Ä»'Ÿõᅪ ÕᅳC â). Korea Journal of Buddhist Studies (Ô¦“ᅭ†Æƒ<½ᅮ) 16: 59–82. Lee, Seung-hye (sᅵ5pxK†). 2018. “Visual Culture of Chinese Dharani Buried in Tombs: Focusing on Tang and Liao Dynasty Examples” (Jungguk myojang taraniui sigakmunhwa: Danggwa ryoui saryereul jungsimeuro×æ ²DG 墓葬 陀罹尼_ᅴ rᅵyŒᆨëHo: 唐õᅪ 遼_ᅴ 사YV\¦æ הdܼ–Ð). Korea Journal of Buddhist Studies (Ô¦“ᅭ†Æƒ<½ᅮ) 19: 283–316. Lee, Yongyun (sᅵ6 xîr). 2005. “Later Joseon Paintings of the Three Buddhas of the Three Stores and Suryukjae Ritual Texts”. (Joseon hugi samjang bosaldowa suryukjae uisikjip ›¸‚Êêlᅵ Œᆷᆼ©˜Ð¶úᆯ•¸ü< úµ¢¤F_ᅴ”d9|). Misul jaryo (pᅵÕüt자«Ñ) 72 73. Seoul: National Museum of Korea, pp. 91–122. · Lee, Yongyun (sᅵ6 xîr). 2014. Study of Later Joseon Buddhist Paintings and Monk Fraternities of the Yeongnam Region (Joseon hugi yeongnamui bulhwawa seungnyeomunjung yeongu›¸‚Êêlᅵ % òzŒᆷ_ᅴ Ô¦oü< 5px 9ëH×æ ƒ½ᅮ). Ph.D. dissertation, Hongik University, Seoul, South Korea. Li, Zhitan (李之檀 主編), ed. 2008. Complete Works of Chinese Prints (Zhongguo banhua quanji 中國版畵全集) 1. Beijing: Zijincheng Chubanshe (紫禁城出版社). Nam, Heesook (zŒᆷB¸nq). 2004. “Buddhist Ritual Proceedings During the Late Joseon Dynasty” (16-18 segi bulgyo uisikjipui ganhaenggwa bulgyo daejunghwa 16-18[jlᅵ 佛敎儀式集_ᅴçᆫߝ'Ÿõᅪ 佛敎大衆化). Hanguk munhwa(ôDzDG ëHo) 24. Seoul: Kyuganggak hanguk munhwa yeonguso (½ᅲᆼyŒᆨô© DzDGëHoƒ½ᅮ™è), pp. 97–165. National Folk Museum of Korea (²DGnw5Åq~ÃÌÓüt›a'). 2016. Flower of the Printing Culture: Ancient Woodblock Prints (Insoe munhwaui kkot, gopanhwa“WëHo_ᅴ 1gP, “ᅩóÍoø ). Seoul: National Folk Museum of Korea. Park, Eungyeong (~Ã̓Ér â). 2008. Study on Buddhist Painting of the First Half of the Joseon Dynasty (Joseon jeongi bulhwa yeongu ›¸‚„lᅵ Ô¦oƒ½ᅮ). Seoul: Sigong Art. Park, Sangguk (~ÃÌᆼ©²DG), ed. 1987. Catalog of Woodblock Prints in Korean Temples (Jeonguk sachal sojang mokpanjip 全國 寺刹所藏木板集). Seoul: Bureau of Cultural Properties (ëHoF›a'oᅵ²DG). Research Institute of Buddhist Cultural Heritage (Ô¦“ᅭëHoFƒ½ᅮ™è). 2009. Wooden Seated Avalokitesvara of Bogwangsa Temple in Andong (Andong bogwangsa mokjo gwaneumbosal jwasangîᆫß1lx ˜ÐFg 사 3lq›¸›a'6£§˜Ð¶úᆯýa ᆼ©). Seoul: Cultural Heritage Administration and Research Institute of Buddhist Cultural Heritage (ëHoF 'Aõ (F)Ô¦“ᅭëHoFƒ½ᅮ™è). · Research Institute of Buddhist Cultural Heritage (Ô¦“ᅭëHoFƒ½ᅮ™è). 2015. Buddhist Cultural Heritage of Korean Temples: 2014 Survey of Korean Temple Printing Woodblocks 2 (Hangukui sachal munhwajae-2014 jeonguk sachal mokpan iljejosaôDzDG_ᅴ 사¹Ï1 ëHoF-2014 „²DG 사¹Ï13lqóÍø 9{]j›¸사). Seoul: Research Institute of Buddhist Cultural Heritage. Song, Ilgi (5Åx9{lᅵ). 2004. “Study on Books Enshrined in the Wooden Seated Amitabha of Jaunsa Temple in Gwangju” (Gwangju jaunsa amitabul jwasangui bokjang jeonjeokgo光州 紫雲寺 木造阿彌陀佛坐像_ᅴ 腹藏典籍考). Seoji hakbo ("ftᅵ†Æ<˜Ð) 28. Seoul: Hanguk seoji hakhoe (ôDzDG"ftᅵ†Æ<r), pp. 79–114. Religions 2020, 11, 647 20 of 20

Sudeoksa Museum (úü 사 H%i$ í˜Ð›a'). 2004. Turning to the Buddha with a True Heart - Special Exhibition of Buddhist Enshrined Votive Offerings (Jisim gwimyeongrye-hanguk bulbokjang teukbyeoljeon至心歸命禮- 韓國佛腹藏 特別 展). Sacheon-ri: Sudeoksa Museum. Uiduk University Press (0Aü @/†Æ<“ᅭ ئóÍøÂÒ). 2004. Korean Traditional Dharani (Hangukui jeontong tarani 韓國_ᅴ 傳 統陀罹尼). Gyeongju: Uiduk University Press. Weng, Lianxi, and Li Hongbo, eds. 2014. (翁連溪,李洪波 主編). Complete Works of Chinese Buddhist Prints (Zhongguo fojiao banhua quanji 中國佛敎版畵全集[全83冊]). Beijing: Zhongguo shudian (中國書店).

Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

© 2020 by the author. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).