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University of Nebraska - Lincoln DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln

Geography Faculty Publications Geography Program (SNR)

2010

The Geography of Buddhist in Asia

Robert Stoddard University of Nebraska - Lincoln, [email protected]

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Stoddard, Robert, "The Geography of Buddhist Pilgrimage in Asia" (2010). Geography Faculty Publications. 27. https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/geographyfacpub/27

This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Geography Program (SNR) at DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln. It has been accepted for inclusion in Geography Faculty Publications by an authorized administrator of DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln. Published in Pilgrimage and , ed. Adriana Proser (New Haven & London: Asia Society/Yale University Press, 2010), pp. 2-4, 178. Copyright © 2010 Robert H. Stoddard.

The Geography of Buddhist Pilgrimage in Asia

Robert H. Stoddard

A pilgrimage is a journey to a sacred place motivated by reli- where a religious leader was born, delivered spiritual guid- gious devotion. Although the term may be applied to a med- ance, or died. may also occur at locations sancti- itative search for new spiritual experiences, prolonged wan- fied—according to the of devotees—by miracles derings, or travel to a place of nostalgic meaning for an and similar divine phenomena. In some , the impor- individual, here the word refers to the physical journey to a tance of particular places is enhanced by doctrines that obli- distant site regarded as holy. As defined in this essay, - gate adherents to make pilgrimages to designated sites. age excludes local and family places of worship; therefore the The sanctity of particular sites also may result from their spatial component of distance is critical. geometric position within the cosmos. In several religions, a Throughout the and in numerous faiths, pilgrimages compelling attraction arises from the that there is an axis differ from other forms of worship because of the empha- mundi (cosmic axis; center of the world), which forms the fo- sis on the unique roles of movement and place. Most other cus of a religious universe. Within the territory of many ancient religious activities are located conveniently in the home and civilizations, the precise geographic location of the “center of neighborhood, and thus are situated in close proximity to the universe” was regarded as a place of great spiritual bene- where people reside. This spatial proximity adheres to a com- fits. Similarly, the concept of a cosmic superimposed mon geographic principle: phenomena having interacting func- on the creates a place of sanctity at its central position. tions are located close together. In contrast, pilgrimages oc- The mandala, which is probably the quintessential union cur because worshippers feel obligated to travel to particular of the Buddhist with art, represents the universe sites of sanctity, irrespective of their locations. In fact, within through its geometric design, religious symbols, and use of certain religious traditions, the act of visiting a nearby pilgrim- color. Painted frequently are small because they are age site is regarded as having less spiritual than that of kept in homes and at local public . Within several reli- undergoing the hardships of travel to a remote holy place. gious traditions and on a different scale, the mandala is the in- The role of movement as a form of worship is demonstrated spiration for the architecture of and the arrangement further by religious processions and circumambulations; con- of buildings around a sacred site in a town, thus creating a sa- sequently, the journey to a pilgrimage site may possess more cred geography.2 When the mandala is visualized as encom- significance than mundane travel to a distant destination. passing a region (or even the entire universe), the focal cen- want to be present at sacred places deemed to ter marks an extraordinarily sacred place. have extraordinary spiritual significance because those sites Still other pilgrimage sites evolve from continual growth are uniquely different from the secular world. This dissimilar- in the number of worshippers. A place that once may have at- ity may arise from a variety of religious perspectives. Some tracted only regional pilgrims sometimes increases in impor- places are regarded as particularly auspicious because they tance through the spreading of its reputation. This increased are sites where communication with the divine is particularly popularity, in turn, convinces other adherents of the sacred- accessible.1 Adherents of several religions believe that hu- ness of the place, a process that eventually creates a pilgrim- mans can experience direct interaction with the divine only age site of considerable importance. at a few spots on the earth’s surface. Frequently these are lo- A pilgrimage generally consists of four components: prep- cated at distinctive topographic sites, such as mountaintops, aration for the sacred journey, the journey itself, adoration at hot springs, or natural caves. the sanctified site, and return to the mundane setting. Each Pilgrims may be attracted to other places that commem- component may inspire tangible artistic expressions. In an- orate events of supreme spirituality, especially those sites ticipating and preparing for the journey, pilgrims may ob-

2 T h e G e o g r a p h y o f B u d d h i s t P i l g r i m a g e i n A s i a 3 tain embellished maps and manuscripts describing the route The importance of various holy sites is related also to and brochures promoting the virtues of a specific pilgrimage. their cultural settings. Despite the belief in gaining great merit Often associated with the actual travel are amulets, special by undertaking a long journey to a sacred site, the somewhat dress, and distinctive equipment (e.g., a portable , prayer contradictory geographic principle of proximity remains op- wheel, or box of religious items). The sacred site itself may be erative. The importance of nearness is demonstrated by the adorned with awe-inspiring architecture, statuary, wood and tendency of pilgrims to visit places within their own cultural stone carvings, paintings, prayer flags, textiles, gardens, pre- regions more frequently than those elsewhere. This regional cious objects of veneration, and various votive offerings. Items variation is due to an awareness of nearby locations, the so- brought back home may include an assortment of reliquaries cializing impact of family and friends, and the ease of accom- and mementos commemorating the sacred journey. plishing a less ambitious journey. For example, (in It is not surprising that objects with artistic merit are as- ), the (in ), and the Temple of the sociated with pilgrimages. For many believers, the accom- Tooth (in ) enjoy greater visitation by pilgrims living plishment of an extraordinary journey represents the zenith within those cultural settings than by others from the world- of their religious experiences and virtually compels a mate- wide Buddhist community. rialization of the feat. Thus, in all phases of pilgrimage, the in- As mentioned above, the four most holy places for Bud- centive for commemorating this momentous event inspires dhists are in South Asia: , where the was born; art, ranging from mass-produced mementos to extraordinary , where he gained enlightenment; , where he works of fine art. Conversely, the desire to be in the presence pronounced his first teachings; and Kushinagara, where he died of awe-inspiring religious art may provide motivation for wor- and attained final (see “Map of Asia: Selected Buddhist shippers to make a difficult journey. Pilgrimage Sites”). As a result, Buddhists from around the world Obviously the correlation between pilgrimages and artistic journey—sometimes several times—to these four holy sites. objects is not perfect: the finest art may not necessarily gen- It is not known when the earliest pilgrimages to Lumbini erate pilgrimages, and some major holy places may be void occurred, but the rock pillar and several (reliquary or of numerous works of art. For example, in the case of Bud- commemorative mounds) erected by in the third cen- dhism, several important pilgrimage places are not associated tury BCE provide an indication of the site’s antiquity. Few pil- with outstanding architecture, , or paintings. Con- grims visited the site after the , but during the last versely, several places listed by UNESCO as World Heritage half century, increased development has made Lumbini a place Sites possess fine art, which may entice tourists in general but of international importance for Buddhist pilgrims. not necessarily large numbers of religious pilgrims (as dem- As the site where the Buddha attained enlightenment, onstrated by in Indonesia and Ajanta in ). Bodh Gaya is a highly revered place attracting multitudes of A meaningful discussion about Buddhist pilgrimages (as pilgrims. The seminal event occurred in the shade of a p/pa/ with pilgrimages in other religions) depends partly on an (called the ), a major destination for pilgrims. identification of which places are most sacred, and which thus Commemorating this sacred place is the , constitute major destinations.3 In addition to the inherent with its several statues. Those sculpted in local black stone problem of measuring sanctity, complications arise from dif- by Gupta artists in the fourth through sixth centuries are sig- ferences in historical periods, doctrinal variations, and chang- nificant, but a particularly famous statue of the Buddha dates ing cultural milieus. from the Pala dynasty (8th–12th century). Also within this The temporal factor is apparent in the changing signifi- temple are many tsha-tsha, figurines or miniature stupas made cance of certain sites during the long history of . from clay. Additional ornamentation is seen in the sandstone Several places relating to the Buddha’s life attracted pilgrims railings that line the circumambulation path, some of which in early days, especially during the rule of the Indian emperor date to the first century BCE. Ashoka (3rd century BCE), but were neglected later. Further- Sarnath, the place where the Buddha first taught the path more, the spatial distribution of pilgrimage sites during early to enlightenment, is revered because the concept of the Three periods reflects the spread of Buddhism over several centu- Jewels of Buddhism-the Buddha, the (the teachings ries. From its original core in the northern portion of South and doctrines of the religion), and the (the commu- Asia, Buddhism spread to China in about the third century, to nity that practices the path to enlightenment—was first pro- in the fourth, to in the sixth, to Tibet4 in the sev- mulgated there. The most famous artwork linked to this site enth, and to in the sixteenth. Meanwhile, Buddhism is the “lion capital” (ca. 250 BCE), which depicts lions facing also expanded to Sri Lanka, /Burma, , Cam- the four directions over a Dharma wheel (). In bodia, , and . addition to ancient ruins, in the 1930s two new temples were The task of identifying major Buddhist pilgrimage sites is constructed: the modern Mulagandhakuti , which con- further complicated by variations in interpretation and de- tains decorative wall frescos painted by a Japanese artist; and velopment of the religion. Although all Buddhists regard Lum- a temple built by Chinese craftsmen that houses a marble im- bini, Bodh Gaya, Sarnath, and Kushinagara as the principal holy age of the Buddha. places (as discussed below), the secondary sites vary among Kushinagara is where the Buddha died and entered final the , , and schools of thought.5 nirvana (). After the thirteenth century Kushinag- 4 R . S t o d d a r d i n P i l g r i m a g e a n d B u d d h i s t A r t ( 2 0 1 0 ) ara fell into obscurity until the British archaeologist Alexan- Mahayana Buddhism is the branch that spread to China in der Cunningham rediscovered it in 1861. The destination of the first century (and thence to Japan and Korea). In China, contemporary pilgrims is the Mahaparinirvana , along numerous places attract pilgrims, but special attention is given with the nearby fifteen-hundred- year-old Buddha image. This to the Four Sacred of Buddhism: Mount Emei, stupa is surrounded by ruins of ancient and simi- , , and . Mount Emei, lar archaeological structures. the location of the first in China, is the site Four additional sites traditionally related to the life of of many monasteries built in an architectural style that emu- the Buddha—Rajagrha, , , and Sankasya—are lates the landscape. Of special note at Mount Putuo are three places where he performed miracles. Generally these places major temples, which are most impressive and elaborate. The are not known for unique artistic artifacts, except for the efficacy of this religious site is demonstrated by the fact that ubiquitous Buddhist monument: the stupa. Invariably a stupa pilgrims spend several days walking and climbing the long path exists at every Buddhist pilgrimage site, although their forms to reach it. Grand, centuries-old temples with exquisite archi- may vary depending on age, size, and cultural region (which tecture are found on other mountaintops as well. may also dictate different names, such as dagoba and ). Among the several circuits of holy sites in Japan, the pil- Some of the more famous stupas in South Asia are at grimage to eighty-eight temples along the coast of Shikoku (India), (), and (Sri Lanka). (the smallest of Japan’s four main islands) is regarded as most Outside the homeland of the Buddha in northern India are important. The religious motivation for pilgrims on this route sites sacred to each of the main branches of Buddhism. Ther- is apparent, because these temples, built to serve the com- avada Buddhism is represented by several pilgrimage places mon person, lack some of the artistry of other, more elegant in Sri Lanka. In the vicinity of Anuradhapura are nearly half Japanese temples; furthermore, walking this circular pilgrim- of the country’s sixteen Buddhist holy places (the solosmast- age usually takes between forty and fifty days. hana), including Sri Maha Bodhiya, (commonly This brief discussion omits numerous other holy sites called Maha Stupa), and Abhayagiri Vihara (containing a - (for example, a significant place of pilgrimage in Myanmar, the leafed Tripitaka, the canon of Theravada scriptures). Shwedagon Pagoda); nevertheless, those included reveal sev- Two other very popular pilgrimage places in Sri Lanka eral general characteristics of the pilgrimage phenomenon. are the aforementioned in , and Devotees are attracted to specific places having extraordi- . The interior of the Temple of the Tooth is richly nary spiritual power and are committed to visiting those sites carved and decorated with inlaid woods, ivory, and lacquer; despite the hardships associated with travel to distant places. the temple is surrounded by a delicately carved stone wall. Indeed, for some pilgrims, the geographic act of movement it- Kataragama is noteworthy because, as with several other pil- self is inherently a form of worship and an inspiration for art. grimage sites in Asia, it is sacred to more than one religion (in In turn, existing artistic objects at holy sites often serve as this case, as well as Buddhism). magnets that attract pilgrims. Premier pilgrimage places for Vajrayana Buddhism com- prise three located in Tibet: the Jokhang Temple, the , and . The Jokhang, which blends In- Notes dian, Nepalese, and Chinese architectural styles, houses sev- 1. , The Sacred and the Profane: The Nature of Religion. eral decorated shrines and a venerated statue of Shakyamuni, New York, 1955. the historical Buddha; on the roof, statues of two golden deer 2. J. T. MacFadyen and J. W. Vogt, “The Is a Mandala: Bhaktapur,” flank a Dharma wheel. The gigantic, thirteen-story Potala con- Ekistics 44 (1977), 309-12. tains over one thousand rooms, ten thousand shrines, and 3. R. H. Stoddard, “Major Pilgrimage Places in the World,” in Pilgrim- two hundred thousand statues. It is situated on top of one age in the Old and New World, ed. S. M. Bhardwaj, G. Rinschede, of the three hills—the Three Protectors of Tibet—that sur- and A. Sievers. Berlin, 1994; pp. 17-36. round . In the western part of the Tibetan cultural re- 4. Here the name “Tibet” refers to a cultural region, not necessar- gion, Mount Kailash, regarded as the of the world, ily to a political entity. Consequently, belongs to the Ti- is holy to Buddhism, Hinduism, , and the early re- betan region. 5. In general, Mahayana Buddhism is practiced in East Asia; Theravada, ligion. It represents the pilgrimage site par excellence, partly in Southeast Asia; and Vajrayana, in Central Asia. For a discussion because its isolated location requires extraordinary effort to of the main principles and differences between these schools visit. Another noteworthy Vajrayana Buddhist pilgrimage place of thought, see Roger W. Stump, The Geography of Religion: Faith, is the spectacularly situated Taktsang in Bhutan. Place, and Space, Lanham, MD, 2008; pp. 133-51.