University of Nebraska - Lincoln DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln Geography Faculty Publications Geography Program (SNR) 2010 The Geography of Buddhist Pilgrimage in Asia Robert Stoddard University of Nebraska - Lincoln, [email protected] Follow this and additional works at: https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/geographyfacpub Part of the Geography Commons Stoddard, Robert, "The Geography of Buddhist Pilgrimage in Asia" (2010). Geography Faculty Publications. 27. https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/geographyfacpub/27 This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Geography Program (SNR) at DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln. It has been accepted for inclusion in Geography Faculty Publications by an authorized administrator of DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln. Published in Pilgrimage and Buddhist Art, ed. Adriana Proser (New Haven & London: Asia Society/Yale University Press, 2010), pp. 2-4, 178. Copyright © 2010 Robert H. Stoddard. The Geography of Buddhist Pilgrimage in Asia Robert H. Stoddard A pilgrimage is a journey to a sacred place motivated by reli- where a religious leader was born, delivered spiritual guid- gious devotion. Although the term may be applied to a med- ance, or died. Pilgrimages may also occur at locations sancti- itative search for new spiritual experiences, prolonged wan- fied—according to the worldview of devotees—by miracles derings, or travel to a place of nostalgic meaning for an and similar divine phenomena. In some religions, the impor- individual, here the word refers to the physical journey to a tance of particular places is enhanced by doctrines that obli- distant site regarded as holy. As defined in this essay, pilgrim- gate adherents to make pilgrimages to designated sites. age excludes local and family places of worship; therefore the The sanctity of particular sites also may result from their spatial component of distance is critical. geometric position within the cosmos. In several religions, a Throughout the world and in numerous faiths, pilgrimages compelling attraction arises from the belief that there is an axis differ from other forms of worship because of the empha- mundi (cosmic axis; center of the world), which forms the fo- sis on the unique roles of movement and place. Most other cus of a religious universe. Within the territory of many ancient religious activities are located conveniently in the home and civilizations, the precise geographic location of the “center of neighborhood, and thus are situated in close proximity to the universe” was regarded as a place of great spiritual bene- where people reside. This spatial proximity adheres to a com- fits. Similarly, the concept of a cosmic mandala superimposed mon geographic principle: phenomena having interacting func- on the earth creates a place of sanctity at its central position. tions are located close together. In contrast, pilgrimages oc- The mandala, which is probably the quintessential union cur because worshippers feel obligated to travel to particular of the Buddhist religion with art, represents the universe sites of sanctity, irrespective of their locations. In fact, within through its geometric design, religious symbols, and use of certain religious traditions, the act of visiting a nearby pilgrim- color. Painted mandalas frequently are small because they are age site is regarded as having less spiritual merit than that of kept in homes and at local public altars. Within several reli- undergoing the hardships of travel to a remote holy place. gious traditions and on a different scale, the mandala is the in- The role of movement as a form of worship is demonstrated spiration for the architecture of temples and the arrangement further by religious processions and circumambulations; con- of buildings around a sacred site in a town, thus creating a sa- sequently, the journey to a pilgrimage site may possess more cred geography.2 When the mandala is visualized as encom- significance than mundane travel to a distant destination. passing a region (or even the entire universe), the focal cen- Pilgrims want to be present at sacred places deemed to ter marks an extraordinarily sacred place. have extraordinary spiritual significance because those sites Still other pilgrimage sites evolve from continual growth are uniquely different from the secular world. This dissimilar- in the number of worshippers. A place that once may have at- ity may arise from a variety of religious perspectives. Some tracted only regional pilgrims sometimes increases in impor- places are regarded as particularly auspicious because they tance through the spreading of its reputation. This increased are sites where communication with the divine is particularly popularity, in turn, convinces other adherents of the sacred- accessible.1 Adherents of several religions believe that hu- ness of the place, a process that eventually creates a pilgrim- mans can experience direct interaction with the divine only age site of considerable importance. at a few spots on the earth’s surface. Frequently these are lo- A pilgrimage generally consists of four components: prep- cated at distinctive topographic sites, such as mountaintops, aration for the sacred journey, the journey itself, adoration at hot springs, or natural caves. the sanctified site, and return to the mundane setting. Each Pilgrims may be attracted to other places that commem- component may inspire tangible artistic expressions. In an- orate events of supreme spirituality, especially those sites ticipating and preparing for the journey, pilgrims may ob- 2 T HE G EO G RAPHY OF B UDDHIS T P IL G RIMA G E IN A SIA 3 tain embellished maps and manuscripts describing the route The importance of various holy sites is related also to and brochures promoting the virtues of a specific pilgrimage. their cultural settings. Despite the belief in gaining great merit Often associated with the actual travel are amulets, special by undertaking a long journey to a sacred site, the somewhat dress, and distinctive equipment (e.g., a portable altar, prayer contradictory geographic principle of proximity remains op- wheel, or box of religious items). The sacred site itself may be erative. The importance of nearness is demonstrated by the adorned with awe-inspiring architecture, statuary, wood and tendency of pilgrims to visit places within their own cultural stone carvings, paintings, prayer flags, textiles, gardens, pre- regions more frequently than those elsewhere. This regional cious objects of veneration, and various votive offerings. Items variation is due to an awareness of nearby locations, the so- brought back home may include an assortment of reliquaries cializing impact of family and friends, and the ease of accom- and mementos commemorating the sacred journey. plishing a less ambitious journey. For example, Mount Emei (in It is not surprising that objects with artistic merit are as- China), the Jokhang Temple (in Tibet), and the Temple of the sociated with pilgrimages. For many believers, the accom- Tooth (in Sri Lanka) enjoy greater visitation by pilgrims living plishment of an extraordinary journey represents the zenith within those cultural settings than by others from the world- of their religious experiences and virtually compels a mate- wide Buddhist community. rialization of the feat. Thus, in all phases of pilgrimage, the in- As mentioned above, the four most holy places for Bud- centive for commemorating this momentous event inspires dhists are in South Asia: Lumbini, where the Buddha was born; art, ranging from mass-produced mementos to extraordinary Bodh Gaya, where he gained enlightenment; Sarnath, where he works of fine art. Conversely, the desire to be in the presence pronounced his first teachings; and Kushinagara, where he died of awe-inspiring religious art may provide motivation for wor- and attained final nirvana (see “Map of Asia: Selected Buddhist shippers to make a difficult journey. Pilgrimage Sites”). As a result, Buddhists from around the world Obviously the correlation between pilgrimages and artistic journey—sometimes several times—to these four holy sites. objects is not perfect: the finest art may not necessarily gen- It is not known when the earliest pilgrimages to Lumbini erate pilgrimages, and some major holy places may be void occurred, but the rock pillar and several stupas (reliquary or of numerous works of art. For example, in the case of Bud- commemorative mounds) erected by Ashoka in the third cen- dhism, several important pilgrimage places are not associated tury BCE provide an indication of the site’s antiquity. Few pil- with outstanding architecture, sculptures, or paintings. Con- grims visited the site after the early period, but during the last versely, several places listed by UNESCO as World Heritage half century, increased development has made Lumbini a place Sites possess fine art, which may entice tourists in general but of international importance for Buddhist pilgrims. not necessarily large numbers of religious pilgrims (as dem- As the site where the Buddha attained enlightenment, onstrated by Borobudur in Indonesia and Ajanta in India). Bodh Gaya is a highly revered place attracting multitudes of A meaningful discussion about Buddhist pilgrimages (as pilgrims. The seminal event occurred in the shade of a p/pa/ with pilgrimages in other religions) depends partly on an tree (called the Bodhi Tree), a major destination for pilgrims. identification of which places are most sacred, and which thus Commemorating this