About this Guide

This guide is designed to prepare you to achieve mission objectives while deployed to culturally complex environments. The fundamental information it provides will help you understand the cultural dimension of your assigned location and gain skills necessary for success. The guide consists of 2 parts: Part 1 introduces “Culture ECFG General,” the foundational knowledge you need to operate effectively in any global environment with a focus on the Arab Gulf States. NOTE: While the term Persian Gulf is common in the US, this guide uses the name preferred in the region, the Iraq Arabian Gulf. Part 2 presents “Culture Specific” Iraq, focusing on unique cultural features of Iraqi society. It applies culture-general concepts to help increase your knowledge of your assigned deployment location and is designed to complement other pre-deployment training. For further information, visit the Air Force Culture and Language Center (AFCLC) website at www.airuniversity.af.edu/AFCLC/ or contact the AFCLC Region Team at [email protected]. Disclaimer: All text is the property of the AFCLC and may not be modified by a change in title, content, or labeling. It may be reproduced in its current format with the express permission of the AFCLC. All photography is provided as a courtesy of the US government, Wikimedia, and other sources. GENERAL CULTURE PART 1 – CULTURE GENERAL

What is Culture? Fundamental to all aspects of human existence, culture shapes the way humans view life and functions as a tool we use to adapt to our social and physical environments. A culture is the sum of all of the beliefs, values, behaviors, and symbols that have meaning for a society. All human beings have culture, and individuals within a culture share a general set of beliefs and values. Members of a culture also usually assign the same meanings to the symbols in that culture. A symbol is when one thing – an image, word, object, idea, or story – represents another thing. For example, the American flag is a physical and visual symbol of a core American value—freedom. At the same time, the story of George Washington admitting to having chopped down a cherry tree is also symbolic because it represents the premium Americans place on personal honesty and leadership integrity (Photo: US and Royal Oman Air Force personnel following a training flight). Force Multiplier The military services have learned through experience the importance of understanding other cultures. Unlike the 20th- century bipolar world order that dominated US strategy for nearly half a century, today the US military is operating in what we classify as asymmetric or irregular conflict zones, where the notion of cross-cultural interactions is on the leading edge of our engagement strategies. We have come to view the people themselves, rather than the political system or physical environment, as the decisive feature in conflict areas. Our primary objective hinges on influencing constructive change through peaceful means where possible. We achieve this endeavor by encouraging local nationals to focus on developing stable political, social, and economic institutions that reflect their cultural beliefs and traditions. Therefore, understanding the basic concepts of culture serves as a force multiplier. Achieving an awareness and respect of a society’s values and beliefs enables deploying forces to build relationships with people from other cultures, positively influence their actions, and ultimately achieve mission success. Cultural Domains Culture is not just represented by the beliefs we carry internally, but also by our behaviors and by the systems members of a culture create to organize their lives. These systems, such as political or educational institutions, help us to live in a manner that is appropriate to our culture and encourages us to perpetuate that culture into the future. We can organize behaviors and systems into categories—what the Air Force refers to as “cultural domains”—in order to better understand the primary values and characteristics of a society. A cross-culturally competent military member can use these domains–which include kinship, language and communication, and social and political systems and others (see chart on next page)—as tools for understanding and adapting to any culture. For example, by understanding the way a culture defines family and kinship, a US military member operating overseas can more effectively interact with members of that culture (Photo: Muslim pilgrims visit Ka’aba, Islam’s holiest site, in Mecca, Saudi Arabia). Social Behaviors across Cultures While humankind shares basic behaviors, various groups enact GENERAL or even group those behaviors differently across cultural CULTURE boundaries. For example, all societies obtain food for survival, although agrarian societies generally produce their own food for

limited consumption using very basic techniques. GENERAL Conversely, industrialized nations have more complex market CULTURE economies, producing foodstuffs for universal consumption. Likewise, all cultures value history and tradition, although they represent these concepts through a variety of unique forms of symbolism. While the dominant world religions share the belief in one God, their worship practices vary with their traditional historical development. Similarly, in many kin-based cultures where familial bonds are foundational to social identity, it is customary for family or friends to serve as godparents, while for other societies this practice is nearly non-existent. Worldview One of our most basic human behaviors is the tendency to classify others as similar or different based on our cultural standards. As depicted in the chart below, we can apply the 12 cultural domains to help us compare similarities and differences across cultures. We evaluate others’ behavior to determine if they are “people like me” or “people not like me.” Usually, we assume that those in the “like me” category share our perspectives and values.

This collective perspective forms our worldview—how we see the world and understand our place in it. Your worldview functions as a lens through which you see and understand the world. It helps you to interpret your experiences and the values and behaviors of other people that you encounter. Consider your worldview as a way of framing behavior, providing an accountability standard for actions and a logical explanation of why we individually or collectively act in a certain manner. Cultural Belief System An important component of a worldview is our belief system. A community’s belief system assigns meaning, sets its universal standards of what is good and bad, defines right and wrong behavior, and assigns a value of meaningful or meaningless. Our beliefs form the fundamental values we hold to be true— regardless of whether there is evidence to support these ideas. Beliefs are a central aspect of human culture. They are shared views about world order and how the universe was physically and socially constructed. While all people have beliefs, their specific components tend to vary depending upon respective world views. What people classify as good or bad, right or wrong depends on our deeply- held beliefs we started developing early in life that have helped shape our characters. Likewise, these values are ingrained in our personalities and shape our behavior patterns and our self- identities. Because cultural beliefs are intensely held, they are difficult, though not impossible, to change. Core Beliefs Core beliefs shape and influence certain behaviors and also serve to rationalize those behaviors. Therefore, knowledge of individual or group beliefs can be useful in comprehending or making sense of their activities. We will use the iceberg model for classifying culture to illustrate two levels of meaning, as depicted. Beliefs and values, portrayed by the deeper and greater level of the submerged GENERAL iceberg, are seldom visible, but are indicated / hinted at / CULTURE referenced by our behaviors and symbols (top level). It is important to recognize, though, that the parts of culture that are

GENERAL not visible (under the waterline) are informing and shaping what CULTURE is being made visible (above the waterline). In many cases, different worldviews may present behaviors that are contrary to our own beliefs, particularly in many regions where US forces deploy. Your ability to suspend judgment in order to understand another perspective is essential to establishing relationships with your host-nation counterparts. The ability to withhold your opinion and strive to understand a culture from a member of that culture’s perspective is known as cultural relativism. It often involves taking an alternate perspective when interpreting others’ behaviors and is critical to your ability to achieve mission success (Photo: US and Kuwait Navy personnel). As you travel through the Arab Gulf States, you will encounter cultural patterns of meaning that are common across the region. What follows is a general description of 12 cultural domains which are used to frame those commonalities.

CULTURAL DOMAINS

1. History and Myth History and myth are related concepts. History is a record of the past that is based on verifiable facts and events. Myth can act as a type of historical record, although it is usually a story which members of a culture use to explain community origins or important events that are not verifiable or which occurred prior to written language. The Arab Gulf States comprise 7 countries that border the Arabian Gulf: Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, Qatar, the United Arab Emirates (UAE), and Oman. Scientists believe that the southern Gulf region was once home to early humans who established permanent settlements as many as 125,000 years ago. In the region’s north, the favorable soil and climate conditions of Mesopotamia (present day Syria and Iraq) allowed people to settle, farm the land, create irrigation systems, build structures, and establish towns beginning around 6200 BC (Photo: Mask from an ancient Mesopotamian civilization). A unique culture emerged between 3000 and 2500 BC at Dilmun in present-day Bahrain and Saudi Arabia. As a regional hub, Dilmun played an important role in trade between the Arabian Peninsula and the Indus River valley (located in present-day Pakistan and India) as well as along longer routes to East Africa, Southeast Asia, and China. While the Arab Gulf was an important trading hub for centuries, the region never saw the birth of its own empire nor were its inhabitants ever united under a single local power. Instead, each of the region’s port cities was autonomous, with its own local economy and social organization. The cities’ dispersed power prevented their unification and also made the region a target for incursions from beyond the Gulf. The first external force to exert power and influence over the region was the Achaemenid Empire (pictured) which controlled parts of the Gulf starting in 550 BC from its center in Pasargadae (Iran). It was followed by the Parthian (140 BC) and Sassanian (226 AD) Empires centered in Iran and the Umayyad Caliphate (661 AD) centered in Syria and Turkey. The period marked by the birth of the Prophet Muhammad (570 AD) in GENERAL present-day Saudi Arabia and the subsequent emergence and CULTURE establishment of Islam as the region’s predominant religion was a defining era in the Gulf’s history.

GENERAL CULTURE In the 16th century, Portugal established control over Bahrain and parts of the southern Gulf, a move that ushered in an era of European struggle for supremacy in the region. In the late 16th century, the Safavid Dynasty of Iran allied with England to expel Portugal. At the same time, Iraq came under control of the Ottoman Empire (centered in present-day Istanbul) whose rule lasted until World War I, when the British assumed control. England became active in the southern Gulf in the late 18th century then solidified its dominance in the 19th century through agreements with local rulers in present-day Kuwait, Bahrain, Qatar, Oman, and the UAE. Unlike in Africa and Asia, the British never established formal colonies in the region and left local ruling families largely in place. The discovery of oil in the 1930s had a profound impact on the Gulf States’ economies and politics. While English and US companies initially owned and managed the Gulf oil industry, local rulers confirmed their control of the industry following their countries’ full independence (Saudi Arabia, 1932; Oman, 1951, Kuwait, 1961; then Bahrain, Qatar, and UAE in 1971). Of note, Iraq like Saudi Arabia achieved independence in 1932, but was occupied by Britain during World War II. Following the monarchy’s overthrow in 1958, Iraq became a republic (Photo: Kuwaiti troops commemorate the First Gulf War in 2011). Under the leadership of royal dynasties since independence, 6 of the Gulf States have remained stable. By contrast, Iraq has been enmeshed in several conflicts that have contributed to regional instability. Under the autocratic rule of Saddam Hussein, Iraq engaged in the bloody Iran-Iraq War from 1980- 1986, then invaded and annexed neighboring Kuwait 4 years later, inciting the First Gulf War. Since its 2003 invasion of Iraq and subsequent collapse of the Hussein regime, the US has engaged in security cooperation activities in Iraq. In reaction to the 2011 Arab Spring, Bahrain, Saudi Arabia, Oman, and Kuwait have suppressed protests and calls for reform. 2. Political and Social Relations Political relations are the ways in which members of a community organize leadership, power, and authority. Social relations are all of the ways in which individuals are linked to others in their community. The Arab Gulf’s position at a crossroads for international trade has greatly influenced its ethnic makeup, politics, and social structures. The diversity of people passing through and residing in the region as part of its trade-based economy persists today— foreign non-citizen workers make up sizable portions of the populations in each of the Gulf States with the exception of Iraq (Photo: An Iraqi voter in 2005). Today, the Gulf States minus Iraq are governed by monarchy, though several have introduced political and institutional reforms since independence. While Kuwait, Bahrain, and Qatar have each adopted a constitution, the Saudi Arabian government considers the Qur’an, the primary religious text of Islam, its constitution. In 1996, Oman established the Basic Law of the State, which introduced a new system of government that includes a 2-chamber legislature that meets at the request of the sultan (ruler). The 2005 Iraqi constitution established an Islamic, democratic, federal parliamentary republic led by an elected Prime Minister, President, and legislature. Unlike the region’s other monarchies, the UAE’s government is comprised of the hereditary leaders of each of its 7 emirates. While the legal systems of the Gulf States have incorporated many aspects of English, French, and Egyptian law, Sharia GENERAL (Islamic) law continues to play a central role, particularly in CULTURE criminal and family matters. In recent years, the Gulf States have undertaken efforts to create formalized legal systems that

combine Sharia and civil systems. GENERAL Despite some political tensions, relations among most of the Gulf CULTURE States are largely amicable. Their good relations are primarily a result of their participation in the Gulf Cooperation Council

(GCC)—a political, economic, and military alliance uniting Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, the UAE, Qatar, Bahrain, and Oman. Since the organization’s inception in 1981, member states have undertaken efforts to integrate their economies, militaries, and other social and political structures (Photo: US Secretary of State Kerry and GCC leaders in Saudi Arabia in 2014). Iraq’s role in fomenting regional instability has affected its relations with the other Gulf States. While the UAE, Qatar, and Oman have strong trade and diplomatic relations with Iraq, Saudi Arabia and its close ally Bahrain frequently clash with Iraq. Disagreements center on Iran’s role in the region fueled by ideological differences between Saudi Arabia and Bahrain’s Sunni Islam leadership and Iran’s Shiite Islam leadership. While Iraq and Kuwait have taken steps to repair their relationship, tensions continue to linger from Iraq’s 1990 invasion of Kuwait. Due to their significant sizes, populations, and resources, Iraq and Iran compete for influence in the Gulf. Saudi Arabia with its large oil reserves is also a powerful regional player even though its military forces are significantly smaller than those of either Iraq or Iran. Most of the Gulf States rely on the US to augment their military capabilities. With some 35,000 US troops stationed at several military installations throughout the region, the US has entered into agreements to sell or transfer arms and defense services to most of the States. The US remains in Iraq to train, support, and advise Iraqi security forces. Bahrain is the site of the longest- serving permanent US military presence in the Gulf, while Kuwait, the UAE, and Qatar also host large numbers of US military personnel. While Gulf States citizens are predominantly Arabs, the region is also home to several ethnic minorities—Persians in the UAE and Kuwait; Palestinians in Qatar; and Baloch and Persians in Oman. In Iraq, strong tensions exist between the country’s 2 primary ethnic groups, the Arabs and the Kurds. In each of the States, except Iraq, significant portions of the population are foreign non-citizens—about 27% in Saudi Arabia and Oman, 50 in Bahrain, 64 in Kuwait, 76 in the UAE, and 90 in Qatar. Of note, the Gulf’s tribal networks were historically a fundamental element of social relations. While the region’s governments have attempted to supplant tribal allegiances with national identity in recent decades, the tribe continues to play an important role in social life in most States. 3. Religion and Spirituality Religion is a cultural belief system that provides meaning to members of a community. Religious and spiritual beliefs help preserve the social order by defining proper behavior. They also create social unity by defining shared identity, offer individuals peace of mind, and explain the causes of events in a society. Early regional inhabitants worshipped various gods and objects, such as the sun, moon, animals, and tribal heroes. Between 500 BC and the 5th century, Zoroastrianism, one of the world’s first monotheistic religions, gained followers in the region. Although Christianity arrived in the Arab Gulf in the 1st century, most of the region’s Christians fled or converted following the arrival of Islam. In 610 AD, a merchant from Mecca (in present-day Saudi Arabia), Muhammad ibn Abdullah, began preaching the worship of 1 God, Allah, marking the founding of Islam. Through conquest

and proselytization Muhammad and his followers had united the GENERAL CULTURE entire Arabian Peninsula under Islam by the time of his death in 632 AD (Painting: A 1307 depiction of Muhammad receiving his first revelation from the angel Gabriel).

GENER CULTURE Without a chosen successor to Muhammad, his death ushered in an era of infighting that eventually split Islam into 2 sects,

Shias and Sunnis. This divide persists and occasionally causes AL conflict in the region today. Sunni Muslims began moving beyond Arabia shortly after Muhammad’s death, making their way to Iraq in 638. Since its introduction, Islam has been a defining factor in shaping the region’s cultures, societies, and political systems. Today, Islam is the official religion of each of the Gulf States. Further, the majority of the region’s non-citizen residents are also Muslim. While the Arab Gulf is also home to some religious minorities—primarily Christians, Hindus, Buddhists, Baha’is— these non-Muslims are largely non-citizen foreign residents. The Gulf States governments exhibit varying levels of religious freedom. For example, Saudi Arabian law does not recognize or protect religious freedom. While conversion from Islam is punishable by death, Saudi courts rarely inflict this sentence and instead issue lengthy prison sentences and lashings as punishment. Although the Iraqi constitution guarantees religious freedom, the government has been unable to stop recent acts of violence against Shia Muslims, Christians, and others (Photo: The Prophet Muhammad’s burial site at Al- Masjid an-Nabawi in Saudi Arabia). 4. Family and Kinship The domain of family and kinship refers to groups of people related through blood ties, marriage, or through strong emotional bonds that influence them to treat each other like family members (often called “fictive kin”). A fundamental element of Gulf society, family may refer to a person’s household and extended family, clan (a group of families), or tribe. Family, clan, and tribal connections typically play an important role in an individual’s life—they may determine a person’s social status, potential marriage partners, business opportunities, and inheritance rights. While residence patterns differ slightly among the States, multiple generations typically reside together in 1 household (Photo: Iraqi mother with her children). Historically, marriage was an arranged union intended to bring both families social and economic advantages. Although arranged marriages are still common across the region, many regional residents now choose their own spouse, particularly in urban areas. Married couples typically live with the man’s family. While divorce was traditionally uncommon in the Gulf States, divorce rates have increased in some of the Gulf States yet remained steady in others. Of note, polygyny, the practice of a man having multiple wives, is legal in the Gulf States. The urbanization of Gulf society has changed family life in recent years. As both men and women take advantage of the enhanced educational and employment opportunities available primarily in urban areas, family structures have become much more diverse. 5. Sex and Gender Sex refers to the biological/reproductive differences between males and females, while gender is a more flexible concept that refers to a culture’s categorizing of masculine and feminine behaviors, symbols, and social roles. The Arab Gulf States’ cultures and religions (primarily Islam) traditionally privilege the male’s role as leader and provider. For example, Sharia law grants men privileges in inheritance and other family matters. While most of the region’s inhabitants continue to adhere to traditional gender roles—men as breadwinners and guardians and women as mothers and GENERAL companions—recent influences from external and internal CULTURE sources have introduced some changes.

GENER Women, like most men, were largely uneducated for much of the CULTURE Gulf’s history. In recent decades, literacy rates for women have increased significantly across the Gulf. Further, women now AL make up more than 50% of the university student population in all States, although they often face challenges to getting their education. For example, women are often encouraged to pursue traditional “female” disciplines such as education and healthcare. In Kuwait, they are required to score higher than men on entrance exams for traditionally male-dominated fields such as engineering. Because the Gulf States’ legal systems permit gender-based discrimination, women are far less likely to participate in politics than men. Some progress has occurred: Saudi Arabia became the last Arab Gulf State to extend the right to vote to women in 2015. Although women may serve in prominent diplomatic and judicial posts, the number of women serving in elected political office across the region remains very low (Photo: US Department of Commerce officials with students from Sultan Qaboos University in Oman and the University of Bahrain). Historically, Gulf women rarely worked outside the home, a tradition that has changed over the past decades. For example, female participation in the workforce has increased 3-fold in Qatar and nearly 4 times in the UAE since 2003. Despite steps towards gender equality, women still face barriers to their full participation in society. For example, it remains traditional for male guardians to accompany women to events outside of the home, while many workplaces and schools continue to practice gender segregation. Homosexuality is illegal in all of the Gulf States except Iraq, where it was decriminalized in 2003. Most Gulf residents consider homosexuality, bisexuality, and transgender issues inappropriate topics of conversation. 6. Language and Communication Language is a system for sharing information symbolically, whereby words are used to represent ideas. Communication is defined as the cultural practice of sharing meaning in interaction, both verbally and non-verbally. Arabic is the official language of each of the Arab Gulf States. Most residents regularly use 2 Arabic varieties—Modern Standard Arabic (MSA), derived from the classical Arabic of the Qur’an and used in school, the media, and in official government proceedings, and Gulf Arabic or Khaleeji Arabic, a widely spoken dialect. The residents of some States speak additional languages and dialects. For example, Iraq names Kurdish as its 2nd official language, and most Iraqis speak a unique dialect of Arabic called Mesopotamian Arabic. Some residents of Oman speak other Arabic dialects. The Arab Gulf nations are also home to millions of non-citizens who speak their own native languages. These include Farsi (spoken in Iran); Malayalam, Tamil, Hindi, Balochi, Bengali, Pashto, and Urdu (spoken in South Asia); African languages such as Somali and Swahili; and Asian languages such as Thai, Tagalog, and Korean. English is also widely spoken in business and by the expatriate communities of the Gulf (Photo: Computer keyboard with Arabic script). Generally, Gulf residents demonstrate respect, generosity, and hospitality in their communication practices. Residents tend to share information about themselves and expect Westerners to do the same: they may ask personal questions about salary, marital status (particularly of unmarried people of a certain age), GENERAL and family. Regional residents commonly use gestures when CULTURE they speak, particularly if they are passionate about the topic of conversation.

GENERAL 7. Learning and Knowledge CULTURE All cultures require that the older generation transmit important information to the younger generation. This information can be strictly factual (for example, how to fulfill subsistence and health requirements) and culturally traditional (the beliefs, behaviors, and symbols that have meaning to the community). This knowledge transfer may occur through structured, formalized systems such as schools or through informal learning by watching adults or peers. Prior to the 20th century, formal education in most Arab Gulf States was limited to madrasas, religious schools that taught memorization of Qur’anic verses and the fundamentals of Islamic beliefs and practice, primarily to males. Following the 20th-century discovery of oil, educational opportunities expanded greatly. Bahrain became the first Gulf State to establish a public educational system in 1932. In the mid-1950s, governments began to establish departments of education and allocate funds for schools and other resources. An exception was Oman, where educational offerings until 1970 consisted solely of 3 primary schools reserved for 900 boys hand-selected by the Omani sultan (Photo: Al-Hidaya Al-Khalifia Boys school, the first public school in Bahrain). Today, most of the Gulf States invest heavily in education, often at rates higher than many other developed nations. Consequently, adult literacy is over 90% in all States except Iraq where it is a low 80%. Further, the past several decades have witnessed a significant growth in the number of higher education institutions across the region. Due to years of conflict, Iraq continues to have inadequate education facilities and a shortage of teachers and resources. Because many students are displaced, their education is often incomplete. 8. Time and Space In every society, people occupy space and time in ways that are not directly linked to physical survival. In most western cultures, people tend to be preoccupied with strict time management, devoting less effort to relationship-building. By contrast, in the Arab Gulf States, establishing and maintaining relationships with others often takes precedence over meeting deadlines, punctuality, or accomplishing a task in the most efficient manner. As in other Islamic societies, men and women in the Arab Gulf region often interact differently than Americans are used to. For example, in many parts of the Gulf unrelated women and men seldom interact, and when they do, it is only in group settings. Concepts of personal space also differ from those in the US. For example, Gulf State residents of the same sex commonly sit and stand closer to each other than Westerners do. They may also touch more often during conversations than Westerners (Photo: Former US President George W. Bush and King Abdullah of Saudi Arabia holding hands, a sign of close friendship among men). Residents of the Arab Gulf States also tend to manage time differently. While residents typically agree in advance on scheduled start times, meetings frequently begin late. Further, Gulf residents may prefer to deliberate for an extended period before making final decisions. The Arab Gulf States use both the Islamic and Western calendars. Because Friday is considered a holy day in Islam, GENERAL most Arab Gulf States observe a Sunday-Thursday workweek, CULTURE except for Oman, which observes a Saturday-Wednesday workweek.

GENERAL 9. Aesthetics and Recreation CULTURE Every culture has its own forms of creative expression that are guided by aesthetic principles of imagination, beauty, skill and

style. Most of the Arab Gulf’s forms of artistic expression, including its art, architecture, dance, music, and theater, reflect the region’s Arabic and Islamic influences. Gulf artists historically favored geometric designs and patterns to depict plants, flowers, and animals on buildings, jewelry, and household items. Due to historic trade relationships and intermingling of cultures, music and dance in the Arab Gulf States reflect Persian, Indian, and east African influences. Popular throughout the region, Khaleeji music combines local Bedouin (Arab seminomadic group) music with styles from Africa, India, and Iran. For some regional residents, dance forms are an integral part of Islamic worship. Others perform dances only in same-sex settings. Many of the region’s dances are done in line, circle, square, or semicircle formations with participants moving in tandem. Dances in the Arab Gulf are generally grouped by type, including warfare, work-related, “foreign,” women’s, weddings, healing, and Sufi religious dances (Photo: Iraqi National Folk Dance Troupe performs a traditional dance). Regional residents practice a variety of arts and crafts including weaving (typically using camel or goat hair) and calligraphy—the art of handwriting in which artists transform letters and words into intricate designs. While soccer is the most widely followed sport in the region, wealthier residents also enjoy falconry, horse racing, and camel racing. 10. Sustenance and Health Societies have different methods of transforming natural resources into food. These methods can shape residence patterns, family structures and economics. Theories of disease and healing practices exist in all cultures and serve as adaptive responses to disease and illness. While cuisine varies across the region, residents throughout the Arab Gulf use many common staple ingredients and spices such as mutton, lamb, and fish prepared with cardamom, turmeric, saffron, and dried limes. Fruits, yogurt, various salads, and rice are common accompaniments to meals. The most popular drink, tea is served sweetened and prepared either with or without milk. Observant Muslims in the Arab Gulf consume neither pork nor alcohol. Health in most of the Arab Gulf countries has improved significantly in recent decades as evidenced by decreased infant and maternal mortality rates and longer life expectancies. Most residents in all States except Iraq have access to quality healthcare that is largely subsidized by governments (Photo: Machbūs, a spiced meat dish enjoyed throughout the Gulf). Years of conflict and the Saddam regime’s defunding of public healthcare by 90% created significant problems in the Iraqi healthcare system. In 2009, with funding from the World Health Organization, the Iraqi Ministry of Health introduced a plan to reform and decentralize the country’s healthcare system. Additionally, international humanitarian organizations have expanded their efforts in Iraq to provide healthcare to both the local population as well as those fleeing conflict areas. The region’s healthcare systems face several challenges, particularly rapidly growing healthcare expenditures associated with a large, aging population and lifestyle changes that have GENERAL negative health implications. For example, fewer residents CULTURE adhere to the region’s traditional diet and instead have increased their consumption of pre-packaged and fast foods. Simultaneously, rapid urbanization, the increased use of

GENERAL mechanized transportation, and a lack of dedicated green CULTURE spaces for physical activities have led to an increasingly sedentary lifestyle for many residents. As a result, obesity rates have increased and noncommunicable diseases (such as diabetes, cardiovascular disease, cancer, and chronic respiratory disease) now cause more than 60% of all deaths in all of the Arab Gulf States, except Iraq (Photo: King Saud Medical Complex, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia). Communicable diseases remain a concern in Iraq, where contaminated water supplies, inadequate sanitation, and poor hygienic practices contribute to the spread of typhoid, cholera, and tuberculosis. 11. Economics and Resources This domain refers to beliefs regarding appropriate ways for a society to produce, distribute, and consume goods and services. Besides fishing and agriculture, the Gulf States’ economies have been enmeshed with local and international trade since ancient times. During the 17th and 18th centuries, the Arab Gulf’s port cities were integral elements of the trade routes connecting India, Europe, and East Africa. In the late 19th century, the region began exporting dates and pearls to new markets in Europe and North America. After global demand for pearls grew significantly around the turn of the 20th century, pearl diving became a major contributor to the economies of the UAE, Qatar, Kuwait, and Bahrain before the industry collapsed in the 1930s. The region then entered a period of socioeconomic hardship until the discovery of oil. The growth of the oil industry in in the 1950s-60s significantly changed the region. Within a few decades the States had transformed from some of the world’s poorest countries to some of the wealthiest. This wealth has facilitated investment in infrastructure, enhanced the quality of life, and encouraged rapid urbanization throughout the region with the exception of Iraq. Prior to 1980, Iraq had one of the most advanced economies of all Arab Gulf States. Years of conflict, however, have had a profound effect on Iraq’s economy. In late 2015, Iraq implemented an economic reform proposal intended to cut excess government spending and crackdown on corruption (Photo: The Abraj Al Bait Towers complex in Mecca, Saudi Arabia). Oil remains an important part of the region’s economies today—in Iraq, Saudi Arabia, and Kuwait, oil exports make up over 90% of government revenues. Over the past several decades, the Gulf States collectively have taken steps to reduce their economic dependence on oil through diversification efforts. For example, Bahrain has worked to develop its banking sector; Kuwait produces cement and ships and specializes in food-processing; Qatar is expanding its agricultural sector; and the UAE is investing in tourism, airport and aviation services, and facilities management services. Despite these efforts, the region remains dependent on oil: all of the region’s economies were adversely affected by the decline in oil prices and a reduced demand for oil during the 2008 global financial crisis. The States are currently exploring ways to adapt to the decline in oil prices that began in 2015. 12. Technology and Material Societies use technology to transform their physical world, and culture heavily influences the development and use of technology. Most of the Arab Gulf States have invested heavily into extensive road networks. The governments of Oman and Saudi Arabia, for example, have put significant sums of funding GENERAL towards building large freeways and roads that extend to remote CULTURE areas. Despite years of conflict, Iraq’s 37,000 miles of roads remain in relatively good condition. Six of the region’s

governments allocated $250 billion for the construction of a regional rail network which will link Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, GENERAL the UAE, Oman, Bahrain, and Qatar when completed in 2021. CULTURE Information technology is spreading rapidly throughout the Arab Gulf. Between 2000 and 2017, Internet usage grew from between 2 and 23 users per 100 people to between 76 and 95 users. The exception is Iraq where just 49 out of every 100 people are Internet users. Cell phones are extremely popular—the States report between 87 and 326 mobile phone subscriptions per 100 people (Photo: Freeway in Dubai, UAE). The European Union (EU) was the largest two-way trading partner for the GCC in 2018 accounting for 14.6% or $175 billion of its total trade. Of note, the EU and the GCC States (with the exception of Iraq) are pursuing a free trade agreement. The Gulf States also maintain important trade relationships with several Asian nations. For example, China depends on the Arab Gulf for 35% of its oil imports, India for 45%, and South Korea and Japan for 70%. The Arab Gulf faces challenges in meeting its growing energy needs. As a result of the region’s rapid urbanization and population growth, the Gulf States are shifting from being energy suppliers to major energy consumers. Energy consumption grew by about 8% annually since 1972 (compared to 2% globally). While the UAE, Kuwait, Qatar, and Saudi Arabia have less than 1% of the world’s population, these countries now use more than 5% of the world’s oil. Iraq has had difficulty meeting its own power needs, relying on imported electricity and petroleum products. Now that we have introduced general concepts that characterize Arab Gulf society at large, we will focus on specific features of society in Iraq. FAMILY & KINSHIP

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Cassation,

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Consists Minister: Adil Abd Al-Mahdi Iraqi

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36 POLITICAL AND SOCIAL RELATIONS SOCIAL AND POLITICAL Federal Supreme Court, Federal Court Federal Court, Supreme Federal government: State: ion

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or or by

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Historically more are to population approximately

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) be 15 the

and

Most They They to

Turkic group.

Turkey Arabic. For

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a a of

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to be

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- of or al n.

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Expect less detail in the agreement than you might want. Risk- adverse cultures tend to manage risk by creating general (not highly detailed) documents. However, with an excellent relationship built on mutual trust, the inevitable issues that arise during execution will be easier to resolve. Preservation of a reputation is of primary importance. TIME & SPACE

a It of of in on 18, the

day one is

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full business. days shorter

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in the

AD

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for 1431

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festivals. SPACE

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For

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used

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or

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This

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holidays on

TIME pay

and

example, only 354.36 days;

the calendar used

a a lack of and has to 6.

Islamic New Year to is

ends calendar

measured

Time spend appearing ending

arrive

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of

Americans is

of

before

meetings, and

religious calendar

not business. time. For time. and two

solar

Iraqi this than avoid people day

and Spirituality

time

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Calendars Concept Calendar Solar The The corresponds corresponds January January Islamic

business in Iraq,

celebrate

the Islamic calendar coincides with The year Muhammad settled Calendar Islamic The to the moon. signaling The the length approximate time between 2009. lunar calendar beginning Islamic calendar than the Western solar calendar. the Western calendar than the the previous first year. For Religion year Iraqis Iraqi Iraqi for without concern Iraqis vital, be perceive social discussing important example, countries. are In TIME & SPACE

to m on for

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Region

flow

north

oil

in by the east carry is

Region

between between the Tigris north of

High High ground,

border

Intermittent in the lower

west Iranian

most deeply It and

kilometers) mountains of begins and

is

Primary interspersed they in between between Mosul

Here Here the Tigris the

the it northeastern to deposit great

plain

Iran.

dry

Alluvial

desert. part Uplands Highlands Desert

extending characterize square interlaced canals. Gulf. the The plains) 4. Euphrates way near from and region, The 3. The as Syria flows than Euphrates island). Rivers Located 2. are when plain from Located is Jordan, 1. Four HISTORY & MYTH

it in of 1.3 has Iraq

[See of Martyr areas grains, in

q. and the death agriculture, the Tigris are permanent

other After Mecca,

in Ira of the centuries

is

of on of it pilgrims

while

d Sunni]

by the Abbasids of to Turkey and Iran,

680 AD. the tomb flood. result Shi’a

Commerce,

in winter, interest in Irbil. of

main exports Much by its population. Kirkuk has the

great

main early up of

of Islamic religion are of in

the site Section for more the Kurdish independent movement is

out are years drainage.

of in

dry

bridges connect the two sides. the petroleum industry since the 1930s, inhabitants, it is the largest city only

of Karbala marshlands

11 Spirituality of d the division between Shi’a an

inadequate of Iraq, Baghdad was founded

the place most visited Iraq’s third-largest city, with a population million es is also Iraq’s main port. The city’s rich history dates some some parts the Abbasids. Basrah’s and These

is is and nd petroleum. It

and

marshland

to but Citi the center B.C.E. The city straddles the banks

6.64 of the world’s longest continuously-inhabited cities, Irbil’s Turkmen primarily make administrative work

e Kirkuk’s ancient history dates back over 5,000 and years. Kurds Kirkuk been On Basrah Irbil Basrah roots date back over 8,000 years. Close 762 River, With today and culture. the center of industry, commerce, and million. back dates, a represents the center with a population of roughly 1 million. The capital Baghdad The holy city and Karbala Karbala developed into a major center of Husayn an Husayn Ibn Ali, who was killed there Religion Major become flooding marsh, Hammar. HISTORYHISTORY && MYTHMYTH

is of Its

the the

times is

largest Ali, cities a major

Iraq. The B.C.E. and the

in is

Imam It 800 holiest

with of

in

the

Baghdad -law, -law, whom the Shi’a

Mesopotamian One of alert

rule

in

of is Iraq’s second-largest tomb tomb

to

to oil oil daily.

together

and first imam. The city attention one

child.

the

of

is

south

back

of the It lives

you

Assyrian the

” calling

km

believed

to

site superstitions. is

with harm

or dates

that 160

Allah Iraq, the Chaldeans. Chaldeans. the Iraq, unless

the

pilgrimage throughout the Shi'a Islamic and is Children’s own

in

of him). then

population as its sha’ admire admire

Iraq million barrels features history Governorate. will

the center of Shi’a political power

the righteous caliph in ma children agricultural center. center. agricultural not has

“ admiration

B.C.E.)

protect fine center be

that and one

Attractiveness city’s Najaf Kurdish and

to that

approximately

belief

eye God

of renowned

5000 great should

culture is

–

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a

evil

a

(May qualify expression You compliment on the Every popular city. producing producing industrial (4000 With its 1.5 million inhabitants, Mosul Mosul primarily Shi’a Islam city Najaf Najaf Christian community community Christian Prophet Muhammad’s cousin and son- consider Eye Evil The capital now world. SUSTENANCE & HEALTH in (a is samoon, baklava Turshi, a the pacha walnuts, and sugar, to and or Iraq. in the south. and HEALTH in

candies are popular masgou (fish from the is typically served after pickled vegetables. of pickled

- phyllo dough.) Fresh opposed lemon), and are For and starch of from dessert. neggaza or

meat as

along easily kubba a broth. Mutton, lamb, goat,

onion);

(shish

minced as

spices); of generally eaten: amber rice

in of

nuts for guests. Popular desserts rice); is Iraq, ears. For example, vegetables

and beef,

stored.

sheets are or

with and

in origins honey, pistachios

tikka tikka on

include served with flat bread called

and and the evening. the rosewater

and the animal, including the kidneys, other and

ariety called

rice

in its head, stomach, feet, and various other chunks

are the preferred meats with different types different with which parsley or

of meat

of mixed

dishes desserts, pastries, served layering goat,

are a confection

SUSTENANCE AND SUSTENANCE nd a v grains of d on the river bank). Fruit part (pumpkin pudding), rice pudding, Turkish a flame; flame; a rice, by made takes herded

cooked together between thin leaves

spices, sheep’s

food,

is 10. wheat Main Meal Main main meal main lamb, the main meal

skewered Popular varieties

poultry Iraq, a with

over over shirini also commonly served Most meals homes for snacks as

is food (vine

cooked nuts, , various water or

brain, feet, eyes,

is

spices an t,

aqi Ir meals. and two northern When preparing meats, Iraqis almost waste every very little. They use Tigris kebab); quozi (small and lamb stuffed with rice, minced meat stuffed kebab grilled mea dolma popular. (cracked example, with nomadic transported, Diet Arab rose Delight (lokum, side dish, in include usually flavored with pastry made fruit beef, Lunch Lunch made from parts slowly Various types American liver, SUSTENANCE & HEALTH to are and after f by and there there

o do frequently

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and and

are forearms, forearms, of not

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required required before prohibits fins before before

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Iraqi Iraqi Arabs for both slims alcohol. be

hout of a meal standards, the

to Mu largely hands suffering,

Shi’a wit

or

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you you offer food only once, for would would

oysters, consumption slaughtering

If it certain

the consume

also also recommended following

restrictions, and and clothing

to the the practice feeders

wash wash the is not cleanliness, crabs,

Section]

permitted).

while them. them.

to It the face, hands, do avoidance body

Shi’a

to Islam, allows

of eating eating a snack bottom religious

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but

Foods/Drinks words

of

performed most

is

extremely important extremely important covering lobsters, typical typical

of

and , fasting. fasting. be is Spirituality is

as and

typically

men very nearby, Islamic

it

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of and

or practical practical reasons. Because meals

break seafood, must

(Shrimp According such – pork of

as

Islam of Restricted –

third time before they accept. accept. they before time third

on

hand, and eat consumption slaughterman, cleanliness cleanliness or

by are Religion scales, catfish. consume dispatched. Sunni forms the animals known the repeating Haram not Halal • • • you you offer some they will probably politely decline. You will likely need to offer a second Month Holy During Drinking and Eating [See Iraqi Iraqi children spiritual spiritual eaten Hygiene Iraqi Understanding Personal hygiene Food Your Sharing If daily daily prayers contact with other substances considered unclean, dogs. including eating. eating. Formal washing general SUSTENANCE & HEALTH

is of be

for

for

any and

food your your want

Iraqis social top polite

serve

him.

served

orange

served on is a

the

lasts apricots, hand

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it

all unhealthy.

it and from demonstrate is do Some

do

Section].

removes how Iraqi

typically drunk

over to As

table

are oranges, Accept everything you

over. your your right

drinks

you. meal. your compliment shows

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that soft finish finish believed, if the

eating.

for

as

served.

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such

palm is small the same time

Experience own nine times before before times nine dinner

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it after at way

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it interest signal

cannot

your during

finally

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on

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their hand, until and

and is surprised means,

To

on

is

you their

not Dining

and

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right drinking

This

food

make of

it – milk.

you before

Iraqi dinner

poured

cooling cooling and

meal, for Rather than passing the food container container food the passing than Rather

not

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well

Iraqi

for

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is

piece

may The petals,

beverages

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dayma.” the This purposes

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without

after Hands should heating heating Tea

Food

rose you

Iraqis urs

:

other third right by

fact, You should not plan plan should not You dinner provided

only

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considered considered unclean. Always use

or ho

food and you

that eating “sufra offered or Your In himself,

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hand. e drunk.

is hospitality

has v your

the home, say

water Coffee, Coffee, Tea, and Soft Drinks – social activities. social belie At and remember hand “hygienic” The right with might of allowing allowing a serve guest to Wash Receiving host several that is plate. their event, Offering blossoms, lemons, lemons, before prepared and sweetened, impurities. another another cup, Bring a Gift – Gift a Bring the cup. the thus.” second to SUSTENANCE & HEALTH is is of or as on left

h and s s

Iraqi loss,

heart If totally These

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a in in of or is

cloth cloth favor black. coat. strong nment

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Arabs

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various various kinds

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In

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attire. attire. Traditional that opens

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dress people wearing traditional clothing clothing traditional wearing people

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on Egal Karbala, Karbala, wear a tall, red, cylindrical . AESTHETICS RECREATIONAND ) Religious Religious scholars wear turbans ( likely and the shoulders years, also

12 ). to and trousers, especially trousers, Some traditional men wrap their their wrap men traditional Some in a knot more recent form a loose turban. turban. loose a form

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