Volume 5, Issue 8(1), August 2016 International Journal of Multidisciplinary Educational Research
Published by Sucharitha Publications 8-43-7/1, Chinna Waltair Visakhapatnam – 530 017 Andhra Pradesh – India Email: [email protected] Website: www.ijmer.in
Editorial Board Editor-in-Chief Dr.K. Victor Babu Faculty, Department of Philosophy Andhra University – Visakhapatnam - 530 003 Andhra Pradesh – India
EDITORIAL BOARD MEMBERS
Prof. S.Mahendra Dev Prof. Fidel Gutierrez Vivanco Vice Chancellor Founder and President Indira Gandhi Institute of Development Escuela Virtual de Asesoría Filosófica Research Lima Peru Mumbai Prof. Igor Kondrashin Prof.Y.C. Simhadri The Member of The Russian Philosophical Vice Chancellor, Patna University Society Former Director The Russian Humanist Society and Expert of Institute of Constitutional and Parliamentary The UNESCO, Moscow, Russia Studies, New Delhi & Formerly Vice Chancellor of Dr. Zoran Vujisiæ Benaras Hindu University, Andhra University Rector Nagarjuna University, Patna University St. Gregory Nazianzen Orthodox Institute
Universidad Rural de Guatemala, GT, U.S.A Prof. (Dr.) Sohan Raj Tater
Former Vice Chancellor Singhania University, Rajasthan Prof.U.Shameem Department of Zoology Andhra University Visakhapatnam Prof.K.Sreerama Murty Department of Economics Dr. N.V.S.Suryanarayana Andhra University - Visakhapatnam Dept. of Education, A.U. Campus Vizianagaram Prof. K.R.Rajani Department of Philosophy Dr. Kameswara Sharma YVR Andhra University – Visakhapatnam Asst. Professor Dept. of Zoology Prof. P.D.Satya Paul Sri. Venkateswara College, Delhi University, Department of Anthropology Delhi Andhra University – Visakhapatnam I Ketut Donder Prof. Josef HÖCHTL Depasar State Institute of Hindu Dharma Department of Political Economy Indonesia University of Vienna, Vienna & Ex. Member of the Austrian Parliament Prof. Roger Wiemers Austria Professor of Education Lipscomb University, Nashville, USA Prof. Alexander Chumakov Chair of Philosophy Dr. N.S. Dhanam Russian Philosophical Society Department of Philosophy Moscow, Russia Andhra University Visakhapatnam
Dr.B.S.N.Murthy Dr.T.V.Ramana Department of Mechanical Engineering Department of Economics GITAM University Andhra University Campus, Kakinada Visakhapatnam Dr.Ton Quang Cuong Dr.S.V Lakshmana Rao Dean of Faculty of Teacher Education Coordinator University of Education, VNU, Hanoi A.P State Resource Center Visakhapatnam Prof. Chanakya Kumar Department of Computer Science Dr.S.Kannan University of Pune,Pune Department of History Annamalai University Prof. Djordje Branko Vukelic Annamalai Nagar, Chidambaram Department for Production Engineering University of Novi Sad, Serbia Dr. B. Venkataswamy H.O.D., & Associate Professor Prof. Shobha V Huilgol Dept. of Telugu, P.A.S. College Department of Pharmacology Pedanandipadu, Guntur, India Off- Al- Ameen Medical College, Bijapur
Dr.E. Ashok Kumar Prof.Joseph R.Jayakar Department of Education Department of English North- Eastern Hill University, Shillong GITAM University Hyderabad Dr.K.Chaitanya Department of Chemistry Prof.Francesco Massoni Nanjing University of Science and Department of Public Health Sciences Technology University of Sapienza, Rome People’s Republic of China Prof.Mehsin Jabel Atteya Dr.Merina Islam Al-Mustansiriyah University Department of Philosophy College of Education Cachar College, Assam Department of Mathematics, Iraq
Dr. Bipasha Sinha Prof. Ronato Sabalza Ballado S. S. Jalan Girls’ College Department of Mathematics University of Calcutta, Calcutta University of Eastern Philippines, Philippines
Prof. N Kanakaratnam Dr.Senthur Velmurugan .V Dept. of History, Archaeology & Culture Librarian Dravidian University, Kuppam Kalasalingam University Andhra Pradesh Krishnankovil Tamilnadu
Dr. K. John Babu Dr.J.B.Chakravarthi Department of Journalism & Mass Comm Assistant Professor Central University of Kashmir, Kashmir Department of Sahitya Rasthritya Sanskrit Vidyapeetha, Tirupati
® © Editor-in-Chief, IJMER Typeset and Printed in India www.ijmer.in IJMER, Journal of Multidisciplinary Educational Research, concentrates on critical and creative research in multidisciplinary traditions. This journal seeks to promote original research and cultivate a fruitful dialogue between old and new thought. C O N T E N T S
Volume 5 Issue 8(1) August 2016
S. Page
No No
1. Global Fashion and Clothing Discourse in Cosmopolitan 1 Kuta Tjok Istri Ratna Cora Sudharsana
2. Learner-Autonomy : Transition towards Self-Directed 9 Learning B. Krishna Chandra Keerthi
3. A Study on Future Prospects and Challenges of Islamic 20 Banking System in India Delawar Hussain and Amit Majumdar
4. Impact of Socio-Economic Conditions on Emergence of 38 Telangana Armed Struggle Sunitha Pandi
5. Dr. B.R. Ambedkar: His Legacy to Modern India 51 Karamthur Venkatesu Naik
6. The Concept of Liberation in the Svetasvataropanishad 58 A.V.Krishna Rao
7. An Enquiry Regarding the Position of Buddha 64 Sūnyavādins (Nihilism) in the Study of Pramāṇa in the Text Nyāya-Sūtra Dinanath Ghatak
8. Percent Body Fat and Body Mass Index: An Association 82 Dinesh Kumar
9. Assessment of Factors Affecting Saving Habits of 87 Farmer Households in Cash Crop Areas of Ilu Ababor Zone, Ethiopia: The Case of Selected Woredas Geda Misganu and Geleta Merera 10. 98 कंबर के कंब रामायण म धािम क स ावना
डॉ. एस. ीित 11. Profitability Performance of the New India Assurance 104 Company Limited S. Renuga Devi
12. Changing Scenario of Women Entrepreneurship 117 Abdul Hakim and Sadaf Khan
13. Non-Violence (Ahimsa) After Gandhi 124 Debajyoti Sharma
14. The Deconstruction Ideology on the Bali Media 140 Promotion of Bali Cultural Tourism A.A Gde Bagus Udayana
15. Naga Intelligentia and Formation of Political Platform 148 Akram Ali Bhutto
16. Energy Use and its Impact on Rural Women: A Case 153 Study in Dhenkanal District of Odisha, India Chinmayee Mishra
17. A Study on the Evaluation of the Vi Standard Social 170 Studies Text Book A. Dhanalakshmi
18. Socio-Economic and Demographic Features of Fisher 177 Women :A-Case Study of Rural and Urban Areas in Visakhapatnam District K.Swarna Latha
19. Personal Values of Senior Secondary School Students: 190 Influence of School Environment Anshu Narad
20. SEBI and the Clause 49 for the Corporate Governance 219 and Investor Safety Savita Rajendra Giri
Dr. K. VICTOR BABU ISSN : 2277 – 7881 M.A.,M.A.,M.Phil.,Ph.D.,PDF, (D.Lit) Impact Factor :3.318(2015) Faculty of Philosophy and Religious Index Copernicus Value: 5.16 Studies & Editor-in-Chief International Journal of Multidisciplinary Educational Research (IJMER) & Sucharitha: A Journal of Philosophy and Religion Andhra University, Visakhapatnam Pin - 530 003 , Andhra Pradesh – India
Editorial……
You will be happy to know that we have entered the fifth year of publication of IJMER, since its inception in April 2012. Focusing on many interdisciplinary subjects, the published papers are spreading the knowledge with fervent hope of upholding the holistic approach. With all my heart, I reiterate to echo my sincere feelings and express my profound thanks to each and every valued contributor. This journal continues to nurture and enhance the capabilities of one and all associated with it.
We as a team with relentless efforts are committed to inspire the readers and achieve further progress. Aim is to sustain the tempo and improve. We acknowledge with pleasure that our readers are enjoying the publications of Sucharitha Publishers. We solicit to receive ideas and comments for future improvements in its content and quality. Editor –in-Chief explicitly conveys his gratitude to all the Editorial Board members. Your support is our motivation. Best wishes to everyone.
Dr.K.Victor Babu Editor-in-Chief
SOCIAL SCIENCES, HUMANITIES, COMMERCE & MANAGEMENT, ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY, MEDICINE, SCIENCES, ART & DEVELOPMENT STUDIES, LAW www.ijmer.in
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GLOBAL FASHION AND CLOTHING DISCOURSE IN COSMOPOLITAN KUTA
Tjok Istri Ratna Cora Sudharsana Fakultas Seni Rupa Dan Desain Program Studi Desain Mode Institut Seni Indonesia Denpasar Jalan Nusa Indah Denpasar
Abstract
This research aims to understand how the discourse about global fashion and clothes dominating and make a hegemony in cosmopolitan Kuta. The issue that be defined in this research is a discourse which forming global fashion and clothes to the people of Cosmopolitan Kuta, the influence of a discourse about global fashion and clothes into design of global fashion and clothing products in Cosmopolitan Kuta also the strategies of the producers, profashion and antifashion in Cosmopolitan Kuta make a deal with the discourses about global fashion and clothes.
This research be explained by interpretative qualitative, it was designed as a cultural studies with postmodern fashion design methods. The theories that used in this research is the theory of discourse, hegemony, deconstruction and lifestyle that related to global fashion and clothes. The data collected through participatory observation, interview and literature study. Interactive analysis model used in presenting the data and the results of the data analysis are presented in an informal and formal.
The results of this research indicate that psychological hegemony attitude towards latent triggered by globalization discourse, the discourse of global economy capitalism and cosmopolitan discourse. Hegemony to permanent psychological condition created and become a lifestyle. The way of producers, profashion and antifashion in
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Cosmopolitan Kuta negotiating in hegemony of global fashion and clothing discourse with directional flexibility, fluctuating and extreme feasibility attitude. The novelties is “FRANGIPANI, The Secret Steps of Art Fashion” based on culture identity of Bali.
Key words: Global fashion and clothing discourse, hegemony, Cosmopolitan Kuta
INTRODUCTION
The discourse on the global fashion and clothing in cosmopolitan Kuta is interesting as well as confusing. In the daily discussion, the words fashion and clothing have the same meaning. They form a complicated network and are similar to and overlap each other (Weittgenstein, 1958: 66-7). The discourse on fashion is not only viewed from clothing but it is also related to the meaning of the contemporary fashion proposed by Barnard. Being contemporary refers to clothing and artifacts such as interior, exterior, architecture and fashion accessories (Barnard, 2011). Anthropologically, clothing is related to its basic function to protect the general world’s unfriendliness such as the hot and cold weather (Flugel, 1930:70). Cosmopolitan Kuta that including Kuta and North Kuta as locality that touched directly by capitalism global economy in transnational business already transformed since monetary crisis on 1997 until 2012. Elaborating some culture element and lifestyle with high complexity in form of model of production circle fashion global and clothing, appearance of pro-fashion and anti-fashion. Global fashion and clothing discourse creating singularity in local, national even international. The problems of the study can be formulated in three questions. They are (1) what discourse led to the global fashion and clothing in cosmopolitan Kuta; (2) how the global fashion and clothing dominated the design of the products of the global fashion and clothing in cosmopolitan Kuta; (3) what strategies were used by those who agreed and disagreed with and
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the producers of the global fashion and clothing to face such a discourse?
The purpose of this research is answering the formulation of the problems and understanding in theoretical how global fashion and clothing discourse make hegemony in the life of producers, pro-fashion and anti-fashion in Cosmopolitan Kuta. This research hopefully can give a knowledge especially about global fashion and clothing discourse also constructing in citizen of Cosmopolitan Kuta. Mainly as space of culture studies research also find the ideology that hide in capitalism hegemony practices of global economy in citizen of cosmopolitan Kuta.
RESEARCH METHOD
This research is qualitative interpretative and designed as culture studies research with postmodern fashion design approach. Method that used is qualitative method with the main instrument is the researcher be equipped with interview guidelines. The data were analyzed using the model of interactive analysis based on the theory proposed by Miles and Huberman (Sutopo, 1996:85). The data were reduced as needed. Continued with presenting the data systematically.
DISSCUSION
The results of the study show that the psychological, hegemonic and latent attitudes were inspired by the discourse on globalization, the discourse on the globalized economic capitalism, and the discourse on cosmopolitanism. Such discourses constituted the cosmopolitan situation of Kuta which were countered by negotiation and peace. The floating attitude as a form of defense in an extreme fluctuating condition led to directional feasibility and flexibility. The discourse on the global fashion and clothing were constructed for fifteen years, that is, from 1997 to 2012 in cosmopolitan Kuta. It can be concluded that the informants of the study included the producers, those who agreed and disagreed with the global fashion and clothing, the interior
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designers, the fashion designers, the architects, the landscape designers, the fine art artists, the garment owners, the boutique owners, the local and international communities.
The producers, being inspired by the extreme fluctuating way of thinking, regarded that the purchasing orders they received from the domestic and foreign buyers were gifts. Such a hegemonic psychological condition which would lead to the latent condition was getting stronger; finally, it would become a new way of life. The space without partition where the global fashion and clothing producers became mixed with those who were involved in the local, national and international fashion caused cosmopolitan Kuta to be one of the windows for arts and design in Indonesia. The life style of the producers, especially the designers of fashion was becoming dilemmatic; whether they would follow the globalization current or maintain idealism.
The global fashion and clothing companies grew rapidly; they were local companies but they were owned by foreigners. That was made to be possible by the government’s regulations which were easily designed; as an illustration, the term nominee was wrongly used. The hidden cycle of the production of the global fashion and clothing which was managed by the cosmopolitan community of Kuta (foreigners, local and indigenous people) was responsible for the loss of the foreign exchange. Global fashion and clothing in cosmopolitan Kuta became degraded through four stages in the cycle of the globalized economic capitalism, as far as the products of the global fashion and clothing were concerned. They became degraded in the level of the buyer (stage 1), in the level of the buyer representative (stage 2), in the level of the agent (level 3), and in the level of the agent representative (level 4). The oligopolistic narration created by the cultural conglomeration was not explicitly seen in cosmopolitan Kuta. However, a half of the cycle of the production of the global fashion and clothing showed that the
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cosmopolitan community of Kuta was a community where “the creative sample products were localized” to meet the local, national and foreign orders.
The way of thinking of those who agreed with fashion changed as the multiple value of the exchange rate since the monetary crisis led to a mental shock. Those who agreed with fashion were highly feasible and adaptive; they made themselves smart when they used the global fashion and clothing in the capitalistic globalization era. The simpler materials were used in the design of the applied art products as the value which could be covered with those who disagreed with fashion in cosmopolitan Kuta was adjusted to the developing economic situation. Then the cosmopolites appeared such as models, fashion designers, interior designers, landscape designers, and fine art artists. They worked and even resided permanently in cosmopolitan Kuta under the ambiguous regulation system. They dominantly came from Italy, Australia, America, Germany, and Holland.
The local people, who agreed with fashion in cosmopolitan Kuta, as far as the ideological domain was concerned, were responsive enough. The global fashion and clothing were defined as a communal identity with an argument that the Balinese traditional textile such as the global fashion and clothing worn uniformly by the family welfare groups of women (PKK), the gong groups, the youth organization members, the banjar members, and the members of the other social organizations. The globalized economic capitalism was defined as something which was positive by those who agreed with fashion as it could not be separated from the world of the global fashion and clothing; however, many disagreed with fashion as the local products became uprooted and were replaced by the cheap imported products. Being fashionable was defined by those who agreed with fashion, both indigenous and local, as being up to date to the developing style. There was sometimes an impression that forcing one ’s self and using the
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global fashion products and clothing improperly led to a new life style, that is, communication through fashion.
The static attitude of those who disagreed with fashion resulted from the fact that they were only interested in the standard and traditional global fashion and clothing. The adaptive attitude to respond to the global fashion and clothing products tended to be stagnant. The reason was that those who disagreed with fashion psychologically did not trust themselves when exploring the world of the global fashion and clothing. The global fashion and clothing became related to the ideological domain if connected with those who disagreed with the cosmopolitan community of Kuta as could be seen from the inform worn by the members of several rural organizations. The perspective of the globalized economic capitalism of those who disagreed with fashion was not personally influential; however, globally it was felt that it was hegemonic enough. The reason was that the traditional way of thinking was still dominant. The feeling of being inferior and the fact that those who disagreed with fashion at the cosmopolitan community of Kuta was shown through a flat behavior; even they showed antipathy towards the development of the global fashion and clothing. They liked a comfortable place better than being fashionable. The directional flexible attitude took place in the community of those who disagreed with fashion in cosmopolitan Kuta.
CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION
The conclusions of this research are cosmopolitan Kuta as a showcase of design products of global fashion and clothing in Indonesia, as "locality product creative samples", have a lifestyle as a world citizen, have an attitude of fluctuating extremes nor fairness and directional flexibility when make a deal with global economy capitalism as well as in absorb foreign cultures. Discourse about global fashion and clothes
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in cosmopolitan Kuta can be used as reflector to determine the turning points and the defense of citizen life.
The novelties as the answer to the problem related to the cycle of the production of the global fashion and clothing products in cosmopolitan Kuta was “FRANGIPANI, The Secret Steps of Art Fashion” that described into ten steps of designing fashion products based on culture identity of Bali. Those ten steps are as follows; (1) Finding the brief idea based on Balinese Culture ,(2) Researching and Sourcing of Art Fashion , (3) Analyze Art Fashion Element taken from the Richness of Balinese Culture, (4) Narrating of Art Fashion Idea by 2D or 3D Visualization , (5) Giving a soul – Taksu to Art Fashion Idea by Making Sample, Dummy, and Construction , (6) Interpreting of Singularity Art Fashion will be Showed in The Final Collection , (7) Promoting and Making a Unique Art Fashion , (8) Affirmation Branding, (9) Navigating Art Fashion Production by Humanist Capitalism Method, (10) Introducing the Art Fashion Business.
Based on those conclusion and novelty are suggested to know the discourse of the global fashion and clothing products taking place at the cosmopolitan community of Kuta as it can be used as the personal and communal turning point. In addition, it is also a movement of equality which can be used to show self-existence by fully recognizing that the position is 1 to 3; that is, the traditional value is proportional to globalization, and globalized economic capitalism which cannot be neglected as far as the Balinese history is concerned.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Gratitude to Tuhan Yang Maha Esa, Ida Sang Hyang Widhi Wasa for the blessed in this research process. Thank to Prof.Dr. I Nyoman Darma Putra,M.Litt., as promoter, Prof.Dr.Ir. Sulistyawati, M.S.,M.M.,M.Mis.,D.Th, as co-promoter I, Prof.Dr. I Gede Arya Sugiartha,S.SKar,M.Hum, as co-promoter II that full of attention in
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teaching, motivating giving support and suggestion during researcher doctoral program especially in completing this dissertation. And also thanks to all informant and all part that support this dissertation. This research will be meaningless without support from ISI Denpasar, family, best friends, partner especially team of Fashion Design ISI Denpasar, for that researcher would like to say thank for the support.
References
1. Barnard, Malcom. 2011. Fashion Sebagai Komunikasi. Yogyakarta: Jalasutra
2. Flügel, J. C,. 1950. The Psychology of Clothes. Ed. 3. London: The Hogarth Press dan The Institute of Psychoanalysis
3. Ratna Cora, Tjok Istri. 2011. “Wacana Fesyen Global dan Pakaian di Kosmopolitan Kuta”, disertasi, Program Doktor, Program Studi Kajian Budaya, Program Pascasarjana Universitas Udayana, Denpasar
4. Sutopo, Heribertus B., 1996. Metodologi Penelitian Kualitatif. Surakarta: Universitas Sebelas Maret Surakarta
5. Wittgenstein, L., 1958. Philosophical Investigations. Oxford : Blackwell
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LEARNER-AUTONOMY : TRANSITION TOWARDS SELF- DIRECTED LEARNING
Dr. B. Krishna Chandra Keerthi Assistant Professor in English Dr. V. S. K. G. D. C. (A) Visakhapatnam
Abstract
Learning has been a complex, muti-polar process since ages. Learning takes place irrespective of the mani-fold dimensions, varied perspectives and diverse limiting factors such as age, intelligence quotient, maturity level, sex, social, economic and cultural backgrounds. It is a continuous and life long process. In sharp contrast to the traditional teacher-centred method which has been in vogue over centuries, the learner-centred method is a revolutionary trend in the teaching-learning process. The authoritarian approach calls for an over whelming, domineering, influential, over-powering, charismatic and all-in-one / all-in-one personality of the teacher casting and wielding a mesmerising, magnetic and an indelible impact on his pupils/disciples leaving them as desperate and despondent dependents on him. The teacher continued to be the decisive figure designing and framing the content, resource materials, methodology, activities, tasks and procedures of evaluation making the learners passive listeners. With the changing times, dynamism has made its way into the learning mechanism providing the much needed impetus, momentum and the right platform for the shift of focus and attention towards the learners from the teacher. This raised and initiated many a point for discussion, debate and argument. The new orientation includes a certain transformation in the roles of both the learners and the teacher involving the learners in the learning process, making them active participants as well as partners in every sphere of teaching-learning activity making them responsible, self-directed and autonomous
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learners, which in fact leaves the teacher over burdened rather than relieved of his charge for enabling, guiding, directing and steering his wards to their new roles.. This transition among learners heading for the better is an interesting and a welcome note as well.
Language learning is a skill to be acquired on contrary to the content subjects where knowledge can be acquired through different ways and means including that of rote learning. Various methods are being practised for the teaching of English language such as oral approach, aural-oral approach, situational approach, communicative approach, structural method, inductive-deductive method, direct method, grammar translation method and bi-lingual method. In all these traditional and conventional approaches and methods the teacher continues to be the authoritarian playing the lead role, dictating the terms, devising, designing and deciding everything with respect to content, methodology, activities/tasks and even the procedures of evaluation. The over possessed learner remained as a mere spectator, a passive listener and a tool in the hands of the teacher. The students continue to depend on their teacher unable to think of any other alternative. They lack confidence in themselves nor are they prepared for peer group learning. The English language teaching-learning is beset with so many intricacies and challenges which need keen attention. Even though English has become a part and parcel of our life, the phobia and distancing continue to persist. Firstly, the shift of focus from the traditional authoritarian role of the teacher to the learner centred, learning centred, experiential / participatory learning modes is the need of the hour and order of the day. The language learning seeks dynamic initiative on the part of the learner towards the self-driven, goal-directed behaviour with the much needed impetus and momentum provided by the teacher in the new changed role as a facilitator, director and guide. This article presents several issues from a multitude of directions pertaining to language teaching – learning
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mechanism throwing light on the transition of the learner towards self –directed learning in the backdrop of the classroom dynamics at large.
Learner-Centredness : Teaching for the students and planning teaching keeping the students at the centre are entirely different. The concept of learner-centredness involves the learner as a key figure around which the whole process of teaching-learning revolves. Learner participation, active involvement, and partnership in the teaching- learning process reflect the learner-oriented methodology. Learner- centredness is also inclusive of learner responsibility which in turn takes the form of learner autonomy. When the learners know about the nature of the language learning and the difference that their contribution can make, they need some practice to act as responsible learners and they try to take over some roles from the teacher and enjoy the freedom that comes with the increased responsibility. The learner-centred view tends to view language acquisition as a process of acquiring skills rather than a body of knowledge. Proponents of learner-centred curricula are interested in assisting the learners gain the communicative and linguistic skills they need to carry out real- world tasks than in enabling the learners acquire the totality of the language.
Responsibility vs. Autonomy : Responsibility and autonomy are two sides of the same coin. Both are inseparable and interrelated. Autonomy is the freedom and ability to look after one’s own affairs and also the right to make decisions. On the other hand responsibility implies keeping one in charge of something where one has to face and is concerned with the consequences of his own actions. Personality traits, preferred learning styles and cultural attitudes set constraints to the development of autonomy. Responsibility and autonomy mark the learner-centred pedagogy. However some students may be averse to taking the initiative of self-learning and self growth which may lead to autonomy. Such students tend to be over dependent on their teacher.
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So it’s the look out of the teacher to develop responsible attitudes in his students and to do so he must shed his old conventional /traditional role that of an authoritarian and assume the new role of a facilitator /counsellor.
The teacher in his traditional authoritarian role is considered to be rigid, knowledgeable, transmitter of the knowledge, responsible and accountable for the learning of his students and so believes that he has the ability and expertise to make right options, judgements and related to the learning of his students.
On the other hand in the learner-centred approach the teacher and the learner both have flexibility and both are learners. The teacher and the taught discuss and share everything related to teaching and learning process and each stage of framing the content, the methodology, resources, tasks/activities and the procedures of evaluation. The teacher accepts the self-directed learning of the learner and also that he is responsible for his own learning can take correct decisions that suit him. He confines himself to the background plays the role of director, the man behind the curtain, a mere facilitator providing him resources and support and enabling the learner to learn.
The learning will be successful when the learners develop a sense of responsibility and an attitude for autonomy and prepare themselves for inviting the challenges in the new roles. But the learners hesitate to accept changes and even oppose for many reasons such as the uncertainties and risks involved in the changes, overdependence on their teacher and the fear complex to act independently. The teachers and the parents may also be against the increase of learner involvement because of their apprehensions that it leads to disorder, lack of respect for elders, and loss of the teacher’s authority.
Motivation and Autonomy : Motivation and Autonomy both are alike and are prerequisites to learning and enhance the rate and pace of
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learning playing the catalytic role. Besides these self-confidence, self evaluation (auto correction), learning strategies, cooperation and group cohesion are the factors which contribute to learning and promote learning.
Self-confidence : Self-confidence boosts the morale of the learners and enables them to learn on their own with greater sense of responsibility instead of relying too much on their teacher for even the petty trivial issues.
Self-Evaluation : The learners’ checking, monitoring and a thorough examination of their contribution to their own learning. Self-evaluation requires the learners to play the role of their teachers and assess their own work and assignments impartially and objectively. The learners set targets for themselves, own them and feel responsibility for achieving them.
Learning strategies : Learning strategies are different means which are instrumental in acquiring language competence and the learners are to be encouraged to choose one from among those available that suits their needs and interests and guide them to discover them how and when to use these strategies.
Promotion of cooperation : Promotion of cooperation in the classroom affects learner attitudes. The learners rely on each other rather than on their teacher. Pair work and group work foster active involvement of learners, encourage collaborative learning along with providing ample opportunities for taking feed back from their peers.
Teacher Attitude : The teachers must have willingness to offer partnership to learners for achieving common goals, consistency in control and readiness to delegate tasks and decisions.
Sharing and Exchange of information with the Learners : By coming forward to share relevant information with the learners the
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teachers show respect and regard the learners as partners in achieving the common aim of learning a foreign language. The teachers discuss both long term and short term objectives and also the aims of every activity there by promoting a sense of responsibility among the learners.
Consistent Control : Expectations towards the learners, the limits of acceptable behaviour and the consequences of failure to live up to the expectations. Consistent application of rules prompt the learners to adhere to the rules.
Delegation of Tasks and Decisions : The learners are not professional teachers. They are sure to commit mistakes in their selection and implementation of tasks and in their decisions. However this should not be considered and the learners need to be encouraged and given free hand.
When the teacher decides to keep himself behind the screen, transfer his role at least partially, delegate his responsibility to his students, confine himself as a facilitator, convener, moderator and director keeping the learners at the centre, focussing his attention on them, planning and designing the entire teaching-learning program through a series of graded tasks / activities which sometimes are self-explanatory and in other cases unfold themselves after serious attempts and efforts then only the learners become active participants and partners in the learning process. Such instances prompt the learner responsibility and they begin to feel that they are crucial and instrumental to progress in learning, behave and respond accordingly and co-operate with their teachers and peers, learn mutually and even come up with ideas of improving the tasks.
Activities : The three basic features that each activity contains are :
a) Difficulty of the activity in terms of the language proficiency.
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b) Attitude or skill the activity is designed to tackle. c) Language focus includes other curricular such as grammar practice and sub skills of listening, speaking, reading and writing. d) Preparation part consists of materials or devices needed for the activity.
Learner-centred methodology initiates and boosts learner autonomy / responsibility which means learning takes place along with the teacher and not from the teacher. This does not however entail the learners with too high expectations which can prove to be disastrous. So a careful, gradual involvement can increase their motivation and interest.
Some activities expose the learners to new ways of thinking about their learning, some activities to old routine habits and some other activities enable them to discover new aspects of learning. The efficiency of teaching depends on many factors such as learner’s motivation, interest, readiness, skills, ability and willingness to cooperate and work as a group or community. The learners explore to realise how they can contribute to their own learning.
Before proceeding to provide the learners with varied contexts for their autonomous guided phased learning the teacher must know the existing attitudes and previous knowledge of his learners. By emphasising the skills and knowledge that they already possess the learners get confidence and are motivated. The teacher can devise some experiments to introduce learning strategies, to sort out those that work best for them in their learning. Contexts may also be provided by the teacher for the learners to seek and offer help and cooperation, encourage exchange and sharing of views and ideas in the group and from the peers. Some other contexts may lead them to think about their learning styles and the diverse preferences for learning strategies exercised by their peers.
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Learner Autonomy : It refers to a certain mode of study or to a qualitative involvement of learners, various forms of independent or self-directed learning involving limited teacher intervention and generally outside a traditional classroom setting. It also relates to notions of awareness of learning goals, participation in decision- making, and personal assumption of responsibility.
Learner autonomy is a part of learner-centred system. Wenden describes the autonomous learner as the one who : “ ...... has acquired the strategies and knowledge to take some (if not yet all )responsibility for her language learning and is willing and self-confident enough to do so.” ( 1991:163 )
Crabbe identifies three main reasons for fostering learner autonomy.
The argument on ideological plane is that :
“ ..... the individual has the right to be free to exercise his or her own choices, in learning as in other areas, and not become a victim (even an unwitting one) of choices made by social institutions. (1993 : 443)
Crabbe’s second argument is psychological and :
“ ...... is simply that we learn better when we are in charge of our own learning (and that the resultant learning) is more meaningful, more permanent, more focussed on the processes and schemata of the individual when the individual is in charge.” (Op.cit : 443)
Crabbe’s third argument is economic and is based in the presumption that :
“ .... society does not have the resources to provide the level of personal instruction needed by all its members in every area of learning (so that) individuals must be able to provide for their own learning needs ..... (Op.cit :443)
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Huttenen (1986 : 232) defines autonomy as ‘the willingness and ability of the learner to take responsibility for his own learning.”
Dickinson identifies five characteristics of autonomous learners :
1. They understand what is being taught.
2. They are able to formulate their own learning objectives.
3. They are able to select and make use of appropriate learning strategies.
4. They are able to monitor their use of these strategies.
5. They are able to self-assess, or monitor their own learning. ( 1993 : 330-331 )
Interest in learner autonomy, and in the closely related area of learner training, has moved language teaching in a learner-centred direction in four ways.
1. The language teaching identifies the central role which the learners can and should play in the management of their language study.
2. Focus or attention of language teaching profession on the development of pedagogical procedures which motivate and enable the learners to become active participants in the learning process.
3. By focussing attention of the language teaching community on learning processes in addition to learning products, it has generated interest in those learner-specific factors which influence learners’ interaction with various aspects of language study.
4. It has also led to reflection on the interaction between learners’ cultural background and expectations, and their perception of autonomy.
Learners explore both their objective and subjective needs in collaboration with their teacher as part of a shared process of discovery.
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The concept of learner-centred curriculum has integrated within a coherent planning framework many insights such as relevance of content, flexibility of learning and the strategic involvement of learners.
Three perspectives of learner-centredness are learner-centredness as a principle for activity organisation, learner autonomy, and the learner- centred curriculum.
1. A learner –centred approach accepts and seeks to learn from the perspectives on language teaching contained in any method or approach, as well as from the insights teachers derive from their everyday teaching experience, it does this in the belief that openness to a variety of experiences and insights makes the language teacher better able to respond to local needs.
2. A learner-centred approach positively accepts diversity between learners, learning contexts and learning goals.
3. A learner-centred approach is concerned in the first instance with the learners involved and with the quality of their learning.
4. A learner-centred approach is open to insights from any source, within or outside language teaching, providing better understanding of the needs of learners is achieved and more effective teaching and learning procedures are identified.
5. A learner-centred approach generates a healthy dissatisfaction with current practice, as it maintains that there is no once-and-for–all right answer, but only appropriate, local responses to local needs.
6. A learner-centred approach seeks coherence in terms of the adequacy of its response to the needs of each new group of learners.
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References
1. Wenden, A. 1991. Learner Strategies for Learner Autonomy. Hemel Hempstead : Prentice Hall.
2. Crabbe, D. 1993. Fostering Autonomy from within the Classroom : The Teacher’s Responsibility. SYSTEM 21 : 443-52.
3. Huttenen, I. 1986. Towards Learner Autonomy in Foreign Language Learning in Senior Secondary Schools. Oulu : Acta Universities Ouluensis.
4. Dickinson, L. 1993. Aspects of Autonomous Learning, ELT Journal 47 : 330- 36.
5. Tudor, Ian. 2009. Learner-Centredness as Language Education.
6. Nunan, David. 1996. The Learner-Centred Curriculum.
7. Scharle, Agota and Szabo, Anita. 2001. Learner Autonomy.
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A STUDY ON FUTURE PROSPECTS AND CHALLENGES OF ISLAMIC BANKING SYSTEM IN INDIA
Delawar Hussain Dr. Amit Majumdar Research Scholar Assistant Professor St.III Shibpur Dinobundhoo College (Reader) of Commerce (Institution) Bijoy Krishna Girls College Howrah Howrah
Abstract
Islamic banking refers to that banking system which is based on the Islamic principles (i.e. Shariah Law) that put emphasis on moral and ethical values. Islamic banking prohibits interest (Riba) in lending and accepting of money but promote profit sharing. India being the 3rd most Muslims populated country in the world facing some serious challenges to adopt Islamic banking system though it has a very fine future prospect. Islamic banking has established itself as a choice of banking alongside the conventional interest-based banking, and it has been expanding rapidly over the last two decades in both Muslim and non- Muslim countries Such as Germany, UK, USA, France and Singapore. In this paper a market analysis has been done by using ‘SWOT’ analysis and Michael Porter five forces model. The findings from the study reveals that Islamic banking could be adopted as an alternative to conventional banking but amendment is needed in existing banking law of the country. Islamic banking could bring financial inclusion to those Muslims customers who are reluctant to conventional banking due to religious belief. Moreover, India has the opportunity to gather foreign fund from Islamic countries by introducing Islamic banking system that could help in the growth and economic development of our country.
Keywords: Islamic Banking; Shariah Law; Riba
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Introduction
Islamic banking system is the banking system that is based on the Islamic principle (i.e. Shari’ah law) and guided by the Islamic economics. It is also known as interest free banking or finance, is a banking system, which promotes profit sharing, but prohibits the charging and paying of interest. Islamic banking principles put emphasis on moral and ethical values in all its dealings and it operates in accordance with the rules of Shari’ah, known as Fiqh al- Muamalat(Islamic rules on transactions).
Islamic Banking System derived from three sources
Quran: revelation from Allah
Sunnah: authentication saying & actions of prophet Mohammad (Sallalaho alehi wasalam)
Figh: collection of interpretation/ ruling/ percepts based on Sunnah
A popular belief persist that Islamic banking is simply an interest free financial structure but infect Islamic economics is the complete system of social and economic justice. It deals with property right, the incentive system, allocation of resources, freedom of decisions making and proper role of government. According to the Islamic law interest leads to inflation and accumulation of interest leads to widening the gap between rich and poor. Even in Islamic Mortgage transaction, instead to loaning the money to buyer, a Bank might buy the item at a profit while allowing the buyer to pay to bank in installment.
The Quran says, “Allah has permitted trade but forbidden riba” i.e. interest. (2:275). Therefore it is the only fix and predetermines return of saving that is forbidden not an uncertain rate of return that is profit.
Islamic banking systems based on the some basic Islamic principles (i.e. Shari’ah law) are;
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Interest (known as Riba) on both payment and receipt is strictly prohibited (haram).
The system is fully based on profit and loss sharing.
The Shari'ah law does not permit investment in certain industries such as Adult entertainment, Alcohol, sale of pork and Gambling. According to Islamic principle it is “Haram” to invest in these industries. This is why Islamic Banking is also referred to as Ethical banking system.
Gharar (Uncertainty, Risk or Speculation) is also prohibited.
Trading in debt is also not allowed, which is why Banks do not deal in traditional bonds; rather they have their own version of such instruments called Sukuk (Islamic Bond).
Interest free loans (Qard Hasan) are encouraged to spread financial inclusion.
The following are the methods of financing operates under Islamic Banking System
Musharakah (joint Venture): Musharakah is an agreement between the Islamic bank and its partner, whereby each partner provides funds to be used in a venture. The profits that are generated are shared between the partners according to the invested capital. Islamic bank also hare the risk with the partners in case of loss.
Mudarabah (profit sharing): Mudarabah is a contract, where Islamic banks provide capital to another party in order for them to invest in a commercial enterprise. Any profits generated as a result of the investment are generally determined by pre-agreed conditions. In contrast to Musharakah, under profit sharing, only Islamic banks may incur a loss.
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Murabahah (cost plus sale): Murabahah refers to the sale of goods at a price, which includes a profit margin agreed to by both parties. The purchasing and selling price, other costs, and the profit margin must be clearly stated at the time of the sale agreement. The bank is compensated for the time value of its money in the form of the profit margin.
Ijarah (lease): Ijarah refers to the lease of assets and equipment such as office equipment and motor vehicles. Under Ijarah, the Bank rents assets to the customer, for a fixed period and price.
Bai Salam (Forward purchasing): Bai salam means a contract in which advance payment is made for goods to be delivered later on. The seller undertakes to supply some specific goods to the buyer at a future date in exchange of an advance price fully paid at the time of contract.
Istisna: This is second type of forward sale contract allows an Islamic financial institution to buy a project (on behalf of buyer) that is under construction and will be completed and deliver on future date.
Sukuk (Islamic bonds): Sukuk are the financial certificates that share some similarities with conventional bonds hence are also commonly referred to as Islamic Bonds. A major difference between conventional bonds and sukuk is the structure of sukuk removes interest based elements.
Qard Hasan (Good loan): Qard Hassan is a loan extended on a goodwill basis. Under a ‘good loan’, the borrower is only required to repay the amount borrowed.
Wadiah (safe keeping): Wadiah refers to the practice of safeguarding deposits. When a depositor places funds into the
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bank, the bank guarantees to repay the depositor the amount of the deposit whenever it is demanded to do so.
Hibah (gift): Hibah is a voluntary gift given by an Islamic bank to a depositor in return for a loan. Banks reward depositors with Hibah as a ‘Thank You’ for permitting them to use the money in their savings account.
Objective of the Study
The objective of the present paper is to make an inroad into the development of Islamic Banking concept in the World in general and in India in particular. Moreover, the present study has been taken with an objective to envisage on the problems and prospects of the Islamic Banking concept in India, the country having third largest Muslim populations in the World.
A Presence of Islamic Banking System in World
The first model of Islamic banking system came into picture in 1963 in Egypt. Ahmad Al Najjar was the founder of this Islamic bank and the key features of this bank was profit sharing on the non interest based
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philosophy of the Islamic Shariah. In 1974, the Organization of Islamic Countries (OIC) had established the first Islamic bank called the Islamic Development Bank or IDB. The basic business model of this bank was to provide financial assistance and support on profit sharing.
By the end of 1970, several Islamic banking systems have been established throughout the Muslim world, including the first private commercial bank in Dubai(1975), the Bahrain Islamic bank(1979) and the Faisal Islamic bank of Sudan (1977). And thereafter several Islamic banks were formed in both Muslims and non-Muslims countries. Figh council of the OIC declares “Takaful” as the fully Islamic providing the way for Islamic insurance to flourish (1985). In 1991 Accounting and Auditing Organization for Islamic Financial Institution (AAOIFI) were established. This institute acts as a nodal body advising on standard to be followed worldwide.
Islamic banks operate worldwide in over 75 countries mostly in Middle East and Southeast Asia, with Bahrain and Malaysia as the biggest hubs. Islamic banking has established itself as a choice of banking alongside the conventional interest-based banking, and it has been expanding rapidly over the last two decades in both Muslim and non- Muslim countries. Many developed countries of the world, such as Germany, UK, USA, France and Singapore have embraced Islamic Banking to take the tally of countries where this form of banking is already operational as an alternative system.
The exceptional growth rate and robust performance of the Islamic banking and financial sector has attracted the attention of several nations, even developed western nations like UK are promoting Islamic finance, following the principle of “no favor but no discrimination”. Formal Prime Minister Goden Brown introduced Islamic banking in UK when he was the finance minster. Mr. Brown predicted that London would be future gate way of Islamic banking. The result today justify his prediction, at a time when other Banks are facing closure the
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Islamic Bank of Britain is expanding its network in UK and asking the to do the same in European countries.
The positive perception of customers especially among non-Muslims towards Islamic banking, especially due to the fact that Islamic banks have to compete with conventional banks that have long existed in the dual banking system. In its initial years, the response to Islamic banking was mainly from a market segment of Muslims who were concerned about practicing Islamic principles in all spheres including banking whilst notable efforts were made to market the Islamic banking products to the non-Muslims. Apparently, in recent years, non- Muslims have become the major users of Islamic banking products and services. A report of Husin (2008) stated that non-Muslims have gradually become the major users of Islamic banking in Malaysia, indicated by the banks such as the Hong Leong Islamic Bank, Oversea- Chinese Banking Corporation (OCBC) and even the Malaysian Cooperative Bank (Bank Rakyat) have reported a 70 percent uptake of Islamic financial products by Chinese customers. This indicates the degree of acceptance of Islamic banking among the Chinese community in Malaysia as their choice in banking transactions. Today many big multinational banks including HSBC Amanah, Standard Chartered Saadiq, Lloyds TSB Bank and Citigroup offer products in accordance with Islamic Banking principles.
The progress of Islamic Banking system in the World at a glance
Islamic banking is operational in more than 75 countries in the world.
EY analyzed the sentiment of over 2.2 million customers’ social media posts on their banking experiences with Islamic banks in Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, Kuwait, UAE, Malaysia, Indonesia,
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Turkey, Qatar and Oman. The results showed that customer satisfaction is mediocre for many Islamic banks.
International Islamic banking assets with commercial banks set to exceed US$778b in 2014.
The global profit pool of Islamic banks is set to triple by 2019.
Islamic banking assets in six core markets Qatar, Indonesia, Saudi Arabia, Malaysia, UAE, Turkey on course to touch US$1.8t by 2019.
Global Islamic banking assets witnessed a compounded annual growth rate (CAGR) of around 17% from 2009 to 2013.
Islamic banks in Saudi Arabia, Kuwait and Bahrain represent more than 48.9%, 44.6% and 27.7% market share respectively.
Positive progress has been has made in Indonesia, Turkey and Pakistan, with 43.5%, 18.7% and 22.0% CAGR respectively from 2009-2013.
Islamic Banking System in India
Islamic Banking still seems to be a strange concept in India though the most worlds developed nation embarrassing it as an alternative to conventional banking. Despite its impressive growth in the other part of the world such as Middle East, South East Asia and Europe, countries like UK, USA and Singapore. It is yet to find the favor with Indian authority.
Over the last decade a number of considerable changes have occurred in Indian banking sector to lift up the efficiency and productivity of banks as a whole. With the objective to reach banking system more and more people, in 2005 Reserve Bank of India (RBI) had constituted a committee headed by Anand Sinha, deputy director of RBI, to examine
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the financial instruments used in Islamic banking. The committee gave two observations.
Appropriate modification is required in Banking Regulation Act 1949 along with separate rules and regulation.
Taxation proposition have to be examined. RBI rejected the idea of Islamic banking by saying it is not feasible for Indian banks under existing condition without making amendment in current law.
In 2008, the planning commission of India appointed a committee on financial sector reforms headed by Dr. Raghuram Rajan, the committee recommended the introduction of interest-free finance and banking as part of mainstream banking in the interest of inclusive and innovative growth. The committee believed that it would be possible only through appropriate measures to create a frame work for such products without any adverse systematic risk impact.
Another significant development has taken place in the state of Kerala; KSIDC (Kerala State Industrial Development Corporation) a wholly State development company has taken a courageous step to get into agreement with Al-Barakah Group to offer shariah complaint to Muslim community. Subramaniam Swamy, a leader of Janata party has submitted a petition in the High court to stop the participation of the Kerala Government. Admission to this petition has put a hold on the proceeding to the long time.
Today, Islamic banking has a presence in India in the form of NBFCs and Baitul-Mal (Islamic treasury) but the business is small. These institutions mostly work at the regional level, catering to a niche segment. Further, Kerala Government- owned KSIDC has started AL- Barakah Financial services ltd, GIC of India runs an Islamic reassurance scheme, and several mutual fund scheme invest explicitly
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in compliance with Islamic rules. TASIS, an index on Bombay stock exchange representing only shariah -compliant stocks, is the first of its kind in India. The recent go ahead from the Reserve Bank of India the Kerala government for the launch of first Islamic bank in the region is a positive step forward.
The prospects of Islamic Banking System in India
Islamic banking for inclusive Growth: Islamic Banking has the potential to docile the problems relating to inflation along with prioritized inclusive growth. In the recent years Indian economy has been growing and the financial sector in the GDP has gone up. It is more favorable to the corporate sector than the vast portion of population living below poverty line. The extension of debt finance by commercial banks and interest rate sensitivity to inflation are well known. Islamic bank assist in equitable distribution of income by encouraging equity finance unlike the conventional banking. The dividend shared by depositors on equity finance helps equitable distribution of income generated by financial sector which actually helps in promoting concentration of wealth.
Despite the focus on industrialization, agriculture remains a dominant sector of the Indian economy both in terms of contribution to GDP as well as a source of employment to millions across the country. No equivalent growth of workmen and the growth of service sector rather the developing economy has become suicidal economy for them. According to BBC News, 2,00,000 farmers have committed suicide in India since 1997. The main reason for these tragic ends to life is failure to pay interest-ridden debt, for betterment of the situation interest free system could play a key role. In this regard, Islamic product like Bai Salam and Istisna may be used for the benefits of farmers.
Islamic banking could also help in lending to small unorganized sector due to its non-insistence on collateral as a precondition for lending even
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small sum of money. This would also change the desperate labour- capital ratios in rural India, in particular, in States like Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal and the seven sisters of North East.
Islamic banking and financial inclusion: According to the report presented by Sachar Committee, on socio-economic status of Muslims in India, reveals that Muslims are the most disadvantageous community in financial sector. Due to the interest based deposit and credit system of commercial banks and financial institution, 50% Muslims are financially excluded. The report also reveals that the participation of Muslims employees in banking sector in very less. Only 0.78% and 2.2% 0f employees of RBI and SCBs are Muslims. Similarly specialized institutions like SIDIBI, NABARD and NMDFC the participation of Muslims employees are negligible. Hard to believe but true that even in institute like, National Minority Development Financial Corporation (NMDFC) have no Muslim manager.
At present Muslims is the second largest community in India having population more than 172million which is account for 14.2% of total population. Hard to belief that according to Sachar Committee Report Indian Muslims have merely a share of 7.4% in saving deposits while just get 4.7% in credit terms. There are several reasons for this state of affairs Muslims hesitates to enter in interest based transaction. They try to develop their alternative means interest free society. Indian Muslims are looking forward for interest free banking in order to avail credit facility for their betterment. The incorporation of Islamic banking as an alternative to conventional banking may add millions of Muslims to formal financial sector and this may enable Banking sector to mobiles billions of dollars savings.
Investment opportunities form Gulf countries: Islamic banking could attract gulf countries to invest in India, as people from that region investing their surplus in shariah compliant institutions, at present countries like Pakistan, Indonesia, and UK are getting
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benefited. However due to the manipulation in fund in recent past, they are looking for a safe investment destination. And India could be that destination because of its legal framework that protects the investors. India has huge market potential with managerial technique and skill full labours than countries like Pakistan and Indonesia, and these could catch the attention of the gulf investors.
Corporate sector and Islamic finance: India has been suffering from demand supply mismatch in terms of funding requirement to finance infrastructure projects. Introduction of Islamic finance can play crucial role in order to bridge the gap of funding infrastructure in India. Long term resources for the infrastructure sectors like irrigation, power, oil, and communication project could be faster and easier through Islamic banking. New modes of public, private partnership may emerge.
Indian government has called for US$1 trillion infrastructure spending in the five years through 2017. According to planning commission, India is facing a fund gap of US$300 billion in meeting its infrastructure funding requirement until 2017. This viability gap continues to expand. Through the Islamic banking, equity fiancé can be promoted from the national and international market and this can help in reducing the burden of keeping national current account and fiscal deficit under control.
Stock market capitalization: under Islamic banking system stock market of India is likely to be benefited, since Islamic banking focuses on equity finance, it is expected that stock market will preferred destination for investment by the Islamic bankers. At present our stock market attracting new investment under shariah based financial scheme. As experience shows that stock market is the safe and attracting mode of deploying equity fund. This may lead to flow millions of demat accounts.
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The hindrances for Islamic Banking System in India
Legal Hindrances: India's present laws obstruct the establishment of Islamic banking. Indian banking is governed by the Banking Regulation Act 1949, RBI Act 1934, and Cooperative Societies Act and Negotiable Instruments Act 1961. Many of the section of Banking Regulation Act oppose the Islamic banking principles
Section 21 of Indian Banking Regulation Act requires payments of interest which is against the Sariah law. Islamic banking is completely interest free banking system.
Section 5&6 of the Banking Regulation Act disallowed Banks to enter into any profit sharing and partnership contract; this is the very basic principle of Islamic banking system.
Section 9 of Banking Regulation Act prohibits Banks to own any short of immovable property apart from private use – this is against the Ijara
The interest earned on fixed deposits is subject to TDS as per the Income Tax Act 1961, whereas the profit on Islamic banking deposits is treated differently.
For meeting short term funding requirements commercial banks borrow from RBI or other banks. But Islamic banks can’t do so because it involves interest.
Thus to allow interest free banking, considerable amount of changes in law need to be made. One way is to keep present law applicable for conventional banks and amends specific law should be applicable for Islamic banking.
Shortage of Islamic Banking Professionals: There is a serious shortage of Islamic bankers as well as scholars. Although few training institute has started to offer postgraduate diploma in Islamic banking
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and finance but they are not able to fulfill the shortage of experience Islamic banking professionals.
Lack of awareness: A common belief persists in the peoples that Islamic banking is only meant for Muslims which is not true, because in countries like Malaysia, UK, USA and others 40% customers of Islamic banks are non – Muslims.
Political interference: Islamic banking is a political not financial argument in India. In an environment of minority vote-banking and distrustful political manipulation, any idea tagged with a religious prefix is doomed. it should be keep in mind that that Islamic banking is not a mandatory methodology imposed on all financial operations in the country. It is an additional choice for the investor, and nothing prohibits one from using different systems for different transactions.
Market Analysis for Islamic Banking System
SWOT Analysis: A SWOT analysis guides to identify the strength and weakness as well as broader opportunities and threats involved with the venture. Develop a fuller awareness of the situations help with both strategy planning and decision making. The SWOT analysis of Islamic banking in India is represented as follows.
STRENGHTH WEAKNESS • The huge Muslims • Lack of knowledge about population in India (Around Islamic Banking. 14.2%) • lack of expert personals • Bridges the gap of income • Amendment in banking disparity law is required. • Increasing trend of demand for niche product in India.
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OPPORTUNITIES THREATS • Growth of economy by • May use as political inflow of investment from weapon. gulf countries. • Against the secularism of • Addresses to financial the nation. inclusion. • Microfinance is a good • Upliftment of farmers and competitor. potential of inclusive growth.
Thus, the strength and opportunities of Islamic banking in India beats the weakness and threats. Though the weaknesses can be removed very easily, developing the expertise and creating awareness about the system is just the matter of time. However due to the political loopholes and fundamentalist attitude of the few the debate on secularism may arise and last long.
Michael Porter Five Forces Analysis
Michael Porter`s five force model is a frame work to identify and analyze the internal and external factors that can have impact on the viability of an industrial structure. These five forces are.
Bargaining power of customers: Determining the difficulties and opportunities of a consumer to start competing.
Bargaining power of suppliers: emphasizing strength of supplier
Competitive rivalry among the existing players: competitive rivalry among the pre existing players
Threat of substitute products: effect of a homogeneous substitute
Threat for new entrants: opportunities and strengths of new entrants against the preexisting players.
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Suggestions:
As per RBI release it is clear that under current legal framework Islamic Banking is not possible, a great deal of change in law is needed. India needs to follow UK example to govern the Islamic banking by introducing new laws.
It needs to be clear that the scope of Islamic banking is not just confined to the Muslims community. The awareness is required to develop about Islamic banking as an alternative ethical form of banking system.
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A great deal of effort is required in the area of training and education. This subject should be added in curriculum of the professional courses.
Conclusion:
Islamic banking system has a great potential and fine prospect to grow and develop in Indian economic scenario. By not introducing Islamic finance, India is losing the opportunity to gather huge domestic and foreign fund. Islamic banking could bring financial inclusion to those Muslims customers who are reluctant to conventional banking due to religious belief. India has the opportunity gather fund from Islamic countries by introducing Islamic banking system and that could help in the growth and economic development of the country
A lot of amendments in the existing banking law of the country is needed to carry out in the legal provisions for setting up the path for its growth. Appropriate models need to be selected and implemented that serves the society`s diverse financial need. RBI should made a collaboration along with the reputed domestic and international banks in the process of determining and implementing Islamic banking products
At present no viable report or any project work is available on this issue. It would be advisable that the government should appoint a committee of expert professionals to study the prospects of Islamic banking in India. At the same time it is also necessary that vocal supporters of this issue should work jointly in the study, so that it should not be just consider as a religious issue but a beneficial financial alternative which would be beneficial in the growth and development of the country.
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References:
1. Ahmed, A. (2003), Introduction to Islamic banking in India; scope and challenges, Ed Javed Ahmed Khan ( New Delhi: Institute of Objective Study)
2. Ahmed, Syed Zahid (2008), Economic of Islamic Banking in India, The IOS Minaret, An Online Islamic Magazine, Vol.3, No.10
3. Dubey S. (2014), Islamic Banking- Tool for inclusive growth in India, International Monthly Journal Of Research In Management And Technology (Vol-III).
4. Kahn, O. (2004), A proposed introduction of Islamic banking in India, International Journal of Islamic Financial Services. Vol-5 No.4
5. Majumdar S. (2008), Islamic banking in India; what is the future potential?, Dissertation on Crisil Young Thought Leader.
6. http://www.islamic-banking.com/what-is-ibanking.aspx (last acc essed on 29.07.16)
7. http://www.EY-world-islamicbanking-competitive-report-2014- 15.pdf (last accessed on 29.07.16)
8. http://www.infosys,com/finacle/solution/thought- process/document/why-india-needs-islamic-banking.pdf (last ac cessed on 29.07.16)
9. http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com (last accessed on 29.07.16)
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IMPACT OF SOCIO-ECONOMIC CONDITIONS ON EMERGENCE OF TELANGANA ARMED STRUGGLE Sunitha Pandi Ph.D. Research Scholar Department of History Osmania University Hyderabad,Telangana Abstract:
Social and economic conditions of Dalit-bahujans have the main reason for the rise of Telangana armed struggled along with the oppressive attitude of Nizam. This paper focus on the way in which the impact of socio-economic conditions caused for the emergence of Telangana armed struggles.
Key Words:Social, Economic, Emergence, Telangana, Armed Struggles, Nizam, British, Congress, Ambedkar
Introduction:
The expression social and economic developments were presented in 1850 by the German Sociologist Lorenz von Stein in his book History of the French Social Movement from 1789 to the Present in 1850. Social and economic developments are substantial casual groupings of people and/or associations concentrated on particular political or social issues, as it were, on doing, opposing or fixing a social change. Social or economic change alludes to the thought of social and economic advancement or socio-economic development; the philosophical thought that society pushes ahead by persuasive or transformative means. Social change might be driven by social, religious, financial, political, investigative or innovative strengths. Change pushed by social and economic development, may likewise be radical or progressive; requesting principal change in the current social/institutional structures and connections.
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Socio-Political and Economic Development:
A Socio-Political-economic1 development requests a basic change in the framework. It might be composed around a solitary issue or set of issues, or around an arrangement of shared worries of a social gathering or group. It goes for persuading the nationals and/or government officers to make a move on the issues and concerns which are at the center of the development. Political development is a statement of the battle of a social gathering for the political space and advantages. 2
Social and economic developments start with unequal circulations of riches, influence, and benefit, impacts of social approach, and social change or transgression. Abused/seeking gatherings may compose to seek after their mutual convictions and interests. For socialization and social change, correspondence is an essential. Social change alludes to the thought of social advancement or socio-social development; the philosophical thought that society advances by argumentative or transformative means.
With a specific end goal to activate support for their causes, social activists deliberately attract correspondence arrangements to make their requests to be at the cutting edge of people in general level headed discussion. To clarify the across the board presence of social developments, once in a while individuals make compelling penance for their benefit. Telangana development is one among such Socio economic developments, which utilized different specialized techniques to prepare support for their causes.
Telangana is known for the courageous deeds and the chronicled battles. Telangana happened to be the support of progressive
1 Agricultural Indebtedness Committee Report, 1935.p.9 2 The Voice of the Voiceless-Y Prabhanjan Kumar Yadav Maitreya Publications,Hyderabad, 2006.pp.56-67
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developments. This area saw chronicled battles pursued against the control and the misuse. The progressing separate Telangana battle is one such Socio-Political developments in India. It is the main Indian battle for monetary and social self-governance. The interest for Telangana is an interest for dependable and participatory legislative issues. It is the interest for little states. The interest for little states is an interest for popularity based administration.
From 1948 to 19563, Telangana went through a few stages Military guideline, Valois principle and the incitement of a well known government after races in 1952 with Burugula Ramakrishna Rao as Chief Minister. The Hyderabad Tenancy Act, a standout amongst the most dynamic acts ever, was passed and incompletely actualized. The Hyderabad State could have proceeded with its glad presence however for the choice to frame etymological states. Actually, Nehru pushed its duration. Yet, Andhra Pradesh was framed, much against the suggestions of the Fazal Ali Commission and guidance of Jawahrlal Nehru.4
Formation of Andhra State:
The Andhra authority as yet hurting at the evil treatment distributed to them by the Tamil decision class in the old Madras Presidency, exchanged the damage to the general population of Telangana. Another reason is additionally the desire for influence and cash of the medieval ranks of the Andhra territory, Kammas, Reddys and Brahmins. The evil gotten film riches and pioneer abuse of Telangana water and influence asset; have made a crazy society. The Congress and Telugu Desam, obviously went about as the official agents of this madness. All out misuse of Telangana assets for the advantage of the Andhra range is joined by assaults in transit of life of Telangana individuals. Indeed,
3 Hyderabad Census Report, Part–I,1921.p.8 4 Media & Communication Research -Edited by Klaus bruhn jenson,pp.67-89
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the emphasis on the arrangement of Andhra Pradesh was itself with the expectation of taking control of Telangana assets.
The Andhra world class in their semantic bullheadedness seeing Guntur and Krishna Telugu as the main Telugu and have attempted to ride roughshod over Telangana Telugu. Andhraites trust that the Telangana dialect is no Telugu, Telangana individuals are sluggish, dolts and lawbreakers. In the event that it is the situation, is there any significance in saying that Andhra Pradesh is framed on semantic premise? While the whole nation praises Hyderabad and its lifestyle, the Andhra rulers are never tired of saying that Telangana individuals are uncultured. Hence, the self-destructive endeavor to enslave Telangana for all time proceeds.5
1956 and 1969 Struggles:
In 1956 individuals of Telangana pursued a fomentation against the merger of Telangana with the Andhra. In any case, it was likewise deceived. Truth be told, Telangana development of 1969 really initiated on sixth December 1968. Understudies took out a parade from Vivek Vardhini College in Hyderabad. The parade was assaulted by rowdies enlisted by purported integrationists and in addition the police. Before long exhibitions were sorted out in Khammam and Warangal, which later spread to Nizamabad and different parts of Telangana.
Under the flag of Telangana Praja Samithi, the development spread to all edges of Telangana. Advisory groups were framed all around in the area. It chose to take out a rally to Raj Bhavan on first May 1969. The Government banned the rally. In any case, rally began from Charminar great many individuals to participate in it. The fantastic old man of Telangana, K. V. Ranga tended to the social affair. The last sentence of his discourse was Ghulami ki zindagi se mout acchi hai - demise is desirable over an existence of slavery,inspired the activists and helped
5 Report of the Tenancy Committee, Hyderabad 1940.p.87
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their assurance. In spite of hundreds teargas shells were shot at, the parade proceeded with up and down the parade course, till it achieved Raj Bhavan.6
President of Secunderabad College Union, Umrender Rao, tumbled to a slug close Raj Bhavan. A segment of Telangana police had declined to start shooting in the Raj Bhavan region. However disregarding all the tear-gassing and terminating the parade kept on swelling and when it achieved Raj Bhavan there were more than fifty thousand individuals. The suffering of young fellows was the sparkle that lit the flame all over Telangana. The battling soul against the treachery itself was the best method for correspondence. The dedication to the cause itself was the best instrument of correspondence.
Dr.B.R.Ambedkar and Indian National Congress Party on Telangana:
Congress is surely understood to trick as far back as its arrangement, opined by Dr B R Ambedkar on a few events. It invaded the development. At the end of the day Congress deceived the general population of Telangana in the pretense of Marri Channa, who began disassembling the association at each level. However the development proceeded since it was still alive at the grassroots level. The NGOs' strike was proceeding. The whole organization had been deadened. PM Indira Gandhi paid a flying midnight visit to Hyderabad to mollify individuals, maybe to buy a few pioneers. Therefore, Channa reported the suspension of the development.
Dominant Castes:
The long anticipating power monger Kamma people group investigated every one of the conceivable outcomes and attempted their best to come to control in the appearance of Telugu Desam Party, with a mass
6 Web sources – www. Research scholors.com
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appealing motto the Telugu dignity and pride. By and by the invasion of Andhras swelled like anything and snatched the Telangana assets. They sprawled like imperceptible foes and attacked Telangana. They embarrassed and derided at Telangana society and dialect. Amid TDP administration the Andhras who dwelled around four years in Hyderabad and different parts of Telangana, were even permitted to get nearby endorsements. The Mulki rules made by Nizam to ensure neighborhood interests were gruffly disregarded and over ruled. Chandra Babu even did not permit his kindred MLAs to absolute the word Telangana in the State Assembly. That prompted revolt at the end of the day in Telangana.7
In reality the Telangana Movement is always blazing fireball. A few times it was secured by the fiery debris of either the false guarantees made by the rulers or by not having the best possible authority. Yet, consistently it was being restored in any event by recognizing the saints and dissenting against the development day of Andhra Pradesh, November first as Black Day.8
Telangana Liberation Students Organization:
The Telangana development is the principal Indian battle for financial and social self-sufficiency. In the same way as other social - political developments, Telangana development was additionally begun at Osmania College, where the procedure of mass instruction united numerous individuals. It got to be the all important focal point for Telangana Students Front and Telangana Liberation Students Organization composed shows on and outside the grounds.
7 Ahmed, Zaheer, Dusk and Dawn in Village India: Twenty Fateful Years, PallMall Press, London, 1965.p.98 8 Telengana Dimensions Of Underdevelopment – Edited by Prof. Simhadri, & Prof P.L.Vishweshwar Rao,p.76
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People tunes were initially utilized as a part of Telangana Peasent Armed Struggle. The credit of changing the people tunes for the boundless of ideological messages goes to Bandi Yadagiri, Suddala Hnumanthu, Baddam Ella, Devaruppula Rajaram and others. This legacy and legacy is being preceded by Gadar and other artist vocalists.
Resistance of Cultural Power:
The Telangana Cultural power could plant a kind of passionate sentiments in the brains of individuals through a melody. Telangana writer vocalists and craftsmen have guzzled the social legacy from battles pursued by the general population of this district against the misuse by the rulers. No other socio-political development could deliver as Telangana development did. So far thousands melodies were formed and being sung by the general population of Telangana. Truth is told, without these tunes the Telangana development couldn't get across the board. Particularly, the Songs on saints enlivened numerous style and feelings of the general population touched by the melody as a compelling correspondence.9
1941 Struggles of Economics:
In 1941, in the Telangana region, there were around 500 manufacturing plants utilizing around 28,000 laborers. A hefty portion of the enormous plants like materials, mines, paper factories, designing industrial facilities were vigorously financed and a lot of credits allowed by the Government to these proprietors – Salarjung, Babu Khan, Lahoti, Alauddin, Dorabji, Chenoy, Tayabji, Laik Ali, Pannalal Pitti, and so on. They made enormous benefits amid the war, offering their products operating at a profit market. 10
9 Bhattacharya, Subyasachi, Essays in Modern Indian Economic History,Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi, 1987.pp.56-98 10 Labour! But Hypocrite-Y Prabhanjan Kumar Yadav, Prabhanjana Patham Publications, Hyderabad, 2006.p.76
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However, the laborers were pitiably paid, the material specialists' compensation being Rs. 10 to 15 every month. Eighty for each penny of the breadwinners got Rs. 15 every month. In the Azam jahi Mills of Warangal, 4,000 specialists' pay bill was Rs.13.63 lakhs in 1943, while the dealing with operator's bonus added up to Rs. 7.44 lakhs ; in the Ramgopal Mills of Hyderabad 1,500 specialists' pay bill was Rs. 4 lakhs while the dealing with operators' bonus was Rs. 1.35 lakhs. The higher government authorities, numbering 1,500, were paid Rs. 50 million every year, while the wages for some lower classifications fluctuated between 12, 16, 30 and 60 rupees for each month.
Almost two lakh Muslims were utilized in different taxpayer supported organizations, for the sake of 'Muslims are rulers' (chronicle mulki) yet the greater part of them got month to month pay rates shifting from Rs. 12 to Rs. 30. It is no big surprise that these administration workers were compelled to supplement their small pay rates by different naughty techniques. A significant expansive number of Muslims used to rely on upon numerous painstaking works like rug making, printing material (nagansazi), handlooms, and so forth, and were compelled to squeeze out a hopeless living.11
Majlis versus Hindus:
The Nizam empowered the development of the Majlis Ittehad-ul- Muslimeen, in 1927, to reinforce up the backing of the Muslim greeneries to his kingdom, on the supplication that Muslims are the rulers. In 1928, it embraced as one of its items, to create dedication to the King and his Government. They used to proliferate the celestial hypothesis of authority – that the Nizam was the shadow of god, Jill-ul- Alia, and so forth. They were for on autonomous Hyderabad state, having direct relations with British centrality. They requested that the
11 Dutt.R,C, Economic History of India, Vol. I,Publication Division Governmentof India, New Delhi, 1981.p.76
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surrendered domains of the beach front and Rayalaseema areas, and in addition the Berar zone, be reestablished to the Nizam. This association was completely contradicted to any law based development in the state, any type of popularity based or capable government set-up. They were for full power for the Nizam. They attempted their best to keep the Muslim specialists, workers, drudging areas d the white collar classes from holding hands with their Hindu class siblings and pursuing a typical battle against Hindu-Muslim jagirdars, landowners and industrialists and the Nizam Government.12
The Nizam Nawab's tenet was a totalitarian guideline. There were no chosen bodies at any level, from the town to the state. He used to have his own selected counseling gathering and his assigned Chief Minister. He used to run the organization by issuing firmanas, which had the same impact of enactment and official request moved into one. He selected nazims, departmental secretaries.
It need not be rehashed that there were no affable freedoms at all. Notwithstanding for artistic affiliations, or holding any open meeting notwithstanding for scholarly purposes, past authorization of the neighborhood officer must be gotten. It was the imperious standard of officers through and through. 13
Economic Condition during Nizam’s Regime:
The Nizam state had its own particular financial framework and traditions; and in its name, an extensive number of traditions posts were made all-round the state, which successfully banned each sort of dynamic writing. With his own mulki rules, and an expansive number of police monitors, each contestant into the state being noted, address taken, and watched and irritated, he tried to make contacts with the
12 Dhanagare, D.N., Peasant Movements in India, Oxford University Press,Delhi, 1983.p.98 13 Media power in politics by Doris A. Graber,p.65
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dynamic powers in India, outside his own Hyderabad domain, unthinkable. He had his own particular railroad framework; at each station, his traditions police used to investigate detainees and handle the baggage. Indeed, even in the trains, the Nizam police's watch on and provocation of the suspected political is proceeded.
It was against such an administration, to the point that the developing number of learned people and liberals, impacted by the advancement of the national development in India, at long last succeeded in sorting out themselves into the Andhra Mahasabha in the Telangana area, into the Maharashtra Parishad and Kannada Parishad in the other two areas.14
Here it is unrealistic to detail the different battles pursued by the general population against the Nizam and his medieval misuse amid the eighteenth and nineteenth hundreds of years or in the main quarter of the twentieth century, nor the Nizam's part of being sap in the hands of the British settlers and how he helped them to smother the opportunity battles in India, particularly the War of Independence of 1857.
It was in 1928 that the Andhra Mahasabha was sorted out under the administration of Sri Madapati Hanumantha Rao and others. Its first meeting was held in Jogipeta in 1930 under the chairmanship of Suravaram Pratapa. In gatherings, it used to pass resolutions requesting certain changes in the authoritative structure, for more schools, for specific concessions for the landed upper class, for certain common freedoms, yet did not attempt to assemble the general population and dispatch battles against the oppressors or against the Nizam's Government. In any case, it got to be in those pitiable and enormously abusive conditions in Hyderabad express, a gathering, a
14 Kesava Iyenagar,Economic Investigation in the Hyderabad State 1929- 30.pp.57-66
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point of convergence for the rising law based yearnings of the general population.
The Indian National Congress had embraced an arrangement of non- impedance in the local slates. It didn't begin sorting out its branches in the states and dispatch developments against local saps of the British – the rulers and nawabs of the Indian states, on the example of the battles they propelled against the British radicals in what was known as British India. Steady with their middle class trading off hypotheses of bringing a specific measure of mass weight to get certain concessions, without permitting the outrage and surge of the masses to go outside their ability to control to 'progressive channels, the initiative of the Indian National Congress did not support the states' kin's battles against the local sovereigns.15
Yet, the adolescent, activist popularity based components from these states, had in expansive numbers joined the national developments that were being led in British Indian domain and hundreds pursued capture in the Salt Satyagraha and non-participation developments in 1930-32.
A considerable lot of these members, after their discharge, conveyed the thoughts of rebellion and attempted to arrange the general population in their own particular states, using each open door that opened up before them.
Role of Hyderabad State under Nizam:
In Hyderabad state, in the Telangana district, the Andhra Mahasabha turned into their gathering, their association and they attempted to create it as a wide political association. In this, Sri Ravi Narayan Reddy and Baddam Yella Reddy were prominent figures. They were chosen to mindful posts in the Andhra Mahasabha, even to the president ship and
15 Mandal, Ernest, Marxist Economic Theory, Merlin Press, London, 1977.p.176
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secretaryship. Later on, these two pioneers alongside the entire group of dynamic activist dynamic components of the Andhra Mahasabha, i.e., Ch. lakshmi Narasayya, S. Ramanatham, D. Venkateswa, A. lakshmi Narasimha and Kodanda Rami, joined the Communist development by 1940-42, and changed the Andhra Mahasabha from a liberal association into a hostile to Nizam joined mass activist association – an assembled front against the Nizam driving the young, workers, merchants, producers, white collar classes. 16
It was in 1938, when the Nizam powers banned the singing of Vande Mataram, in those days the national hymn of the Indian individuals battling for autonomy, that understudies sponsored by every single law based power in the state, began their battle to vindicate their entitlement to sing their devoted tune. It spread to schools and universities everywhere throughout the state. At the point when schools were shut, countless energetic understudies went to the neighboring states, considered there in the universities and came back to bear on the battle in their own particular state.
It was after this development that an exertion was made to sort out the State Congress. Be that as it may, it was banned; a satyagraha battle was propelled by the State Congress, in which numerous dynamic pioneers of the Andhra Mahasabha additionally partook.
Role of Communist Party of India:
At that point, the Andhra unit of the Communist Party of India could contact a large number of the aggressor and dynamic framework and win them over to begin standard units of the Party in Hyderabad state. It could construct capable gatherings in Telangana as it could win over numerous driving frameworks like Mattimalla Suguna Yadav, Ravi Narayan, Yella and others, to the Party. The gathering choice was to
16 Parthasarathy, G. and B. Prasada Rao, Implementation of Land Reforms inAndhra Pradesh, Scientific Book Agency, Calcutta, 1969.p.54-87
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keep on developing the Andhra Mahasabha as a battling holding nothing back joined front association of the general population of the Telangana locale, to change the Maharashtra and Kannada Parishads likewise also, and along these lines construct a statewide mass development. These associations were additionally to work alongside the state Congress, and mold the strategies of the State Congress, however much as could be expected, to bolster and create statewide activist battles against the Nizam misrule.17
Conclusion:
In 1940, in the Malkapuram session of the Andhra Mahasabha, the young administration met up. Party pioneer Ravi Narayan surprisingly turned into the President of the Sabha, for its eighth Conference at Chilukuru. The AMS had contacted the normal individuals at the town level and had pulled in their consideration. At this stage, it crossed the custom of just passing resolutions and proceeded to animate and rally the general population around these resolutions. The Communist Party did fabulous work in taking this development to the general population. The conservatives in the Andhra Mahasabha were against this. The left in the AMS, drove by the Communists, proceeded with the issues of the general population.
17 Raman Rao. A.V., Economic Development of Andhra Pradesh 176-195, Popular Book Publication, Bombay, 1958.p.248
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Dr. B.R. AMBEDKAR: HIS LEGACY TO MODERN INDIA
Dr. Karamthur Venkatesu Naik Academic Consultant Dept. of AIHC & Archaeology Sri Venkateswara University, Tirupati
Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, “The indication of a cultural renaissance in India”1 passed away on 06th December, 1956, leaving behind a rich legacy to modern India. Throughout his life he fought relentlessly to establish a society in India based on the democratic ideals of liberty, equality and fraternity. Echoing his Master Buddha, Dr. B.R. Ambedkar said that the main evil which plagues the life of human-kind is Dukha (sorrow). But unlike Buddha who sought solace in nirvana, Dr. B.R. Ambedkar endeavored to eradicate sorrow from the lives of men through a reconstruction of the social and economic order which rendered the majority of men impotent sufferers of veritable servitude. A wise application of science and technology, he believed, would ensure economic prosperity which could be made available to every human being progressively releasing him from want fear, the cause of Dukha.
A pragmatist to the core, Dr. B.R. Ambedkar believed that in the absence of economic and social justice political independence would not bring about either social solidarity or national integration. The first step towards the attainment of social solidarity and national integration, therefore, was the liquidation of the hierarchical structuring of society on the basis of chaturvarna2. He advocated the abolition of privileges, on the basis of caste or status and vigorously fought for the liberty and dignity of the individual. At the same time, he was equally forceful in his advocacy of the unity of the nation. Dr. B.R. Ambedkar sought to achieve these objectives through the Constitution of India by incorporating in it the following principles:
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(1) Making the Indian Constitution workable, flexible enough and yet strong enough to hold the country together both in peace and war time. The Constitution3 was made workable by the fact that in it was studiously incorporated the various legislative and administrative details so that the absence of Constitutional morality should not be allowed to interfere with its smooth working. India never had an opportunity to cultivate this sentiment. And it would have been easy for anyone interested in it to destroy the spirit and sanction behind the Constitution while retaining it in form. Therefore, the details, legislative and administrative, were considered prudent to be incorporated in the Constitution itself.
The incorporation in the Constitution of the amending clause makes it free from absolutist rigidity and enables Parliament to initiate necessary changes from time to time in accordance with the demands of the Directive Principles of State Policy through which the people of India have “solemnly resolved to constitute India into a sovereign democratic republic and to secure to all its citizens justice, social, economic and political, liberty of thought, expression, belief faith and worship, equality of status and of opportunity and to promote among them all fraternity assuring the dignity of the individual and the unity of the nation.
The federal structure of Indian polity clearly demarcates the various functions of the Central and State Governments. To this extent the State Governments are independent of the Central Government. But the diversity characteristic of Indian life necessitated incorporation in the Constitution of certain provisions so as to ensure the integrity and solidarity of the country especially in times of war, insurrection or the breakdown of Constitutional machinery in the States. In such situations, the Centre is empowered, if it is deemed necessary, (a) to legislate upon and subject even if it be in the State Legislative List; (b) to direct the States as to how they should exercise their executive
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authority in matters which are in their charge; (3) to vest authority for any purpose in any officer; and (4) to suspend the financial provisions of the Constitution.
The Constitution of India, in unmistakable terms, embodies the principle of single citizenship for the whole of India. Because of this, all citizens of India are entitled to enjoy the same civil and political rights. There is also a uniformity of civil and criminal laws all over the country. So also the provision in the Constitution of an All India Public Service Commission which ensures the appointment to key posts in all parts of the country from among the personnel selected for the purpose on a national level.
The Comptroller and Auditor-General4 of India is an independent audit authority empowered to audit the entire financial transactions of both the Central and State Governments.
All these various statutory provisions enable the Central Government to exercise its authority over the State Governments, without at the same time, encroaching upon the latter’s authority in spheres clearly left to their jurisdiction.
(2) Proving special safeguards to the minorities and certain classes who are socially and educationally backward. Through these safeguards, he sought to instill in the minorities the spirit of nationalism and tolerance to accept the rule of the majority even though the majority in India is a communal majority and not a political majority.
The untouchables and other backward classes in India have been able to make some improvement in their social, economic and educational situation because of the special safeguards provided in the Constitution on a preferential basis. Such safeguards are necessary in order to remove the age old disparities existing between the upper caste majority and the out-caste minority in India so that the progressive
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assimilation of the latter into the mainstream of social and national life would ultimately lead to the liquidation of the minority. It was Dr. B.R. Ambedkar who master minded this silent revolution which is now unfolding itself with all its beneficient effects of increasing social solidarity in Indian life. It is, indeed, possible to accelerate this process through more bold and imaginative measures at Governmental as well as at social levels.
(3) Incorporating the principle of one man, one value, and one man, one vote. Thus, the Constitution of India accepted an individual, and not a village, as a unit.
Dr. B.R. Ambedkar was skeptical, rather contemptuous of the much eulogized village republics of India. In a modern democracy, moreover, the individual is considered everywhere as the primary unit. Looking at the corrupt and inefficient functions of the various village Panchayats in India, it is easy to see the foresight of our Constitutional makers in accepting the human individual as the primary unit.
(4) Incorporating exceptions and qualifications to the Fundamental Rights while advocating Preventive Detention and Emergency Powers of the President of India. Dr. B.R. Ambedkar justified the incorporation in the Constitution of exceptions and qualifications to the Fundamental Rights citing the example of the American Constitution which also interfered with the misuse of Fundamental Rights by individuals and institutions. Taking into consideration the illiberal, still very largely authoritarian mentality of the Indian people which makes them easy victims of the motivated propaganda of politicians who believe in violence, the incorporation of exceptions and qualifications to the Fundamental Rights as well as the promulgation of Preventive Detention Act and the Emergency Powers of the President of India cannot be said to be infringement of human
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rights. The purpose of these safeguards is to render ineffective the efforts at disruption of Indian society by the votaries of violence.
(5) Abolishing untouchability5 and forced labour to achieve the ideal of “one man, one value, and one man, one vote” and placing all people equal before the law; securing equal protection of laws for every citizen as also freedom of profession and equality of opportunity.
Untouchability and forced labour are offences punishable under the Law of the Constitution of India. Every individual citizen of India is equal to the other before the law. There is also equal protection of law ensured for all citizens without any discrimination on the basis of caste, religion, sex or status. Every citizen of India has the statutory right to practice any profession he or she likes in any part of the country. Equality of opportunity is also guaranteed to each individual citizen of India6.
While all these principles have been admirably incorporated in the Constitution, in practice, these are being thwarted by the combined might of political and bureaucratic opportunism and the ignorant acquiescence of the illiterate citizens. The people of India are still to develop in adequate measure the critical spirit necessary for the successful working of a democracy. Dr. B.R. Ambedkar was aware of the limitation. It was because of this that he sought to codify the details of legislature and administration through the instrumentality of the Constitution itself.
(6) Incorporating the right to Constitutional remedies for making the right real. (While embracing Buddhism and advising his disciples and followers to follow suit, Dr. B.R. Ambedkar sought to give to his countrymen a rational and scientific religion which has roots in Indian culture and which he thought would be more conducive to the growth of democracy in India, than Hinduism is). His aim was to save
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Indian democracy from confusion and anarchy on the one hand, and communism and communalism on the other.
Dr. B.R. Ambedkar emphasized the need to hold fast to constitutional methods for achieving social and economic objectives, as the employment of un-constitutional methods would, instead of bringing about social and economic betterment, create chaos and anarchy which are the breeding grounds of dictatorship.
It was Dr. B.R. Ambedkar’s ardent desire to establish in India economic and social democracy so as to make political democracy meaningful. The Directive Principles of State Policy of the Constitution of India are indicative of the way he wished the country to travel.
Dr. B.R. Ambedkar was emphatic about the need of Indians to develop character and integrity as, without these, achievements in economic and social fields would make no qualitative change in their lives. And without undergoing such a total change, he believed, Indians would be unable to defend the country’s freedom and integrity.
Dharma (morality), he said, is the foundation of a civilized social life. Therefore, unless the Government accepts Dharma as its corner- stone, the society may either disintegrate or succumb to dictatorship of one kind or the other. And in both the cases liberty of the individual would be the first casualty. Equality between man and man would be impossible under a dictatorship because dictatorship rests on the negation of the principle of equality.
References:
1. Laxmanshastri Joshi, Tarkatheeratha, Asmita Darsha, Marathi Quarterly, Diwali Special Issue, 1973, p.23.
2. Venkata Rathnaiah, P. Dr. B.R. Ambedkar and Political Mobilization of Scheduled Castes, Thesis submitted to Sri Venkateswara University, Tirupati, 1982, p.360.
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3. Sahadevudu, D. Ramesh Babu, G. Ramachandra Reddy, Y. and Venkateswarlu, C. The Role of Dr. B. R. Ambedkar in Modern India – A Study, International Research Journal of Social Sciences Vol.4(11), November, 2015, p.22.
4. Ramesh Babu, G. Dr. B.R. Ambedkar: His Legacy and Contribution to India, Thesis submitted to Sri Krishnadevaraya University, Anantapuramu, 2015, p.232.
5. Ibid, p.234.
6. Venkata Rathnaiah, P. Op.cit, p.366.
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THE CONCEPT OF LIBERATION IN THE SVETASVATAROPANISHAD
A.V.Krishna Rao Research Scholar Department of Philosophy Pragyan International University, Ranchi
Introduction:
The Hindu way of living views life as having four goals namely Dharma (duty) Artha (wealth), Kama (enjoyment) and moksa (liberation) (Purushartha Chatushtaya) in a way corresponding to the four Ashrama Dharmas such as Brahmacharya, Grihasta, Vaanaprastha and Sanyasa. All of them are needed for a sound human existence. In fact the first three goals should lead one ultimately to the attainment of liberation (Moksa). In the Svetasvataropanishad (SU) a greater emphasis is given to the concept of liberation. It addresses us as the sons of immortality (2.5). To attain immortality one has to be free from the chain of birth and death (samsaara) (1.11) by means of the practice of Yoga, meditation and bhakti to enjoy mukti. And this is not enough. One needs also God’s grace (deva-prasada) (3.20; 6.21) for the attainment of moksa.
Means of attaining liberation
1. Yoga
How does SU help us in attaining liberation? Human beings are essentially spiritual in nature and their ultimate goal is God because ultimately they merge in God (1.7). Man wants to be united with Him. But it is not easy. It demands Sadhana or as Patanjali says Citta-vrtti- nirodha. To control the various agitations of the mind we need god’s help in the SU god savitr (the Inspirer) is invoked for inspiration and
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strength (2.1-3) with the inspiration of god Savitr one begins to practice yoga.
One who practices yoga must sit erect and keep his head, chest and neck straight enough to get concentrated and restrain his mind from all kinds of distractions caused by his senses. To practice yoga one has to choose a conducive atmosphere wherein no distractions of any sort might become a hindrance to it (2.8-10). As one practice yoga in this way he may have the experiences of some signs of appearances of God as given in the following lines:
Fog, smoke, sun, fire, wind,
Fire-flies, lighting, a crystal, a moon-
These are the preliminary appearances,
Which produce the manifestation of Brahma in yoga (2.11)
As one advances in yoga he keeps away sickness, old age and enjoys lightness, good health, steadiness, clearness of countenance and pleasantness of voice, sweetness of odor and scanty excretions. He could even prolong his death by keeping himself physically and mentally fit while maintaining a very sound personality. These are the results of yoga. Gradually, he attains the vision of God and by his constant practice of yoga and meditation he becomes unitary, pure and free from sorrow (2.12-14). In this way he is released from all the clutches that bind him. The following stanza could express it more clearly:
When with the nature of the self, as with a lamp,
A practice of yoga beholds here the nature of Brahma,
Unborn, steadfast, from every nature free-
By knowing God (deva) one is released from all fetters!
(2.15)
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One can know God through meditation since He is hidden in our own selves as the fire is latent in the wood. The Lord can be realized in the body by the use of Om. By making use of his own body as the lower friction stick and the pranava Om as the upper friction stick one has to practice meditation (dhyana) then one may realize the Lord within oneself (1.13-14). The image being used here is the fire drill, by which we become aware of the indwelling presence of the Lord within us. The knowledge of this leads us to attain liberation, i.e., freedom from every kind of illusion. Though the SU does not mention the eight limbs of yoga it is good to mention them in this connection as they will be a great help to anyone who practices yoga. “The yoga-sutra enumerates yama, (It includes nonviolence, truth, non-stealing, continence, and detachment as the five yamas) niyama (It includes, Purity, contentment, penance, study and devotion of God.) Asana (It is comfortable posture conducive for long time meditation). Pranayama (It is not the suppression of breath, but its control by regulation of its three moments; inhalation, retention and exhalation. Pratyahara (It is with drawing the mind from sense objects) Dharana (It is concentration on any fixed object) Dhyana (meditation) Samadhi (It refers to illumination) as the eight limbs of yoga”. (2.29).
Bhakti
It is derived from the root bhaj understood in the Rgveda as something shared or enjoyed in a materialistic sense. It was also used in the sense more of deeply expressed feelings of love and communication; which directly concerns the person himself rather than any thing just material or external to the person only. Bhakti is an attachment or a single pointed, un divided attention towards the Lord. This idea is clearly seen in the last two stanzas of SU where we see that the supreme mystery contained in the Upanishads can be given to the one who is tranquil or one how possesses the attitude of a son or a pupil or one who has the highest devotion (bhakti) for God as well as for his
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spiritual teacher (guru). It is to them that these matters which are declared in the Upanisads become manifest by virtue of their bhakti (6.22-23). A Bhakta can approach the Lord and ask for various needs and he can express his desires to the Lord. The Lord grants desires and blesses His devotees. He protects us (4.21) and gives us shelter (6.18) in Him. He becomes our liberator (6.16,18). Through bhakti one can attain peace of mind (shanta) and freedom from every kind of bondage and the consequent moksa. Bhakti transforms one into an authentic free person and it radiates selfless love to everyone and establishes a true friendship with one another. Thus we realize that we are all sons and daughters of immortality (3.15,6.19) and there fore we should help one another in the journey of attaining the Ultimate goal of life i.e; liberation.
Grace (Deva-Prasada)
Every human being who is desirous of attaining liberation is in need of divine grace coupled with his efforts. We attain immortality when we are favoured by him (1.6). We can see the greatness of God by his grace alone (3.20). The sage Svetasvatara has realized Brahma by his effort, austerity and by God’s grace (Deva-Prasada). The following quote expresses this idea:
By the efficacy of his austerity and by the grace of God
(Deva – Prasada)
The wise Svetasvatara in proper manner declared Brahma.
Unto the ascetics of the most advanced stage as the supreme means of purification –
This which is well-pleasing to the company of seers.
This gives us an insight into the fact that anyone who realizes God in his life and experiences his love and grace must be generous enough to import such divine knowledge and love to others like the
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sage Svetasvatara. God is the supreme Lover and He is always ready to respond to us. “His response to man is always gratuitous gesture, an act of grace, a revelation of love, because He is the supreme Lover.”
Every thing that God does for us is a matter of His love and an expression of His grace. In the first chapter of SU brahmavadins (theologians) were trying to explain the ultimate cause of the universe (1.1). In that process they realized that their inquiry, meditation and yoga helped them to understand that the Lord is the cause of the universe (1.3). Here we have to understand that though the effort was made by the human beings it is ultimately God who manifests Himself as the cause of the universe. We cannot attain such knowledge about the universe without God’s will. God’s grace comes to us through the pleasant and even apparently unpleasant situations of every day life. Having gone through the ‘pilgrimage’ of life man finally seeks rest in ‘God. “At the end of this pilgrimage, the soul which hitherto regarded itself as a separate, attains immortality by the grace of God”. God is eager to love us and is always ready to bestow His grace upon us if only we are open to His love. He gives us freedom and never imposes His will. His grace is a free gift. “Grace as an expression of love contains that gift of oneself. It entails self-surrender”. When we surrender ourselves to God, He reveals Himself more and more to us and by acquiring His knowledge and thinking in His way and enjoying His grace, we ultimately merge in Him (1.7). The Bhagavad-Gita too which is the culmination of all Upanishads gives a prominent place to grace. “By His grace you will obtain supreme peace and permanent abode”. (BG. 18:61-62).
Conclusion:
The Svetasvatara Upanishad is one of the most popular Upanishads and is often referred as a “Monument of Theism” Since it deals not only with the philosophical problems but also the spiritual
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needs of the human kind with beautiful insights on worship Bhakti and Prasada which ultimately leads one to the realization of the personal God who is very close to us as our creator (4.14), protector (3.2) and liberator (6.16,18). The Message of SU is so relevant in the present day society where is one is all the time engaged in the pursuit of Mundane comforts at the cost of ones inner life. Though we are called to experience the wholeness of life by the practice of four Purusharthas (four goals of life) yet in today’s world the human beings are highly engaged in the realization of Artha (wealth) and the enjoyment of Kama (pleasure) and neglected to a great extent the practice of Dharma and the need for the realization of Moksha. Hence the SU invites us all to follow the inward journey (Nivritti-Marga) and acquire a Prema– Drishti (vision of Love). The modern education is also responsible for the lack of this broader vision of life. Even though the present system of education enhances intelligence but not broad mindedness. It makes the students stone hearted. So the SU urges us to acquire a true education (Suvidya) which instills in us various human values like forgiveness, devotion, compassion, understanding, sharing, a sense of good will, peace and surrender (prapatti) to God. In short it offers us a comprehensive approach to life which inturn leads to the attainment of liberation (mukti).
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AN ENQUIRY REGARDING THE POSITION OF BUDDHA Sūnyavādins (nihilism) IN THE STUDY OF Pramāṇa IN THE TEXT Nyāya-Sūtra Dinanath Ghatak Sidho-Kanho-Birsha University Purulia, W.B
Abstract: Pramāṇas constitute the subject matter of epistemology. We may begin with a statement made by Vātsyāyana, the earliest commentator of the Nyāya sūtra, regarding the components underlying any study of knowledge or a discipline. For him those components are uddeśa (enumeration), lakşana (definition) and parīkşā (examination). In the present paper Gautama’s view will be presented in connection with his discourse on pramāṇa as a category, and that will be done following the sutras of enumeration, definition and examination. In this context, an exposition of the view of the opponents of Gautama in relation to examination of pramāṇa (8—20 sūtras Dvitiya Addhyāya, [2.1.8---2.1.20] and 29-33 sutras of Caturtha Addhyāya, [4.2.29-4.2.33] has discussed in this work. The opponents belonging to this group are called anupalambhika or sarvābhavavādi in the Nyāya sūtra. Later on, those opponents were called Sūnyavādi (nihilist) by the commentators of the text just mentioned. The main focus of the study may begin with the question—can the opponents called sarvābhavavādins by Gautama be regarded as Sūnyatāvādins of the Buddhists? In this connection, two texts of the Buddhist Philosophy--- Mulmādhamikkārikā and Vigrahavyāvartanī by Nāgārjuna have been consulted in this study in order just to give a cogent answer to the question. There is a controversy as well between European erudition and Indian sagacity at this issue. Needless to say, the controversy has been dealt with in this paper.
Key Words: Nyāya, parīkşā, Pramāṇa, etc.
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Indian philosophy is at its best in argumentative development of concepts and also in construction of systematic theories. To every problem regarding a concept all possible solution have been offered in different systems of Indian philosophy and each philosopher has done his best to substantiate his view, remaining all the while, however, alike to others have said or might have had to say. The foremost of the concepts studied in all those systems is that of pramāṇa. The study of pramāṇas is important because their ontology or the theory of reality is based on epistemology i.e., the theory of knowledge. Thus several theories concerning both epistemology and ontology were developed gradually by the Sūtra, Bhāşya and Tikākāra-s. This may be called the development of Indian Philosophy.
The Nyāya philosophy is primarily concerned with the condition of valid thought and the means of acquiring a true knowledge of objects. Pramāṇa derivatively means the instrument of valid knowledge (pramayaḥ karaṇam). In the book Sarvadarsansaṁgrah, pramāṇa defined as, ‘to be pramāṇa is never to be disconnected from a knower possessing right knowledge” (i) means only that pramāṇa is the karaṇa or means of pramā or valid knowledge. Now, according to Goutama ‘pratyakşa, anumāṇa upamāna,sabda pramāṇāni’(ii). But some thinkers (opponents of Gautama) maintain that Perception, Inference, comparison, and word are not Pramāṇas because it cannot be shown that they exist before, after or along with the prameyas (objects of knowledge).
We get such views of Gautama regarding the validity of pramāṇa in the first daily session of the second chapter as opponent view (sutra 2|1|8). We also get more views of Maharşi regarding the same in the second daily session of the forth chapter (4|2|31). There he has expressed the Sarvābhavavādin doubt (saṁsaya) about the reality of the pramāṇa. The question has been arisen later, is the said doubtful opponent view
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of Maharşi really the view of sunyavadins (nihilism)? In this paper the above mentioned concept has been discussed in brief.
The śūnyavādins to support the non-existence of worldly object by the example of illusion, then they have supported the non-existence of knowledge with the help of same example. It has been stated on 57 kārikā of the book Mūlmādhamik kārikā that as an illusion, a dream city of the Gandharvas, so have arising, endurance and destruction been exemplified (iii). That is to say the object of knowledge is like dream, untrue it is false like magic or said it is
i) Kusumānjali, p-4-5. ii) Nyāyasūtra, 1|1|4
iii) Yathā māyā yathā svapno gandharvanagara yathā/tthotpādasthā sthānṁ tthā bhańga udahṛtam./yathaiva gandharvapurṁ marīchikā yathā nyāyasvapinaya yathaiva/svabhābaśūṇya tu nimittabkābanā abāpamān jnnata sarvadharmān.[Mādhamik Vṛitti, p-57, b.t.society edi.cal.Ed.L.de.la.Vallee.poussin,1903.]
illusion like a city of the Gandharvas, or it is false like water mirage. We found the same view for the non-existence of knowledge as well as the object in the book Lankāvatār Sūtra (iv). Maharşi also introduces the same view to represent his doubtful opponent view. To represent the opponent view he stated in the fourth chapter of Nyāyasūtra--- “svapnabisayābhimānabadayṁ pramāṇa prameyabhimānḥ” and “ māyā gandharbanagaramrgatṛşñi kabadvā”, (v) which means also the means and the objects are as delusive as things appearing in a dream, again the means and the objects of knowledge are as unreal as things exhibited in jugglery,etc. So in this place there are remarkable similarity between the view of opponent as raised by Maharşi and the view of śunyavādins. Now to discuss the same thing descriptively we have introduce the some part of śunyavādins view from the Mūlmādhyamik kārikā regarding pramāṇa.
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“yathā māyādayaḥ svabhābenānutpannā abidyamānā māyādi sabdabācāyā māyādibijñānagamyāsca lokasya, ebameteopi loka prasidhamātreana utmādādayaḥ svabhābena abidyamānā api bhagabatā tattābidha binyajanānugraha cikīrşuna nirdistā iti”.(vi) The significance of the above view is that as the object of illusion is naturally designated by the word māyā and they are the object of the knowledge of illusion, so the naturally originated popular object (though they are non-existent), they are particularised by the masters and to be expressed by their followers. Again it has been said regarding pramāṇa on 31 and 32 kārikā of the book Vigrahavyāvartani, if we established the existence of object by another pramāṇa, then pramāṇa must be established by another pramāṇa, because
iv. “ye bā puruṇye mahāmate śramaṇā brāmbhaṇā bā niḥsvabhābayhanalātacaknagandharvnagarānutpāda māyā marīc uyd akṁ.” LankābatārSūtra, p.-47
v. 4/2/31 and 4/2/32.-Nyāyasūtra.
vi. Mādhyamika sāstra; Edited by P.L.Vaidya; the Mithila Institute, 1960.
Which is not examined (parīkşita) that is not proved (pramānita) at all. But if pramāṇa established by another pramāṇa, then there must be arises infinite regress , because in that case every pramāṇa have need to established by another pramāṇa and if object had been established without pramāṇa, then object must be proved by the pramāṇa—this theory become meaningless.(vii) i.e., if you mean to say that a pramāṇa can demonstrate the existence of the objects which are to be known by the pramāṇas , then as regards the four pramāṇas , viz, direct perception, inference, authority, analogy by which pramāṇas, can these pramāṇas be demonstrated? If these four pramāṇas are demonstrated without having recourse to another pramāṇa, then the pramāṇas themselves are not demonstrated. If the pramāṇas themselves are not
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demonstrated and yet they can prove the objects, then your thesis is self-contradictory.
It is observed that there is a similarity between the sūnyavādins view as stated in Vigrahavyāvartani and the doubtful opponent view of sūnyavādins in the second chapter of Nyāyasūtra as presented by Maharşi (viii). To represent the same view of Sūnyavādi Maharşi admitted in that sūtra that if an object of right knowledge is to be established by means of right knowledge, this later needs also to be established by another means of right knowledge, viz., if the pramāṇa can have the objects to be proved and that pramāṇa needs again another pramāṇa which must prove it. In this way it causes the infinite regress. So if you maintain that pramāṇa is proved again by another pramāṇa, the argument is not valid.
It has been said in the next kārikā, if a pramāṇa is demonstrated without a pramāṇa, the meaning of your controversy is lost. So there is a mistake in your assumption and you must therefore say a different reason i.e., if you mean to
vii. yadi c pramāṇatesṁā tesāṁ prasiddhirthānām/teşāṁ punaprasiddhiṁ bruhi kathā te prāmāṇyam.31./Aneşardi pramāṇaiḥ pramāṇasiddhi bhabatuanabasthā/nādeḥ siddhistatāsti naiba madhyaey nāptsya.(32) Vigrahvyarvartanī. P.-46-47. Pre-Diņnāga Buddhist text on logic from Chinese sourses. By Gillseppe tucci. Oriental institute.1929.
viii. pramāṇataḥ siddhe pramāṇānaṁ pramāṇāntarasiddhi prasańga.- Nyāyasūtra. 2/1/17.
Say that a pramāṇa is proved without a pramāṇa and the things to be known are proved by the pramāṇa, then by arguing that the pramāṇa proves the knowable, you commit a logical fallacy, as you implicitly maintain that there are things which are proved by the pramāṇas and there are things (such as the pramāṇas themselves) which are not proved by the pramāṇas. (ix)
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In the Nyāyasūtra, Maharşi stated the same view as his doubtful opponent view. In that place the significance of the Maharishi’s view is that if a means of right knowledge does not require another means of right knowledge for its establishment, let an object of right knowledge be also established without any means of right knowledge, i.e., a means of right knowledge stands in the same category as an object of right knowledge is accepted as self-established, the object of right knowledge must also, according to the objector, be accepted as self-established. In such a cognition perception, inference, etc., will be superfluous. (x)
In this context it is also observed that the sutra ‘traikālyāsiddhi’ which is stated in the Nyāyasūtra 2.1.8, that is also clearly described in the kārikā 70,71 of Vigrahavyāvartani (xi). The significance of the kārikā is that as regards three times of the refutation is not valid, because those words also are included among the things to be refuted by the refutation. If you (opponent) mean to say that though there can be neither the refutation nor the refuted,[yet in fact] the refutation is equally admitted, [I reply that-I have already refuted this assumption]. The reason as existent in all the three times is in accordance with the words of a man who maintains the doctrine of void. If a man does not believe in the void, he does not believe in anything.
ix.’tesāmatha pramānairbina prasiddhibihīyate bāda/ baişamikatvaṁ- tasmin biśeşahetusca baktabyaḥ’. 33. Vigrahavyāvartani. P-47. Pre- Dinnaga Buddhist text on logic from Chinese sourses. By Gillseppe tucci. Oriental institute.1929. x.”tadbinibṛterbba pramāṇasiddhibat prameyasiddhiḥ. Nyāyasūtra. 2.1.18. xi. yastraikāley hetūḥ prayuktaḥ purvame vas a samavāt/ traikālyapratihetuśca śūnytābādinaṁ prāptaḥ. (70)/ Prabharīti ca śūnyateyāṁ yasya pravabanti tasya sarbārthaḥ/prabhabati na tasya kiṁna bhabati śūnyatā yaseyti. (71) Vigrahvyarvartanī. P.-74-75. Pre-
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Dinnaga Buddhist text on logic from Chinese sourses. By Gillseppe tucci. Oriental institute.1929.
Besides this the interrelationship between pramāṇa and prameya with full of implications also be discussed in the 44 and 45 kārikā of Vigrahavyāvartani which is similar to the doubted opponent view as stated by Maharşi in his Nyāyasūtra. The implication of the kārikā in that place is, if the things which are to be apprehended are proved on account of their relation with the pramāṇa, and then the things to be apprehended are subsequently proved in relation to the pramāṇa. Because what is to be proved is not proved, but the pramāṇa can prove the things to be apprehended. Again, if things are proved without a pramāṇa, then they have no relation with the pramāṇa. What is then, the use of that pramāṇa? So, there is no utility of pramāṇa to prove the pramāṇa.(xii)
th Apart from this, the view which is expressed in 20 kārikā of Vigrahavyāvartani (xiii) that also the similar of Nyāyasūtra “traikalyasiddheh pratisedhanupapatti”(2.1.12). The significance of the kārikā is that, if the refutation comes first and the refuted comes after it, the argument is illogical. In fact if the notion to be refuted does not exist, what could be refuted by the refutation? And it is not logical also refuted comes first and the refutation comes after it. If, in fact the object to be refuted is already proved, how can the refutation refute? If that the refutation and the refuted are co-existent, then they are no longer reciprocally considered. The refutation is not dependent on the refuted and the refuted is not dependent on the refutation, since each has an essence of its own. Maharşi also admitted the same view in the Nyāyasūtra. Where it was stated, if perception, e.g. cognition of smell, etc., by the senses, exists as a pramāṇa before existence of the smell,etc., then the xii. sidhyanti hi prameyāṇyapekş yadi sarvathā pramāṇāni/bhabati prameyasiddhirnapeksaiba pramānāṇi. 44/ Yadi prameyasid dhirn
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apeksa iba bhabati pramāṇāni/ ki te pramāṇasiddhyā tani yadartha prasiddhiṁ tat.45 Vigrahvyarvartanī. P.-48. Pre-Dinnaga Buddhist text on logic from Chinese sourses. By Gillseppe tucci. Oriental institute.1929
xiii.purva cet praşeddhaḥ pascāt pratişeddhyamiti ca nopapannam/paścātnupapannau yugapacca yata srabhābosan. 20. Vigrahvyarvartanī. P.-2 definition of perception as cognition produced from the contact of the senses and objects does not hold good. On the other hand, if perception as a Pramāṇa, comes after the cognition of the prameya, then it is useless as the prameya has already been otherwise cognised. Lastly, if the pramāṇas co-exist with the prameyas then there would be simultaneity of several cognitions and the inference of the mind by the non-simultaneity of cognition would be demolished.
From the above doubted opponent view of Maharşi and with the analogy of the Buddhists śunyavādins view, it can be thought that the doubted opponent view of Maharşi is the view of Buddhists śunyavādin’s view.
Giuseppe Tucci commented in his book ‘Pre- Diṇnāga Buddhists Texts on Logic from Chinese sources’ that if the Vigrahvyarvartanī has a great bearing upon the history of Indian Logic, since it embodies criticism of Nāgārjuna relating to the theory of the pramāṇas the śataśāstra, though it cannot be considered as a logical work, contains some references to the Nyāyāsūtras, the importance of which is self- evident(xiv). He also remarks “ Vigrahvyarvartanī” embodies a long refutation of the theory of the pramāṇas which, as far as our knowledge goes the first of its kind that has come down to us and which is strictly related to Nyāyasūtra(xv). Now ,the question may arise: can the texts collected and studied here through some light upon vexed question of the data of Nyāyasūtra?
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Though from the discussion of the temporal or historical point of view, it has been admitted that the Nyāyasūtra is prior to the Buddhist text ‘Mādhamikkārikā’ and Vigrahvyarvartanī. in general the prior view or ideology influence in the next view or ideology. And for this reason it is seen that there is a analogy in word language or idealism in many respect between the presiding opinion and the succeeding opinion. Although in many cases, the succeeding idealism interpolated in the preceding idealism.
In fact it is know that the opinion of scholars differs as regards the time in
xiv. preface- p-iii. Pre-Dinnaga Buddhist text on logic from Chinese sourses. By Gillseppe tucci. Oriental institute.1929
xv. ibid. P.-xiii.
Which the ultimate redaction of the present Nyāyasūtra took place. Jacobi maintained that Nyāyasūtra and Vaiśeşikasūtrs were composed between 200 and 450 A.D(xvi). Suali proposed for Vaiśeşika the date 250-300 and for Nyāyasūtra date 300-350(xvii). Stcherbatsky had first th maintained that Nyāyasūtra assumed its definite shape after the 5 century; then he changed his view and held that no certain conclusion could be derived from the fact there are in Nyāyasūtra references to Buddhist idealism, since this idealism is not that of Vasubandhu, but an older one (xviii). Ui proposed the date 150-250(xix) in his important essay upon ‘The chronology of the systemisation of the Nyāya and the redaction of Nyāyasūtra’ he proposes the date 200-250 for systemisation of the doctrine and 300-350 for the redaction of Nyāyasūtra. Some authors like S.C.Vidyabhusan admits that “The sūtras 4.2.31, 4.2.32 and 4.2.33 of Nyāyasūtra seems also to doctrine evidently taken from the ‘Mādhyamika Sūtra’ (xx). To see the such opinion of Vidyabhusan, Dr.S.N.Dasgupta remarks in his book ‘History of Indian Philosophy’ “the late Dr. S.C.Vidyabhusan in J.R.A.S 1918 thinks that the earlier
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part of Nyāya was written by Gautama about 550 B.C. where as the Nyāyasūtra of Akşapāda were written about 150 A.D. and says that the use of the word Nyāya in the sense of Logic in Mahābhārata 1.1.67, 1.70, 42-51 must be regarded as interpolations. He however, does not give any reasons in support of his assumption.”(xxi) Prof. Dasgupta is rather sceptical as regards the possibility of fixing exact date when the sutras were confined. Prof. Giuseppe Tucci supports his view, because according to him, “we are not in condition to determine the various sūtra that were superimposed in the actual redaction of the sūtras.(xxii) xvi. A contribution towards the early history of Indian Philosophy.IA.1918.p101
xvii. Introduction to in Sūtras of Indian Philosophy.- Suali. Pavia,1913. P.14.
xviii.Stcherbatsky,EpistemologyandLogicofthelaterBuddhistSchools,Pet ersburg,1909I
xix. Vai esika Philosophy. Ui. Royal Asiatic Society, London, 1918. . P- 86.
xx. A history of Indian Logic.—S.C.Vidyabhusan.Delhi1971. p. 263- 64.xxi. History of Indian Philosophy. S.N.Dasgupta. Motilal Banarasidass. Delhi,2010 p-279-80.xxii. Pre-Dińnāga Buddhist text on logic from Chinese sourses. By Gillseppe tucci. Oriental institute.1929 pp.- preface,xiii
What Vidyabhusan thought regarding the duration of time about Nyāyasūtra, but it appears different to us from Nyāyamanjarīkar’s opinion. Jayantabhatta, the author of the Nyāyamanjarī wrote in the introduction of the first sūtra that like Vedvidyā, Nyāyavidyā also exists before the very beginning of the evolution. (“nanu Akşapādatat pūrbbangṁ kuta Veda prāmānya niścay āsit? .....ādisargat pravṛitti Vedavādimā vidyāḥ pravṛittāḥ, saṁkḥepa vistara vivakḥyā tu
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tānṁstānṁstatra tatra kattṛinacakḥte”[Nyāyamanjarī, sūtra-1, abtāranikā]
From the above view of Jayantabhatta it is understood that Nyāyasūtra existed during the Vedic period. But the systematised and detailed Nyāyasūtra, the philosophical book, which Maharşi wrote, we had not found much proof in this regard whether it was written in the Vedic period. It can be said Maharşi was contemporary of Veda as he was the seer of the Veda mantra.
Count Byornst Jeena said in the book “Theogony 0f the Hindus” that Indian Aryan Civilization was developed about 6000 A.D. and Veda is the book of more than 6000 A.D. ,then it will be said that Nyāyasūtra was written between the 6000 to 3202 A.D. Secondly, the cause of this may be to S.C.Vidyabhusan regarding ‘interpolation’ the similarity of words between two views.
We saw before as the Buddhist philosophers have supported their own view by using the example of dream (svapno), sky town (gandharvanagara) illusion (māyā), mirage (maricikā), in the same way Maharşi also used the same words to pointed out his opponent view in the Nyāyasūtra. Beside that those words are more popular words in the Buddhist philosophy rather than the Nyāya philosophy i.e., mostly seen that those words are used more in the Buddha philosophy. So this is the most important cause for S.C.Vidyabhusan to appear him the Nyāya sūtras as interpolated. Mahāmohopādhyāya Phanibhusan to make his opinion regarding the above 4.2.31 and 4.2.32 sutra that there is no explanation about the word ‘mayagandharva’ etc.,of the second sūtra in the Bhāśya and Varttika(xxiii.(here The 32 sūtra mentioned as second sūtra). So it will be doubtful whether it is Nyāyasūtra or not. After realising the explanation of Tātparyatīkākār and xxiii. Nyāyadarsan, Fifth part. P.-158-59. Bengali Trans. By Phanibhusan Tarkabagish.
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Vṛittikār Visvanāth, he firmly admitted the above sutra as the Gautama sūtra. In this context the opinion of S.Bagchi is considerable. He said in his easy śūnyavāda, “śūnyavāda has been discussed and criticised in the Nyāyasūtra of Akşapāda and it is quite natural to assume that the doctrine criticised was sponsored by Nāgārjuna for the first time. Nāgārjuna has also quoted from the Nyāyasūtra. In the Vigrahavyāvartani he has criticised the Nyaya theory. In the state of our present knowledge which is confined to the available works of Nāgārjuna and the Nyāyasūtra. It is not fur from risk to assign priority or posteriority to these two authors” (xxiv). So in this case it cannot be said just only depend on inference, imagination or from doubt that sūnyavādins Buddhist philosophers first introduced and pointed out the example of māyā and by that they established or agree their opinion. And following that those sūtras (4.2.31 and 4.2.32) were included in the Nyāyasūtra. Because from the ancient period by those examples various opinions have been supported and propagated. The various Upanishads are real example of that (xxv). Sūtra 32 above has been commented upon by neither Vātsyayana nor Uddyotakara. Phanibhusana thinks (xxvi) that even then there can be no doubt about its genuineness on the following grounds.
First, Vācaspati (senior), the author of Nyāyasuchinibandha, Vācaspati(junior) the author of the Nyāya-sūtraddhara and Visvanātha, the author of the Nyāya-sūtra-vṛitta have all accepted it as a sutra of Gautama. Secondly, Vātsyayana too, later in sutra 35, refutes the instances of māyā, gandharvanagara etc, as instances offered by the opponent. Thirdly, Vātsyayana here refrains from commenting upon the latter sūtra only because its implication is made quite clear from the explanation of the former. Phanibhusana lastly points out that the instances of māyā and the like were not the inventions of Vijñānavādins and the sūnyavādins, for these are found even in the Upanishads(
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Indrajālam iva māyāmayaṁ svapna iva mithyādarśanam etc). So there are no sufficient grounds to admit that those xxiv. Śūnyavāda (chronological background) Dr.S.Bagchi. Introduction. Mulmādhyamika sāstra;Edited by P.L.Vaidya; the Mithila Institute, 1960 Xxv. Maitre-Upanishad, 4th prapathaka. Xxvi. Nyayadarsan. Ch.v.P-158.
Words were first introduced in the Mādhyamikkārikā and then it is attached with Nyāyasūtra. (xxvii) The European scholars brought historical revolution in India by the name of scientific historicity. If scientific historicity based on śāśtras and reason then it can be established the true facts. But it must be admitted scientific truths cannot be get revealed by rejecting śāśtras and reason in the name of scientific historicity.
The various western scholars and philosophers like Weber, Goldsctuker, Dr. A.B.Keith, F. Maxmuller etc. Considered that the sutras of Nyaya Darshana were imitated from the sutras of Buddhadarsana or Baddhadarsana was more ancient in compare with Hindudarsana. Weber in his book ‘History of Indian Literature’ placed Nyāyasūtra and Vaiśeşikasūtrs in the end of the book Saḍadarsanasūtra (xxviii). Regarding Nyāya philosophy Goldsctuker said in his book “Panini: His place in Sanskrit literature “ that in the time of Panini there was no existence of Nyāyasūtra ; it was written after Panini, because Panini did not know in which sense the words like ‘jāti, ākriti and Vyakti’ were used. By the sūtra which Goldsctuker accepted the existence of the Nyāya, is that—“adhyāyanyāyodyā basṁhārādhārābāyasca”(xxix) xxvii. Beside this, Dr. Heramba Chattapadhyaya said in his book, “Nāgārjuna criticised the Pramāṇa of Akhşapāda in his book Mulmādhamikkārikā and the Vigrahavyāvartani.” In this context by referring the Nyāyasūtra 2.1.19, he represented his view as criticism
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7.9. And 7.11 of Mādhyamikkārikā.-Buddhācāryasammata Sārthānumāner Saṁkşipta ālochona.- Prof. H.Chattapadhyaya. P.-7. Kolkata Sanskrit Mahavidyalaya,Granthanka-106,1983.
xxviii. “in respect of their reduction to systematic shape, the logical sutras of Kanada and Gautama appear to rank last. But this by no means indicates that these logical enquires are themselves of later origin—on the contrary, the other sutras almost uniformly begin with such-but merely that the formal development of the logic into two philosophical schools took place comparatively late.”---History of Indian literature. P-244, Weber,London,1914.
xxix. 3.3122 Panini sūtra. “That Nyāya was known to Panini in the sense of syllogism or logical reasoning or perhaps logical science, i conclude from the sūtra 3.3.122.-Panini: his place in the Sanskrit literature. P-116,London,1861.
By saying that he admitted the existence of Nyāyasūtra but said Nyāyasūtra was not present then. Prof. Keith said nothing clearly about the space and time of Nyaya philosophy but his opinion is like that the traditional Nyāyasūtra edited after the Bauddha philosopher Nāgārjuna (xxx). Max Muller expressed that there was no evidence that Nyāyasūtra was prior to the period of Buddha. In whose name the sutras are, they may be expressed their own view prior to Buddha or it may be propoganded at the uprising of the Buddha religion but later someone wrote the books (sutras) and then he published it by the name of the Naiyāikas. So, according to him though the philosophical thoughts were ancient but the philosophical sutras were latest and modern. He did not give any argument regarding this matter (xxxi).
According to Max Muller the Buddhist Logician Diṇgnaga was the man of 6000 A.D. Uddyotakara refuted his opinion in Nyāya-Vārttika and established the view of Pankilswami. So the Nyāyasūtra of Gautama may be written on 6000 A.D.or before it. Diṇgnaga explained
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Nyāyasūtra according to Buddhist ideology. So Uddyotakara protest against the view (xxxii). Now the question arises here, if Dingnaga explained Gautama’s Nyāyasūtra on 6000 A.D. then how is it prove that it was written on the same century? Moreover if it was written before that century (which was not properly stated) then how can be it said that it was written after Buddha? The book which was written on 5000 A.D., now if someone writes explanatory notes (tīka) on it, then is its oldness or antiqueness will be faded? Sayanācārya wrote notes (Bhāśya) on Veda, then can we say the Vedas are some prime to Sayanācārya or its contemporary and we doubt about the oldness of Vedas? The sutras which Max Muller pointed out, there we cannot found the opinion of Madhyamik Sūnyavādins and rejection of it, it was revealed from the writings of the next writers, but for this
xxx. “Nāgārjuna works evidently were of much influence on the development of Indian Philosophy, and his dialectic as sophistic was too much in harmony with the taste of Gautama not attract his attention. It is therefore, improbable that we may assert that the Nyāyasūtra falls in the period after the appearance of Nāgārjuna.”—Indian logic and Atomism. P. 24. Oxford University Press. Humphery Milford Publisher to the University.1921. xxxi. The six systems of Indian philosophy. P.89-90. F.Max Muller. 1919. Longmans Green And Co. London./ Xxxii. Ibid. P.-364.There was no disgrace of Sūtrakāra. Moreover according to our opinion Dirghatama Gautama who was wrote Nyāyasūtra, there are so many sutras occours clearly in the Mādhamiksūtra and Vigrahavyāvartani which were followed by Nyāyasūtra (xxxiii). Particularly, there are references of Sūnyavāda etc., in the Veda and Upaniṣads (xxxiv). So it is not true to say that sūnyavāda means ‘Mādhamik Sūnyavāda’ (xxxv). We have attempted to give above the views of some of the best authorities on the chronology of the Nyayasutras. The time of the sutras is found to range from the Pre-Buddhistic or Buddhistic age to
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about 600 A.D. So about Vatsyayana the date assigned vary from 200 B.C. to about 700 A.D. This wild confusion is a sure indication of the fact that we are travelling on insecure ground. Assuming that all Nyayasutras, as we have them today, are not genuine and that some of them may possibly represent latter interpolations,
xxxiii. ‘na svabhābasiddhirāpekḥikatvāt” 4.1.39. Nyāyasūtra. na sambhabaḥ svabhābasya yaktaḥ pratyaya hetubhiḥ /svabhābaḥ kritaka nāma bhabişyati punaḥ katham. Mādhyamik kārikā.
“nāsanna sanna sadasat sadasato baidharmāt. 4.1.48. Nyāyasūtra
“Satasca tābadutpattirsataśca na yajyate/ na sataścāsataśceti pūrvamebopapāditam” . Mādhyamik kārikā. xxxiv. “kālaḥ svabhābo niyatiyadṛicchā butāin yoniḥ pḥuruşaḥ iticintyam”. (Svetaśvatarapanişd) xxxv. Mahāmahopādhyāya Dr. Gopinath kaviraj remarks, “It is interesting to observe that the several doctrines which have been introduced in the First Lecture of the chapter iv as pūrvapakşyaḥ does not refer explicitly either to sūnyavāda or to Vijñānavāda. They may well stand for theories so widely current in Buddhistic and Post- Buddhistic ( but generally pre-Christian) times, and a detailed examination of those in connection with the history of contemporary thought is sure to be highly profitable and enlightening”. – Nyāyasūtra with Vātsyāyanabhāsya, - Gangānāth jha,. Introduction. P.-x. Ponna, Central Book Agency, 1939.
There is no reason to deny that the general frame-work of the system is of a much earlier date. There is nothing to contradict Dr. Vidyābhusan’s view that the sutras belong to 600 B.C. Mahāmohopādhyāya Sāstri’s opinion that Akşapāda was Pre-Buddhist and was the founder of the school is also acceptable, but where is the proof to show that all sutras came after the development of the
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Mahāyānik and Sūnyavādins school and even some of them were not composed by Akşapāda himself? The suggestion of the sutras having passed through several redactions may be accepted in the main, but this does not militate against the antiquity and genuineness of some parts of the work at any rate. The similarity of ideas, and even in some cases of stray words, does not necessarily prove, as Pandit Phanibhusana Tarkavāgisa rightly remarks in his introduction (p.-34) to his excellent Bengali translation Nyāyasūtra and Bhāsya, reference to any particular theory of later years, unless it is clearly stated. We know from a study of Indian philosophy and Literature that certain stereotyped sayings have come down from ancient times, and though these may be found in different works they need not be ascribed to any of them.
Narendra Sāstri Sāṁkhya-Vedāntatīrtha has supplied the learned public of Bengal with a very stimulating work (Indian logic or Dārśanik Tarkavidyā) which deals with the most difficult problem of the age of the different authors of the Nyāya system of Philosophy. To foreword his book Prof. Kokileswar Sāstrī remarks that “the founder of the Indian system of Logic must be one as Narendranath Vedāntatīrtha rightly shows, must have been known both as Akşapāda and Gotama and he is identically the same as Dīrghatamā- the ancient Seer of the Vedic hymns who must be the real author of the system. If Dīrghatamā be the author of the Nyāyasūtra,--nay, the first man to discover logic and Philosophy as a whole, as the author has proved from the Rig-Veda itself, he must have belonged to Mithila and lived much near to the Vedic Age—6000 B.C. His Nyāyasūtra must also belong to the same Age. If the man be found out, why should his system lie in obscurity? It is rather unfair to bring everything down after Śākya-Buddha, simply because we cannot conceive of a remoter past.”(Dārśanik Tarkavidyā--- Narendrachandra Vedāntatīrtha. Tīrtha library. Kolkata, 1931.)
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If we find that there is the rejection of the Buddha view in the second chapter of the Nyāyasūtra, we accept it as the view of Śākya-Buddha, then it cannot be accepted that those were written after the age of Śākya-Buddha, for there is no reference of Buddha view in those Sūtras. The other commentator refers them to explain the Sūtras. So there is no rejection of the Buddha view in the Nyāyasūtra at all. Although there is some reference like Buddha, in that case the significance is to protect the reality by rejection of vādhaka yukti (argument) and established it by Sādhaka yukti (argument). The subject matter which was rejected to establish the reality later was supported by the Buddha. As they were not rejected as the name of Śākya-Buddha, then it is not true that those Sūtras were written after the Śākya-Buddha. It is found in the description of the first chapter of the book ‘Lalitavister’ that Buddha was not the first Buddha. Before him there were fifty-five Buddha. The last Śākya- Buddha i.e., fifty-sixth Buddha propagated the Buddha religion. So he was not the founder, but propounded the Buddha religion. Now, if there were reference of Buddha view too in the Nyāyasūtra, then it is not true to say that Nyāyasūtra originated after Śākya-Buddha. Particularly, the reference of Veda, Purana, Hetuvidyā, Vyakarana, Vaiśeşika etc. is seen in the twelve chapter of the same book. (Lalitavister, chap.-xii, p- 179.Bibliotheca Indica Series,). M. E. Senart describes the Gāthās to be the most ancient and authentic text on the life of the Last Buddha and the Lalitavistara as the type of the most complete, the most perfect and also the most authoritative book—(Śākyamunicharit o nirvāntattva Sādhu Agharnāth). ‘Hetuvidyā’ which mentioned in the book Lalitavistara that means Nyāyadarśana. As it is clearly stated in the Mahabharata that ‘Hetuvidyā’ is nothing but ‘Tarkavidyā or ‘Nyāyadarśana’. (Mahābhārat-Sāntiparva-180 Adhyāya). So, from the above discussion it shows that Nyāyasūtra is not even after the time of Śākya-Buddha. Śākya-Buddha was born in Kapilavastu at bank of the river Rohini on 623 B.C. but the time of Nyāyasūtra is 6000 B.C.
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PERCENT BODY FAT AND BODY MASS INDEX: AN ASSOCIATION
Dinesh Kumar PhD Scholar School of Physical Education Lovely Professional University , Punjab
Abstract:
Obesity is the stage when there is excess accumulation of the fat in the adipose tissue of the body. Generally height weight charts are used to measure person’s weight as underweight, normal weight, overweight or obesity. Body fat and being overweight are two different things an overweight person can have normal weight because of more fat muscle as it is evident from the research’s that muscle mass and body fat has strong negative relationship. So the question is whether height weight charts/BMI can be reliable measure of fat. The present study was aimed at studying the relationship between body fat and body mass index which are used as the measure of one’s underweight, overweight and obesitystatus on 100 purposively selected from different professional
courses of Lovely Professional University with age 22.090+- 2.17 sd. The data was collected using OMRON Body composition monitor with scale Model HBF-362 and the statistical analysis of the data was done using descriptive statistics and PPMCC at 0.01 level of significance. The result of the study revealed positive significant relationship between percent body fat and BMI, hence on the basis of the findings it can be concluded that BMI can be used as a measure of percent body fat.
Keywords: Body Mass Index, Percent body fat and PPMCC.
Introduction:
Obesity is disease which can leads to plethora of health related ailments and in the present era of technological and mechanical revolution
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where a man is depends on these to solve the little problem which leads to sedentary lifestyle. Obesity is the stage when there is excess accumulation of the fat in the adipose tissue of the body, now it is important to have reliable measure of measuring body fat there are numerous of ways to measure percent body fat amongst themthe use of height weight charts is onewhich measure an individual’s underweight, normal weight, overweight or obesity status, but there is various conflicts regarding the use of BMI i.e. height weight charts for measuring body fat, as it measures only the underweight, normal weight or overweight status of an individuals. Body fat and being overweight are two different things an overweight person can have normal body fat because of more muscle as it is evident from the research’s that muscle mass and body fat has strong negative relationship. So there exist conflicts regarding the use of height weight charts/BMI as a measure ofpercent body fat.
Objectives:
To establish relationship between total body fat and body mass index.
Research Question:
Is there any relationship between body fat and body mass index establish if any?
Hypothesis:
There is no relationship between percent body fat and body mass index.
Delimitations:
The study was delimited to both male and female youth of 18-25 years of age.
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The study was delimited to the 100 youth students from Lovely Professional University.
The study was delimited to under-graduate and post-graduate students.
Methodology:
Survey method was used to collect the data on100 samples (50 boys and girls) aged 18-28 years were purposively selected form Lovely professional University, Punjab, India from among different professional courses (Education, physical education. M Tech, B Tech, EEE, ECE, MCA, BCA, BSC, and MSC) Data on Total Body Fat, Skeletal muscle mass and Body mass index was collected using OMRON Body composition monitor with scale Model HBF-362, utmost care was given during data collection data was collected in the early morning to counter any alteration in the findings. Data was statically analyzed using descriptive statistics and Pearson product moment correlation coefficient, the findings were interpreted at 0.01 level of significance.
Analysis and Interpretations
Descriptive statistics
Mean Range Skewness N SD Groups Std. Std. Stat Min. Max. Stat. error error 100 7.48 29.30 .289 TBF 19.82 .747 .241
7.30 36.60 100 22.96 3.62 15.57 .36 .253 .241 BMI 16 31.57
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Relationship between total body fat and body mass index
The pearsons product moment correlation coefficient for establishing the relationship between total body fat and body mass index revealed positive correlation (r = .516**) as the p. value .000 is less than 0.01 with 99% degree of confidence for 98 degree of freedom.
Discussion and Conclusion:
As it is being considered that Body fat and being overweight are two different things an overweight person can have normal body fat percentage because of more muscle mass as it is evident from the research’s that muscle mass and body fat has strong negative relationship (K. Dinesh 2016). So the question is canheight weight charts/BMI be used as a measure ofpercent body fat. The present study revealed that there is positive correlation between percent body fat and body mass index which means if body fat increases it may leads to increase in body mass index and vise-versa. Hence normal height weight charts/BMI can be used for an idea about percent body fat in general population.
Conclusion:
On the basis of the findings it was concluded that percent body fat and body mass index are positively correlated i.e. increase or decrease in one leads to the increase/decrease in other.
Recommendations
The study was purely conducted on college going youths which does not considered the samples where the data can vary, for studying the concept keenly it is suggested to study the same concept in weightlifters, powerlifters or bodybuilders.
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Acknowledgement
I thank the almighty for continuous blessings and the parents for their enduring love and support. I also wish to thank University Grant Commission for providing the necessary grant and Department of Physical Education Lovely Professional University for being providing useful equipment.
References:
1. Atlantis et al. (2008). Lifestyle factors associated with age-related differences in body composition: the Florey Adelaide Male Aging Study.Dec,13,2013. Retrieved http.acjn. nutrition.org/con tent/88 /1/9 5 full.pdf 2. AlešGaba, Jana Pelclova, MiroslavaPřidalova, JarmilaRiegerova, Iva Dostalova, Lucie Engelov.(August, 2009). The evaluation of body composition in relation to physical activity in 56–73 year old women: a pilot study. vol. 39, no. 3.www.researchg ate.net/bod y_compo sitio n...relation... /3deec51a1d254a5f2b.pdf 3. Bulló, M., et al.(2011). Association between a healthy lifestyle and general obesity and abdominal obesity in an elderly. Dec., 13, 2013 Retrieved from http.www.una v.edu/…/fil es/file/…/Pre v_Med_ 201 1_Bullo_M.pdf. 4. Kamlesh, M. L. (2012). UGC-NET Digest on paper II and III Physical Education 2nd Edition. New Delhi: KhelSahitya Kendra. 5. Singh, Ajmer et al. (2008). Essential of Physical Education. New Delhi: Kalayani Publishing. 6. Marion Devaux, Franco Sassi, Jody Church, Michele Cecchini, Francesca Borgonovi(2011) “Exploring the Relationship Between Education and Obesity”, OECD Journal. Economic Studies, Vol.2011/1. (www.OECD.o rg/eco /gr owth/relationship&obesity.pdf)
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ASSESSMENT OF FACTORS AFFECTING SAVING HABITS OF FARMER HOUSEHOLDS IN CASH CROP AREAS OF ILU ABABOR ZONE, ETHIOPIA: THE CASE OF SELECTED WOREDAS
Geda Misganu Geleta Merera Management Department PhD Scholar Business and Economics Faculty Management Department Mettu University, Ethiopia Business and Economics Faculty Mettu University, Ethiopia
Abstract
This study entitled assessment of factors affecting saving habits of farmer households in Ilu Ababor zone, aims at understanding and explaining the factors affecting saving behavior of farmer households. A sample of 500 households was selected from 10 randomly selected Woredas of Ilu Ababor Zone namely Gore, Nopha, Bedele, Darimu, Yayo, Alge Sachi, Gechi, Chora, Sale Nono, and Mettu. This sample size is determined by the researcher’s personal judgment. The number of sample respondents drowned from each Woredas was proportional; quotas were given for each kebeles in the randomly selected Woredas based on its population. After assigning quota for the kebeles, convenience sampling was used to pick the respondent households. Interview and structured questionnaire were the major tools for the data collection. In addition personal observation and visit were made by the researchers. Additionally, the researchers used secondary data financial institutions for triangulation of the information obtained from the households. Descriptive analysis like frequency, percentage, and tabulations were used for analyzing the data collected. The result of the study shows, majority of the respondents in the study area are not engaged in deliberate and planned savings of part of their income, the current saving status of the households is very low, the major factors that influence the saving habits of the farmer households as responded
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by the farmers are, different variables like the gender, age, primary occupation, educational qualification, possession of land, house type, number of family members and the marital status of the individuals. In addition, income/earnings, family size, ease of access to saving place (institution) of the households, types of crops cultivated, lack of family budget, lack of plan before spending their money, size of land cultivated or used efficiently are found to be determinant factors. Financial counseling and awareness creation services to all farmer households, rural financial intermediation in the rural communities, working on how to enhance mobile banking, building capacity of the farmer households through education, designing a special project were recommendations forwarded by the researchers.
Index Terms: Saving Practices, Saving Habits, and Farmer Households
I. INTRODUCTION Considering the current trend for early retirement and its impact over the old public pension schemes, more and more importance is being assigned to individual savings. Beside their usefulness in the retirement scheme, saving also comes as an alternative solution for future investments and insurances. It offers the possibility of making diverse acquisitions without the use of loans that come with expenses such as interest rates and future administration costs. Over the long run, in the absence of insurance markets, savings are considered one of the main triggers of social mobility and of making future spending possibilities (Attanasio and Székely, 2000).
In the Ethiopian economy, rural sector is of great importance due to the limits set by this sector to the growth of other sectors. Since there is an assumption that the rural saving capacities are very low, the policy makers have not considered seriously about the mobilization of savings from this sector. This study focuses on the factors affecting
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savings of farmer households of Ilu Ababor zone of Oromia region which is known by its cash crops.
This is intended because most surveys by concerned institutions about the saving habits of this zone is very weak, that most farmers sell their crops in ‘winter’ season and use it extravagantly and suffer starvation in summer season. The researchers motivated to identify the critical factors affecting the saving habits of these farmers to find solution that may help decision makers to uproot the problem.
Statement of the Problem
Most of the developing countries have low rate of saving habits, so that improving saving habit is a primary goal for people living in this part of the world (Michael et al., 2001). The present study can be a relevant one to know the factors why Ilu Ababor Zone farmers not highly tied with saving habits. Aggregate saving in any economy is dependent on a number of variables.
Right now, as many sources show the farmers in Ilu Ababor earns huge money from the sale of its cash crops at the season and suffers from starvation at summer seasons. Thus, there is an immediate need to carefully understand the saving habits and identify critical factors affecting the savings of the rural households of Ilu Ababor. As a result the concerning body will set policies that may solve the problems arises from the critical factors.
Research questions
The research problem approaches by answering the following main research questions:
What is the farmer household’s attitude towards saving?
What is the current status of saving practices of the farmer households in Ilu Ababor zone farmers?
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What are the major factors that influence the saving habits of the farmer households?
Objective of the study
The aim of this study is to understand and explain the factors affecting saving behavior of farmer households; the following specific objectives will be addressed;
To identify farmer households attitude towards saving To assess the current status of saving practices of the farmer households in the zone
To identify factors that influence the saving habits of the farmer households
To provide or document information for decision makers, planners and Researchers
II. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY Description of the study area
The study was conducted from September 2007 to June 2007 E.C in Ten (10) randomly selected Woredas of Ilu Ababor zone, Oromia Region, Ethiopia. The zone is located about 600 km away from the capital city, Addis Ababa (Finfinne), to the southwest part of Ethiopia. The study area focuses on ten selected Woredas in the zone.
Population of the study
The total population for this specific study includes all farmer households dwelling in Ilu Ababor zone.
Sample size and sampling procedure
Since it is not possible to investigate the whole population, 500 sample households were selected from 10 randomly selected Woredas of Ilu Ababor Zone namely Gore, Nopha, Bedele, Darimu, Yayo, Alge Sachi,
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Gechi, Chora, Sale Nono, and Mettu. This sample size is determined by the researcher’s personal judgment. The number of sample respondents drowned from each Woredas was proportional; quotas were given for each kebeles in the randomly selected Woredas based on its population. After assigning quota for the kebeles, convenience sampling was used to pick the respondent households.
Source of data and method of collection
The main focus was on Primary data which was collected from each of the selected households. Interview and structured questionnaire were the major tools for the data collection. In addition personal observation and visit were made by the researchers. The structured questionnaire, covered crop and livestock production, off-farm and non-farm activities, income, consumption and saving activities of the farmer households. Interview and researchers personal visit were used to cover the uncovered and knowledge part of the data.
Additionally, secondary data was used financial institutions for triangulation of the information obtained from the households.
Method of data analysis
Descriptive analysis like frequency, percentage, and tabulations were used for this study. The data was edited for minor errors, coded and classified to have organized and classified data into similar characteristics that brings a pattern of data. In this phase respondent’s remark about various factors affecting farmer household’s saving habit was carefully investigated. Percentages were used to express the result relative to relevant variables considered in order to make comparisons on each variable among categories. The interpretations were made by focusing on only results relevant to the study.
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III. STUDIES AND FINDINGS
Farmer household’s attitude towards saving. Majority of the respondents have a positive attitude towards saving. Few of the respondents who developed negative attitude towards saving is because of lack of awareness about the importance of saving, lack of capacity to save and excess of expenditure.
Though, the majority of the respondents have a positive attitude towards saving, they are not engaged in deliberate and planned savings. They list reasons for not deliberately saving their money, even though they have positive attitude towards saving. Some of these reasons are:
Huge amount of expenditure as soon as they get money and suffer from shortage of money for the rest of their time.
Their income cannot cover their expenditures.
Shortage of knowhow to save money.
Majority of them saves money at home and they are easily access to their money whenever they need it and easily spend it on useless items.
Lack of knowhow to manage their expenditures and other costs.
Income fluctuation of the farmer households.
Some of the merchants in the town deliberately increase cost of items during the times when farmers earn money from sales of their crops.
When the farmer households get money, they lose price negotiation with the merchants in the town and feel that every price is affordable for them and pay the total amount requested by the merchants.
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Status of saving practices of the farmer households in Ilu Ababor zone.
The estimated annual income of the family heads lies between 20,000 birr, and 500,000birr.
A very large cumulative percentage of the household heads saving is very small portion of their earnings and this indicates that the saving of the households is low.
Household’s purchase of any expensive goods which could be considered as non cash savings is very low in the study area.
Houses built by the farmers are made from local materials and very cheap if converted into monetary value.
They only saved as and when they harvested and sold products from their farms on seasonal basis.
The largest number of the respondents observed that they spend their money very often, meaning that they spent on daily or weekly basis. Majority of the households in the study area saves their money at their home and also significant number of the households saves their money at banks. Most of the respondents who kept their money home cited reasons such as banks not being accessible. Analysis of the data showed that the respondents considered several things or factors before choosing any particular form of saving. The main consideration was safety, the ease of accessibility, return rate, lack of any other saving outlets location, distance, service delivery speed, and prior loyalty.
A significant number of the respondent families spent the largest portion of their income on food, clothing and household appliances (furniture and radio and a means of transport), education of children, investing in a farm, which includes the purchase of fertilizer (Urea and Daps) annually, purchase of improved seeds, and purchase of oxen for farming purpose and housing found to be the least.
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The households in the study area prefer to save their money at banks than the rest places such as credit union, welfare society, walking bank and home. Some of the reasons for those who prefer to keep their money at banks are; safety, interest rate, to get loan access in the future and reliability.
Major factors that influence the saving habits of the farmer households
Family size
The saving capability of the households is highly influenced by the size of their family. The higher the family size the lower the saving ability of the household heads and the lower the family size the higher will be the saving capability of the household heads.
Income/earnings
The result of the study shows that there is no significant relationship between the two (earnings and percentage of saving). However, those household heads who earns more money saves larger amount of their money since percentage of larger number is naturally higher than same percentage of smaller number.
Ease of access to saving place (institution) of the households
The saving place of farmer households was found to play a very important role in saving, those households who save their money at bank saves more money than those who keeps their money at home.
Types of crops cultivated
Household’s who cultivates both cash and cereal crop found to save more money than those who cultivates only one (either cash or cereal crop).
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Lack of family budget
Majority of the household heads in the study area does not have family budget, which means these farmer households spend their money without planning their expenditure in advance.
Lack of plan before spending their money
Farmer households in the study area do not have expenditure plan and even those who have expenditure plan does not spend their money accordingly. Lack of knowledge about plan, considering planning as a wasting of time, lack of reliability about how much they are going to earn during a given period (specifically, their income depends on the condition of their crop during that period since they are farmers), lack of awareness about the matter under discussion, lack of motivation to plan are among the major reasons why the farmer households in the study area do not plan about their expenditure.
Size of land Cultivated or used efficiently
Majority of the farmer households own small amount of land which is not adequate to the family of the households and mass of the lands owned by the households were not cultivated or used efficiently.
In general, the major factors that influence the saving habits of the farmer households as responded by the farmers are, different variables like the gender, age, primary occupation, educational qualification, possession of land, house type, number of family members and the marital status of the individuals.
In addition, the respondent households believe that transacting with bank is time consuming, the operations are too complicated for illiterates and they say it is better to keep money home than to save it with formal savings institutions and they said that informal forms of savings are more convenient.
The main difficulties are inability to buy even necessary food items
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from the market, a need to borrow money from friends or other households through providing their assets (gold, land, etc) as a collateral, harvesting crops before its right time (coffee, chat, maize), inability to pay school fees and life expenses for their children were among the major challenges mentioned by the respondent households.
IV. RECOMMENDATIONS Financial counseling and awareness creation services should be made available to all farmer households, to equip them with the skills and competencies of managing their financial resources so as to make them engaged in deliberate and planned savings, to meet both the present and future needs of the households. This will help to address the problem related to attitudes and to mitigate reasons for not deliberately saving their money though they have positive attitude towards saving.
Rural financial intermediation should be encouraged in the rural communities in the study area. This can be done through the encouragement of rural banks in the zone to open agencies and branches, while the establishment of new rural and community banks must be encouraged. To this end, the Banks should formulate new policies and guidelines that will make the establishment of rural and community banks easier to the farmer households. This will help in the establishment of new rural and community banks especially in the study area.
Commercial banks should plan and work on how to enhance mobile banking that allows farmer households to conduct some financial transactions remotely using a Mobile devises such as a mobile phone. This will address problems such as accessibility, location, distance, service and delivery speed.
Efforts should be geared at building capacity of the farmer households through education since this will better enhance the earning potentials
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of participants, help in minimizing the negative impacts of factors that influence their saving habits and shows investment opportunities that are available to them. This will improve their knowledge on the various forms of savings (cash and non cash) and investment and they will be encouraged to participate in them. For instance, agricultural extension services should be made available for those households who invest in farming. The education can take different forms, either through radio broadcast, community talks or if possible, in the form of extension services where the officers will work with families as units.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Thanking the almighty God before all, we are heartily thankful to Mettu University, particularly Research Directorate for financing and for making remarkable and relentless cooperation from the beginning to the end of this research work. We would like to express our sincere gratitude to each individual who gave us excellent and constructive ideas with tireless assistance as well as encouragement, guidance and support from the initial to the final level. Thirdly, we would like to appreciate the data collectors and lastly, we offer our regards and blessings to all respondents who provided appropriate information for their invaluable assistance. REFERENCES
Attanasio, O., Székely, M., Household saving in developing [1] countries – Inequality, demographics and all that: How different are Latin America and South East Asia?, Working Paper 427, Inter- American Development Bank;
Government policy, (2001). Federal democratic republic of Ethiopia. [2] Addis Ababa
Michal Grinstein-Weiss, Min Zhan, Sondra Beverly, 2001. Savings [3] and Asset Accumulation in Individual Development Account.
Oromia city development and construction bureau, Mettu city [4] profile,2011, Mettu.
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कंबर के कंब रामायण म धािम क स ावना
डॉ. एस. ीित सहायक ोफेसर, वभागा य हंद वभाग, व ान एवं मान वक संकाय एस.आर.एम व व ालय क ा कुलाथुर
भारद यार ने कहा है –“ पुगल कंबर पेर दु तिमलनाडु । कंबर क कंब रामायणम तिमल सा ह य क सव कृ कृित एवं बृहद ंथ है।
इसम कर बन 10,000 से यादा पद एवं 45,000 पं य का सं ह है। इसे छः कांड म वभ कया गया है →1. बाल कांड 2. अयो या कांड 3. आर य कांड 4. किश कंदा कांड 5. सुंदर कांड 6.
यु कांड. कंबर का समय 1180 से 1250 ई.पू. माना जाता है। इनका ज म तिमलनाडु के तंजावूर जले म हुआ। ये क वच वत ,क व पेरअरसन के नाम से िस ह । वे तिमल और सं कृत भाषा के ाता थे। कंब रामायण के अलावा उनक अ य कृ ितयाँ
एर एयूवदु (70) कंगै पुराणम और सड़गोपर अंदाद
कंब रामायण वा मी क रामायण का अनुवाद मा नह ं ब क तिमल सं कृित स यता को यान म रखकर पुनःसृजन कया गया है।
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कंबर वी टु कटु रयम क व पाड़ुम अथा त कंबर के घर के हथकरघ म भी क वता क विन सुनाई देती है। अब सवाल उठता है क का य ितभा से इतने स प न होने पर भी कंबर ने अपनी मौिलक रचना य नह ं क ? महाका य िलखने क यो यता तो उनम भरपूर थी ? इस पर ो. ानसंबंधन का मत यहाँ यात य है –
→ धािम क अस ह णुता जनता म शु हो रह थी।
→ आपसी वैमन य क भावना आग क भांित फ़ैल रह थी उस आग म शैव, वै णव दोन प के भ जलकर मर रहे थे।
→धम के आधारभूत िस ांत को नग य मानकर लोग जाित-पाित यव था को अिधक मह व देने लगे।
→ बौ एवं जैन धम ने जो एं य संयम क सीख हमे द , वह तो जनता भूल ह गई।
→ कई अनैितक और अवांछनीय यवहार जनता म फ़ैल रहे थे।
→चेर,चोल, पा ड, प लव य प ये चार स ाट तिमल भाषा-भाषी थे फर भी एक दूसरे पर िनरंतर वार कर रहे थे,सा ा य के व तार हेतु।
अतः धािम क, सामा जक, वैय क , नैितक मू य पतनो मुख हो रहे थे। इनके बचाव हेतु कंबन एक उपाय करते ह । य प उ होने वा मी क कृत रामायण के उपरो मू य को अपनी कृित का आधार माना। उनका (कंबर) मानना था क कोई भी सा ा य चाहे जतनी श शाली हो, अगर उसम नैितक मू य का अभाव है तो वह सा ा य चंद समय म ह िम ट म िमल जाएगा यािन शी ह उसका पतन हो जाएगा। अतः
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तिमल समाज के िलए अितप रिचत राम कथा को ह कंबन चुनते ह । उनको व ास था क राम के च र के मा यम से नैितक मू य क ित थापना सफलतापूव क हो सकती है।
उदाहरण व प :- वा मी क कृत रामायण म रावण सीता को उठाकर ले जाता है पर कंबर तिमल सं कृित को यान म रखकर िलखते ह क रावण भूिम समेत उस कुट र को उठा ले गया जसम सीता देवी वास करती थीं। उसी कार कंबर ने रावण को एक महान िशव-भ के प म , अ तीय शासक के प म िच त कया पर उसका अनुिचत वासना के कारण होता है।
कंबर परम वै णव थे, फर भी उ ह ने िशव और व णु के भेद को नह ं माना। वे एक ह परमा मा के ित गंभीर आ था रखते थे। कंबर राम को ित माल के अवतार मानते ह । ित माल श द के िलए यापक अथ देते ह क वह सव यापक स ा है।
कंबन का आ या मक िस ांत िन नां कत संग म देखने को िमलता है –
रावण जब पहली बार राम क श का सामना रणभूिम म करता है तब कहता है क जस मनु य से वह यु कर रहा है वह न िशव है न ित माल ; वह तो वेद म व ण त सव या दैवीय स ा है।
(वेद मुदलवन)
िसवानो अ लन नानमुगन अ लन ित मलाम अवनो अ लन
मैयवरम ए लाम अडुिगरान
तवानो ए णन सैदु मु डककुम तरन अ लन
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इवानोदान अ वेद मुदल कारणम एन
---- रावण वदै प लम – 134 पद .
कंबन ने भगवान को भेदाभेद से र हत सा बत कया है। उ होने हलाद के मुख से कहलवाया है सवेरे के सुगंिधत पु प के साथ शाम को खलते फूल जैसे माला म गूँथे जाते ह वैसे ह वभ न धम का समुदाय है। समुदाय के लोग लड़-झगड़ कर कुतक करते ह पर परमा मा सबके िलए भेद र हत ह गे , जैसे समु व लहर ह ,” इससे सप है क कंबन धम के नाम पर झगड़ना पसंद नह ं करते थे।समु व लहर का उ लेख करके कंबन कहते ह क आ मा परमा मा से िमलकर एकदम वलीन हो जाती है। यहाँ अ ैतवाद क झलक देखने को िमलती है। वयं विश ा ैती होने पर भी कंबन यहाँ अ ैत का समथ न करते ह ।
किलनइडयै परेदु प दु, कडलइडयै कल दुनींदुम ए लै इल
मरैगलालुम इय ब,
अ म पो ल एदु , ए न:
तो लैियल ओ े आगी, तुरैतो म परेदु सूक च
पलपे म समयम सो लुम पो लुम पोल परंददु अ े
आदेपडलम– 19 पद।
पद का भाव यह है क जस कार वशालकाय नद क धाराएँ अनेकानेक गाव से होकर बहती रहती है उन गाव को स प न करती हुई आगे बढ़ती है पर उस नद का मूल प कैसा है ? छोट -छोट पानी क धाराएँ एक दूसरे से िमलकर बड़ नद बनती है। ठ क इसी
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कार उस सव या स ा को हर कोई धम अलग-अलग नाम से अिभल त करता है। पर सम त धम म िभ न-िभ न नामकरण से चिच त वह महाश का व प तो एक ह है।
ईसी कारण कंबर ने अपने का य के आरंभ म कसी भी भगवान का नाम िलए बना ईश वंदना क है।
उलगं यावैयुं ताम उल वा कुल,
िनलै पेय टलु नी कलु नींगला।
अल हला वलैयाडु उडैयार अवर
तलैवर अनैवरक / अ न वरकै शरण- नाँगले
भाव यह है क वह (भगवान) हमारा नायक है जो संपूण संसार क सृ , थित और संहार क लीला करता है। उसक लीला क कोई सीमा नह ं है। हम उसक शरण म है। सं ेप म कह तो कंबर अपने राम को सव या उस परमत व का पया य मानते ह , इसिलए िभ न-िभ न प के आधार पर संघष करना उनको उिचत नह ं लगता। इस कार देखा जाए तो कंब रामायण क ासंिगकता आज भी देखने को िमलती है, नैितक मू य का वघटन हो रहा है , दुिनया धम के नाम पर लड़ रह है। इसिलए कंब रामायण के सार को एक ह पं म कहा जाए तो कह सकते ह –
ओर ईल ,ओर वल , ओर सोल
भाव यह है क ओर ईल – यािन प ी- ता पु ष का सव े धम
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हो नेह और स ह णुतासे भरा हुआ य तन और मन से श शाली माना जाएगा। व ल यािन धनुष रामधनुष धार है, नेह ,स ह णुता और अ याय के व खड़े होने क असीम श , यह व ल का ोतक है। अंत म सोल यािन वचन हर इ सान वचनब हो तो संसार म कोई भी सम या नह ं होगी।
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PROFITABILITY PERFORMANCE OF THE NEW INDIA ASSURANCE COMPANY LIMITED
Dr. S. Renuga Devi Professor Department of Commerce Karpagam University, Coimbatore Abstract
The best performance of any industry in general and any firm in particular plays the role of increasing the market value of that specific firm coupled with the role of leading towards the growth of the whole industry which ultimately leads to the overall success of the support the investment activities in the economy.
The insurance industry in particular is part of immune and repair system of an economy and successful operation of the industry can set energy for other industries and development of an economy. To do so the insurance industry is expected to be financially solvent and strong through being profitable in operation. Hence, not only measuring the profitability performance of insurance companies but also clear insight about factors affecting financial performance in the industry is then the problem to be investigated. Therefore, the determinants of insurance company’s performance have attracted the interest of academicians, practitioners and institutional supervisors. This motivated the researcher to put his own contribution on what factors affect the profitability performance of New India Assurance Company in India.
The researcher attempts to work on such empirical evidence in the country. tthese are important issues to be investigated for the insurance managers, professionals, regulators and policy makers to support the sector in achieving the excellence so that required economic outcomes could be obtained by understanding the success and failure factors of profitability. Profitability is one of the most important
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objectives of financial management because one goal of financial management is to maximize the owner` s wealth. This paper examined the profitability performance of New India Insurance Company by taking into account return on net worth as dependent variable and Claim ratio, expenses ratio, investment ratio, retention ratio, operating profit ratio, net earnings ratio and underwriting risk ratio as independent variables The study covered a period of fourteen years years(2001-2014). The study used Secondary data obtained from the Annual returns of the company and Insurance Regulatory Authority of India
Keywords: Factors, claims, Insurance Companies, Profitability, operating profit, net earnings, net worth underwriting results.
Introduction
India's rapid growth rate over the past one and half decades has been one of the most significant developments in regional markets and also in global economy. Today, India is one of the fastest growing economies of the world. It is now Asia's third largest economy and has made inroads into the global top 10 in terms of Gross Domestic Product (GDP). The service sector has contributed significantly in India’s growth story in the recent years. The contours of insurance business, one of the important service sectors, have been changing across the globe and the rippling effect of the same can be observed in the Indian market as well.
The economic scenario which emerged after globalization, privatization and liberalization has thrown a new challenge before the insurance sector. Now, it has to be more competitive in order to meet the needs and demands of its customers. The reforms contributed to increase the awareness of the insuring public about the wider range of choice of insurance products and the price offered by the competing insurers in the market.
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It provides funds, largely in the long-term, to repair or compensate for the real value and cost of damages, accident and various losses in all fields of material activities, as well as life and health. An evolving insurance sector is of vital importance for economic growth. While encouraging savings habit, it also provides a safety net to both enterprises and individuals. The insurance industry also provides crucial financial intermediation services, transferring funds from the insured to capital investment, which is critical for continued economic expansion and growth, simultaneously generating long-term funds for infrastructure development. Development of the insurance sector is necessary to support the structural changes in the economy. The insurance industry has also succumbed to the general trend towards globalized markets and risks. This general trend is evident in the fact that in recent years there has clearly been more rapid growth in global trade, direct investment and portfolio investments than in the production of goods and services.
Review of Literature
Objectives of the Study
The present study is carried out with the following objectives. The main objective of the study is to identify and compare the factors determining the profitability performance of the selected company for the period of 2001 to 2014.
Determinants of Profitability
In this study, Return on net worth Ratio is a dependent variable. Every insurer is required to earn revenue to give return for the investment made by the share holders. Seven Independent variables considered for this study are shown in model.
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Hypotheses
To achieve the objective, the study tested the following null hypotheses:
H01: There is no significant relationship between claims ratio and Return on Net worth Ratio
H02: There is no significant relationship between expenses and Return on Net worth Ratio
H03: There is no significant relationship between Investment income and Return on Net worth Ratio
H04: There is no significant relationship between Retention ratio and Return on Net worth Ratio
H05: There is no significant relationship between operating profit ratio and Return on Net worth Ratio
H06: There is no significant relationship between Net earnings Ratio and Return on Net worth Ratio
H07: There is no significant relationship between Underwriting results Ratio and Return on Net worth Ratio
Data and Sampling
This study used secondary data sources, which are annual report of insurance companies obtained from Insurance Regulatory Authority of India and Annual Reports of the selected insurance company. Currently there are four (4) public sector general insurance companies operating in India and One Company viz., New India Insurance Company is selected for the study.
Model Specification, Hypotheses and Variable Measurement
Several important issues need to be dealt with in specifying an empirical model. These include choice of suitable dependent and
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explanatory variables, measurement of these variables, and model specifications. Choice of Dependent Variable and its Measurement In line with earlier studies that investigated the determinants of Insurances’ and Banks’ performance, this study relies on one commonly used measure of performance, which is returned on net worth.
Return on Net Worth Ratio
The return on net worth indicates the profitability of the owner’s investments. It is useful in the sense it measures the residue income which really belongs to owners who bear the business risks and financial risk. “This ratio is thus of great interest to the present as well as prospective shareholders and also of great concern to management”. It is calculated as net profit after tax net worth divided by net worth or shareholder’s funds which includes value of (a)equity and preference share capital and (b)Reserves the surplus less accucumulated loss.
Choice of Explanatory Variables and their Measurement
The choice of explanatory variables is based on their theoretical relationship with the dependent variable. Generally speaking, the chosen explanatory variables are expected to partly explain the variation of the dependent variable. In this paper, firm specific variables affecting the performance of insurance company will be accounted. These explanatory variables and their measurement are as follows.
a)Net Claims
The amount paid to the insured for the loss of property or for other loss occurs which includes direct business claims paid plus re- insurance accepted less re insurance ceded is classified as net claims out go in the present study. It is compared with the net premium which is calculate by adjusting the premium on reinsurance accepted and
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reinsurance ceded in the gross premium received by the company. This ratio is the is the conventional long standing indicator of profitability. This ratio shows what percentage of payouts is being settled with recipients. The ratio is calculated as net claims and net premium.
b)Expenses Ratio
Expenses of a general insurance company largely comprises of commission expense and expenses of management. Commission expense is derived after considering commission payable and receivable on reinsurance business accepted or ceded respectively. Expenses of Management generally are operating expenses which include employees' remuneration and benefits, office and administrative expenses, etc. Expense ratio is calculated as a percentage of net premium that reflects the percentage of revenue which is being utilized on account of commission and management expenses. This ratio is a pointer of the cost effectiveness and productivity.
c)Investment Income Ratio
Income from investments creates a significant impact on profitability of an insurance company. Insurers collect huge amount of money as premium and invest it efficiently to maximize its return. The Investment income ratio is determined by investment income to net written premium. This ratio indicates the effectiveness and efficiency of investment decisions.
d)Net Retention Ratio
Net retention ratio signifies an insurer’s ability to bear risk. It is expressed as a percentage of business retained (net of reinsurance ceded) in relation to gross direct premium. In general, the companies are having a stronger capital base and huge amount of reserve & surpluses are able to retain more of their portfolios, whereas the companies, with relatively lower capitalization (and hence lower
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capacity to retain risk(s) have resorted to higher utilization of reinsurance.
e)Operating Ratio
With the help of this ratio one can judge the marginal efficiency. Moreover, this ratio (a) Tells the management that the premium can generate earnings before any expenses of business excepts the expenses of services are met (b) Reflects unfavorable expenses and mark up policies and the inability of management to develop business when it is slow. The operating profit ratio is the test of the operational efficiency of the business carried on. The operating profit ratio is very important ratio which shows the variations in the net profit margin ratio as both are complementary to each other. The operating profit ratio is calculated by dividing operating profit plus investment income by net premium.
Operating ratio = Profit before taxation / Net premium f)Net Earnings Ratio
Premium is the most important element in achieving net profit. So the ratio of net profit to premium will be an indicator of profit achievement or profit target to be achieved. The net Profit indicates the management’s ability to earn sufficient profits on premium not only to cover all revenue operating expenses of the business (including depreciation) and the expenses of merchandising of servicing but also to have a sufficient margin to pay a reasonable compensation to share holders on their contribution to the firm. Depending upon the concept, the net earnings ratio can be computed as given below
Net Earnings ratio = Profit after tax / net premium
g)Underwriting Results Ratio (URR)
Underwriting results indicate the performance of an insurance company from co-reinsurance business. To ascertain the underwriting
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performance, first net underwritten premium is adjusted with the increase/decrease in unexpired risk reserve to arrive at net premium (earned). Thereafter, underwriting profit/loss of a general insurer is ascertained after deducting the commission expenses, claims incurred and management expenses from net premium (earned). The underwriting results ratio is calculated by dividing underwriting results by net underwritten premium. It has its influence on the profitability.
Results and Analysis
Table 1
Model Summary
Model R R Square Adjusted R Std. error Square of Estimate
1 .975 .951 .894 2.55463
Source: Calculated
The value .975 as shown in the ‘’R’’ column of the table-1 shows a strong multiple correlation coefficient. It represents the correlation coefficient when six independent variables are taken together and compared with the dependent variable. Summary also indicates that the amount of change in the dependent variable is determined by six independent variables. The R square of .951 indicates that (95.1%) of the variance in Return on Net worth can be explained by six independent variables. It is safe to say that the model has a good predictor of return on net worth if claim ratio, expenses ratio, retention ratio, operating profit ratio, net earnings ratio and underwriting risk ratio are known
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Table 2
ANOVA
Model Sum of Df Mean F Sig Square square
Regression 761.111 7 108.730 16.661 .002
Residual 39.157 6 6.526
Total 800.268 13
Source: Calculated
In multiple linear regressions, ANOVA table can indicate whether the mathematical model (multiple regression equation) can accurately explain variation in the dependent variable. The significant value of 0.002 (less than 0.05) provides evidence that there is low probability that the variation explained by the model is due to chance. It can be concluded by looking at the table-2 that changes in dependent variable result from changes in independent variables and therefore the model is a good fit.
Table 3
Regression Co-efficient – New India Assurance Company
Unstandard Co-efficient Standardised Model Co-efficient t Sig Std B Beta error
(Constant) 80.772 21.476 3.761 0.009
ClaimRatio -0.382 0.165 -0.334 -2.319 0.04
ExpenseRatio -0.004 0.002 -0.273 -2.374 0.045
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InvestmentRatio 0.449 0.22 0.252 2.042 0.087
Retention Ratio -0.534 0.162 -0.361 -3.299 0.016
Operating Profit 0.059 0.076 0.09 0.774 0.468 Ratio
Net Earnings 0.282 0.058 0.647 4.841 0.003 Ratio
Under Writing -0.094 0.17 -0.09 -0.553 0.6 Risk
Source: Calculated
Return on net worth is affected positively by retention ration and net earnings ratio but negatively by claims ratio, expenses ration,. Therefore, claims ratio, expenses ration, retention ratio and net earnings ratio are identified as determinant factors of profitability in New India Assurance Company in India. The findings of this study contribute towards a better understanding of profitability performance of New India Insurance Company. Return on Net worth and six other variables that represent claims, expenses, investment, retention, operating profit, net earnings and underwriting result are developed to test which factors best describes profitability of Ethiopian insurance companies. The results show that claim, expenses, retention and underwriting result are the most important factors affecting profitability of New India Assurance Company in India respectively in order of their degree of influence. The results show that there is no significant relationship between profitability and investment, operating profit and underwriting result of the company.
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Results of Hypothesis Testing Based on Regression Summary
Independent Impact on Profitability Null Performance/ Return on Hypothesis Variables net worth (Dependent Variable)
Claims ratio Significant and negative Rejected
Expenses Ratio Significant and negative Rejected
Investment Insignificant and positive Accepted
Retention Significant and negative Rejected
Operating insignificant and positive Accepted
Net Earnings Significant and positive Rejected
Underwriting insignificant and negative Accepted Results
Source: Calculated
Conclusion:
The objective of this study is to examine the internal factors affecting profitability of New India Assurance Company Limited as measured by Return on Net worth. The results of regression analysis reveals that claim, expenses, retention and underwriting result are the most important factors affecting profitability of New India Assurance Company in India respectively in order of their degree of influence whereas Return on net worth has statistically insignificant relationship with, retention and net earnings ratios.
As the findings shows that claims ratio and expenses ratios have negative impact on profitability and it provides further implication on the effective risk management practices in the companies.
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The positive relationship between net earnings and retention ratio and Return on net worth implies that the company is better placed and ensure a higher level of profits.
Investment ratio, operating profit ratio and underwriting result are not considered as powerful explanatory variables to define the performance of New India Assurance Company over the study period.
It is implied that highly profitable insurance companies are more likely relied on claims ratio, expenses ratio, net earnings ratio and retention ratio.
The positive and statistically significant relation between net earnings ratio and retention ratio of New India Assurance Company implies that with high rate of these ratios in terms of net worth are also in a better position of being profitable.
References:
1. Ahmed, Naveed, Ahmed Zulfzar and Ahmed, Ishfaq (2010), Determinants of Capital structure: A Case of Life Insurance Sector of Pakistan” European Journal of Economic, Finance and Administrative Science, Issue 24, pp.7-12.
2. Hafiz Malik, (2011) Determinants of Insurance Companies Profitability: An Analysis of Insurance Sector Of Pakistan, Academic Research International, Volume 1, Issue 3
3. Naveed Ahmed, Zulfqar Ahmed, Ahmad Usman (2011), Determinants of Performance: A Case Of Life Insurance Sector of Pakistan, International Research Journal of Finance and Economics, Eurojournals Publishing, Inc. 2011
4. Dr. K.jothi, P. Kalaivani, A Study on Financial Performance of Honda and Toyota Automobile Company – A Comparative
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Analysis, Journal of Progressive Research in Social Sciences, Volume 2, Issue 1 June 11, 2015 33-35
5. Anjali, Amal assin, Alamro, Sameer Ahmed and Al-Soub, Yahya Zakarea(2012), Factors Affecting Finanacial Performance of Jordanian Insurance Companies Listed at Amman Stock Exchange” Journal of Management Research, Vol. 4, N0.2 pp.266-289.
6. Charumathi, B (2012) “On the Determinants of Profitability of Indian Life Insurers – An empirical Study”’ Proceedings of the World Congress on engineering, Vol.1, London, U.K.
7. Malik Hifza (2011), “Determinants of Insurance Company’s Profitability: An Analysis Insurance Sector of Pakistan”, Academic Research International, Volume – I,Issue 3, Nov., pp.315-321.
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CHANGING SCENARIO OF WOMEN ENTREPRENEURSHIP
Dr. Abdul Hakim Sadaf Khan Retired Professor in Commerce Research Scholar Arjun Nagar, Rewa (M.P.) MBA (HR) APSU, Ghoghar Rewa(M.P.)
Abstract:
A women entrepreneur is one who owns and controls an enterprise having a share capital of not less than 51% as partner/shareholder/director of private limited company.Women entry into business is a recent phenomenon. It is traced out as extension of their kitchen activities to three Ps, i.e., pickles, powder/ masala and pappad manufacturing. With growthing awareness and spread of education over the years, women have started engrossing to modern activities, like engineering, electronics and energy.Women entrepreneur faced two types of problems, One, general problems faced by all entrepreneurs and second, problems specific to women. Male dominating society, family ties, lack of need achievement, education and risk bearing abilities are the example of problems specific to women entrepreneurs.
INTRODUCTION:-
Entrepreneurship refers to the act of setting up a new business or reviving an existing business so as to take advantages from new opportunities.
Entrepreneurship is the process of starting a business, a start-up company or other organization. The entrepreneur develops a business plan, acquires the human and other required resources, and is fully responsible for its success or failure. It is an important engine of growth in the economy.
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An entrepreneur is a person who starts an enterprise. He searches for change and responds to it. It is an important engine of growth in the economy.
Entrepreneurs shape the economy by creating new wealth and new jobs and by inventing new products and services. However, an insight study reveals that it is not about making money, having the greatest ideas, knowing the best sales pitch, applying the best marketing strategy. It is in reality an attitude to create something new and an activity which creates value in the entire social eco-system.
Concept of women entrepreneurs:-
A women entrepreneur is defined as a women or group of women who initiate organized and run a business enterprise. The Government of India has defined women entrepreneurs based on women participation in equity and employment of a business enterprise. Accordingly, a women entrepreneur is defined as “an enterprise owned and controlled by a women having a minimum financial interest of 51% of the capital and giving at least 51% of employment generated in the enterprise to women”.
HYPOTHESIS:-
1. Women entrepreneurship is very weak in India.
2. Women do not efficient for entrepreneurship.
3. Women do not take interest to start enterprise.
4. Social attitude is not favourable for Women entrepreneurship.
5. There is no capacity in women for entrepreneurship. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY:-
Research Methodology is very essential to complete the research work. How the research work will do and how the data will present to determine the result.
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To conduct the research work Primary Data & Secondary Data will be collected. Primary Data will be collected by self interview with the employees & other persons related to the hospital. Patients will also the subject of interview. Questionnaires & Schedules will also be helpful to know the answer of questions related to research.
Secondary Data will be collected from the other sources like Literature available in the society & book stalls, different- different reports & information received from hospital establishment section, information which is available in internet will be used.
Tabulation & classification will also be performed to present the data properly, and then the result will be found out. If it will not match with the reality, then the all information of research work will be repeated and will try to find out the real result.
OBJECTIVE OF THE RESEARCH:-
1. To study women entrepreneurship of India.
2. To promote women to establish an enterprise.
3. To provide sufficient capital and other sources to promote women entrepreneurship.
4. To aware women to establish an entrepreneur.
5. To avail facilities for marketing of products of women entrepreneurship.
STATUS OF WOMEN ENTREPRENEURS IN INDIA:-
Entrepreneurship is considered as one of the most important factors contributing to the development of society. India has been ranked among the worst performing countries in the area of women entrepreneurship in gender-focused global entrepreneurship survey, released in July 2013 by PC maker Dell and Washington based consulting firm Global Entrepreneurship and Development Institute
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(GEDI). Of the 17 countries surveyed India ranks 16th, just above Uganda. Countries like Turkey, Morocco and Egypt have outperformed India. Status of higher education in women in India came out to be lower than most countries in the world. At present, women’s entrepreneurial role is limited in the large scale industries and technology based businesses. But even in small scale industries, the women’s participation is very low. As per the third all-India census of Small Scale Industries, only 10.11% of the micro and small enterprises were owned by women, and only 9.46% of them were managed by women. While the number of women operating their own business is increasing globally, women continue to face huge obstacles that stunt the growth of their businesses, such as lack of capital, strict social constraints, and limited time and skill.
There are two types of Areas where women work:-
Women Entrepreneurship
Treditional Areas Modern Areas
Traditional Areas:- Like- Teaching, Nursing, Beautician, Painter, Cook, Housekeeping, Labourer, Child Care Workers, etc.
Modern Areas:- Like- Business, Driving, Computer Works, Product Marketing, Astronaut, Scientist, Sports, Acting, Leadership, Police, Armey, etc.
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CHALLENGES FACED BY WOMEN ENTREPRENEURS:-
1. Conflicts between Work and Domestic Commitments-
2. Gender gaps in education-
3. Lack of finance
4. Legal constraints in family law-
5. Heavy household responsibilities
6. Lack of family support
7. Lack of capital
8. Lack of confidence and faith SUGGESTIONS FOR THE GROWTH OF WOMEN ENTREPRENEURS:-
1. Right efforts from all areas are required in the development of women entrepreneurs and their greater participation in the entrepreneurial activities
2. There should be a continuous attempt to inspire, encourage, motivate and co-operate women entrepreneurs.
3. An Awareness programme should be conducted on a mass scale with the intention of creating awareness among women about the various areas to conduct business.
4. Enhance the standards of education of women in general as well making effective provisions for their training, practical experience and personality development programmes, to improvise their over-all personality standards.
5. Organize training programmes to develop professional competencies in managerial, leadership, marketing, financial, production process, profit planning, maintaining books of
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accounts and other skills. This will encourage women to undertake business.
6. Vocational training to be extended to women community that enables them to understand the production process and production management.
7. International, National, Local trade fairs, Industrial exhibitions, seminars and conferences should be organized to help women to facilitate interaction with other women entrepreneurs.
8. Women in business should be offered soft loans & subsides for encouraging them into industrial activities. The financial institutions should provide more working capital assistance both for small scale venture and large scale ventures.
9. The weaker section could raise funds through various schemes and incentives provided by the government to develop entrepreneurs in the state. E.g. the Prime ministers Rozgar Yojana, The Khadi and Rural village industries scheme, etc.
10. In the initial stages women entrepreneurs may face problems but they must persevere, believe in themselves and not give up mid way.
11. Women entrepreneurs should utilize the various schemes provided by the Government. Attempts by various NGO‘s and government organizations to spread information about policies, plans and strategies on the development of women in the field of industry, trade and commerce.
CONCLUSION:-
Now women are taking interest in women entrepreneurship, like Shahnaz Hussain is a famous Beautician in the country. Mrs. Chanda Kochar is a chairman of ICICI Bank. Teaching & Medical Profession is
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tradition and lots of women take part in these profession. There are risky works which are considered for men only but now women also take interest in these jobs like Police, Armey, Driving of Bus, Trains, & Aeroplanes. Some sports are especially for women players athletes like Saniya Mirza (Tennis), Saniya Neharwal (Badminton), Marry Com (Boxing) are best players. Mining industries are also available for women and all these happened due to protection law for women.
In future women will able equivalent to men even they will proceed further from men.
References:-
1) Aswathappa K., Human Resource and Personnel Management, Tata Mc Graw Hill Education, 2005, 4th Edition, Page No.- 5 to 11
2) Aswathappa K., Organizational Behaviour- Deep & Deep Publications Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, 2006.
3) Keshari Mohanty Sangram, Fundamentals of Entrepreneurship- McGraw Hill Education Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, 2013)
4) Khanka S.S., Entrepreneurial Development- S. Chand & Company Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, 1999.
5) Khanka S.S. &Gupta C.B., Entrepreneurship and Small Business Management- S. Chand & Company Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, 2014
6) Kothari C.R., Research Methodology: Methods & Techniques, New age international publisher, 2014, 3rd Edition, Page No.- 1 to 9, 23,25,33 to 35, 52 to 55, 76, 89 to 108, 114.
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NON-VIOLENCE (AHIMSA) AFTER GANDHI
Debajyoti Sharma Assistant Professor Department of Philosophy Ramkrishna Nagar College P.O: Ramkrishna Nagar,District: Karimganj Assam, India
Ahimsa is the key concept or heart of the Gandhian philosophy as well as movement. Gandhism as a way of life advocates that Truth is God and non-violence is only means of attaining it. For Gandhi realization of “Truth” is the final goal of the human face. There is no question of doubt that Gandhi’s idea of non-violence (ahimsa), chastity, non-possession, and equality of all religions constitute the very structure of Satyagraha. Satyagraha is the perfect weapon to conquer political freedom as to attain higher destiny. Gandhiji, therefore, has a firm belief in the evolution of rational being from the lower grades of animal being to upper levels of humanity via noble virtues like love (ahimsa) and so on. According to Gandhi, man has made him man by distinguishing him from other lower class of animals or creatures. Gandhi said, “I am prepared to believe that we have become man by a slow process of evolution from the brute. We were thus born with brute strength, but we were born men in order to realize God who dwells in us. That indeed is the privilege of man, and it distinguishes him from the brute creation.”1 Gandhi claimed that the animal’s world is the world of violence (himsa), whereas the world of human being is the world of non-violence (ahimsa). At this juncture it becomes clear that man’s evolution shows his progress from violence to that of non- violence. “If we turn our eyes to the time of which history has any record down to our own time, we shall find that man has been steadily progressing towards Ahimsa.”2
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Gandhi has been called a “moral revolutionary”3 and also a “moral genius”4. Gandhi claimed morality is the basic principle of life. For him moral regeneration is essential for political and social betterment of mankind to a great extend. Man, according to Gandhi, “is a mixture of good and evil.”5 Therefore, man should learn to distinguish good acts from the bad one. Gandhi said, “The ideals that regulate my life are presented for acceptance by mankind in general. I have arrived at them by gradual evolution. Every step was thought out, well considered, and taken with the greatest deliberation.”6 Gandhi envisages the view that moral force originates from the determination “to do something, to sacrifice something”7 for the sake of humanity entirely. “Man becomes great exactly in the degree in which he works for the welfare of his fellow men.”8 When man learns to lead a good life, superstitions as well as other prejudices fade away. Gandhi says, “I concern myself not with belief but with asking to do the right thing. As soon as they do it, their belief rights itself.”9 Gandhi envisages the view that voluntary moral actions should be associated with knowledge. He, thus, recognizes the importance of jnana along with the acquisition of moral or ethical virtues. In his own words, “Goodness must be joined with knowledge (jnana). Mere goodness is not of much use. …. One must know, in a crucial situation, when to speak and when to be silent, when to act and when to refrain. Action and non-action in these circumstances become identical instead of being contradictory.”10 In this connection Gandhi prescribes certain moral principles for the development of man’s personality. These moral principles reveal that Gandhi “has found for humanity a civilized way for righting wrongs and establishing justice.”11 Gandhi’s certain moral principles are:
I. Ahimsa or Non-violence,
II. Brahmacharya or Chastity,
III. Non-possession,
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IV. Fearlessness, and
V. Self-purification. These moral principles are correlated and are recognized by most of the great religions of the world. Of these, ahimsa is important one as ahimsa and Truth are inseparable and presuppose one another. Ahimsa is the law of life and higher than destruction. The law of ahimsa makes life worth-living or meaningful. Ahimsa not only develop man’s moral dignity and personality, but it also makes possible an ideal state or society. Thus, for the construction of well-developed as well as well- ordered human society ahimsa is crucial. Ahimsa, therefore, plays an important role to build up peaceful society. Ahimsa means the largest love or greatest love. The term ahimsa indicates harmlessness or non- violence.
According to Gandhi’s philosophy, there is no God higher than Truth. Truth is the first thing to be sought for. He, who believes in non- violence, believes in a living God. Thus, an account of Gandhi’s doctrine of Truth necessarily takes us to the consideration of his views on the nature of ahimsa. Gandhi says, “I have nothing new to teach the world. Truth and Non-violence are as old as the hills. All I have done is to try experiments in both on as vast a scales are I could, in doing so; I have sometimes erred and learnt by my errors. Life and its problems have thus become to me so many experiments in the practice of truth and non-violence… In fact it was in the course of my pursuit of truth that I discovered non-violence.”12 Explaining the transition from the notion of truth to that of ahimsa Gandhi himself says, “Ahimsa and Truth are so intertwined that it is practically impossible to disentangle and separate them. They are like the two sides of a coin, or rather a smooth unstamped metallic disc. Who can say, which is the obverse, and which the reverse? Ahimsa is the means; Truth is the end. Means to be means must always be within our reach, and so ahimsa is our
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supreme duty. If we take care of means, we are bound to reach the end sooner or later.”13
It is interesting to note here that non-violence cure ill force or violence of society. However, the elimination of violence or evil force is not attempted for the first time by Mahatma Gandhi. Before Gandhi, there have been others like Ignatius Loyola attempted ahimsa. Ignatius Loyola of the Society of Jesus wedded to principles of celibacy and freedom from desire and attachment. Of course, apostles of ahimsa are a long and varied one. There is a list of saints and prophets who worked on the line of ahimsa. Here one can name Parsva, Buddha, Mahavir, Lau Tsu, Jesus Christ, Paul of Tarsus, Peter Waldo, Wycliffe, Huss, Menno, George Fox, the great American thinker Thoreau, Tolstoy and many more are apostles of non-violence. These are the names of the greatest teachers as well as exemplars of ahimsa. There is no question of doubt that Tolstoy and Prince Kroptkin had laid the basis of ahimsa in Russia. Equally, there are familiar names such as Ruskin, Thoreau, Edward Carpenter, brother of Giles and John Woolman, Michael Coates, the Quaker, James Nayler of the 17th century (James Nayler was punished for blasphemy), mystic likes Jacob Behme and his English disciple William Law, Peter chelchizki and martyers like Socrates, Guiardino Bruno and Servetus, Kurt Eisner, Gustav Landauer, Car Von Ossietzky, Erich Mishan, Theodre Lessing of Germany etc. worked on the line of non-violence. Besides, we have elsewhere the names of Alfred Wallace, Washington Koscinsko, Lafayette, Clarkson, Wilberforce, David Lloyd Garrison, Abraham Lincoln and St. Francis of Assisi the world celebrities and the thinker and philosopher St. Thomas Aquinas. Here it is striking to note that St. Francis of Assisi led a simple and poor life in harmony with creation. Above all, Prophet Muhammad (SAS) of Islam labored for Ahimsa and Truth in the world. Muhammad (SAS) leads a selfless life free from material comforts and sensual pleasure. He treats everyone
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equally. He always engages himself in the pursuit of the love (Ishq) of Allah. Muhammad (SAS) advocates love for love’s sake, love for goodness, love for beauty and love for truth. Thus, Prophet Muhammad (SAS) were trying to achieve spiritual advancement via one unified goal, i.e. to develop universal brotherhood among all. Islam as a religion of peace advocates world brotherhood and peace through non- violence. Prophet Muhammad (SAS) of Islam was an apostle of ahimsa. Prophet Muhammad’s (SAS) ideals of life style led Gandhi to believe that there is no virtue than ahimsa. Whatever, to this long roll of apostles, we add the name of Mahatma Gandhi who is familiar to nearly everyone in the world in general and India in particular. Here it can be said that there is not one amongst the religions in the world that does not make non-violence obligatory. In the same vein of religions, ahimsa has a history and a philosophy behind it. Yet it is not an invention of the age. It is a discovery which has been resuscitated from the debris of himsa and materialism, of rage and passion, of hatred and competition by which it has been covered over for centuries. Saints and seers have sprung up from time to time and tried to disclose this treasure-trove, to exhume this ancient relic of civilization. But it has been left to Gandhi to recover it, and then to burnish it. Today, it is a shining light to generations of men as well as women, to nations to continents sunk in the mire of greed and anger, vengeance and destruction too. Unquestionably, of many principles, non-violence is the core of all religions or common alike to the all and applicable to all times, all countries, all circumstances and conditions, all spheres of life and society entirely.
Indeed Gandhiji’s great teachings relate to Truth and Non- violence. According to Gandhi, he who believes in non-violence (ahimsa) believes in a living God. Non-violence, therefore, calls for true humility, for its reliance not on self (atman), but on Absolute (God) and no-one else. For the realization of God, non-violence is a necessary
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condition for every being in general and for human being in particular. Following Prophet Muhammad (SAS) and Mahavir, Gandhi considers ahimsa or non-violence as the highest virtue (ahimsa paramo dharma). It sums up in itself all those virtues that spring from love of which it is equal. Ahimsa is nothing but love. Gandhi has named ahimsa as the law of love. “If love was”, Gandhiji declares, “not the law of life, life would not have been persisted in the midst of death. Life is a perpetual triumph over the grave.”14 Love is a kind of feeling of oneness. Because in an act of love one is able to identify himself with the object of his love and this is impossible unless there is an effort to free mind from every such disposition that prevents the spontaneous outflow of love. This makes the sense to say that love demands a sincere effort to open mind from those feelings that create obstacles in the path of love. Feelings like anger, hatred etc. creates problems in the way of love and so a free mind is necessary. Thus, a seeker of love will not be affected by such feelings. According to Gandhi, love is the power that cleanses one’s inside and thereby uplifts him. For him ahimsa or love comprehends noble feelings such as compassion, forgiveness, tolerance, sympathy, kindness and many more. It reflects that love is long- suffering. It means love implies self-control, mercy, forbearance, patience as well as forgiveness. That means in love one should not bear ill-will or evil-will towards other because evil or ill-will is the root of anger, revenge, vengeance etc. It is not easy to unearth love or ahimsa. To love is very difficult. Love is a very complex discipline as one can easily hate it, but it requires supreme energy as well as strength to love. The task becomes still more complex when one is required to love a person who is ordinarily to be regarded as an opponent. Non-violence is not something mechanical, and hence it required much effort. In other words, it is the pure quality of heart and has to be acquired via strong training, not otherwise. Perhaps, for this reason Gandhi says that ahimsa is meant for strong and not for the weak. Ahimsa implies that there is no violence in thought, word or deed and finally no loss of
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temper. All this seems in superhuman and so only superhuman can practice ahimsa. What it reveals that practice of ahimsa is very difficult. Here it is needless to say that the exercise of ahimsa requires full of confidence, sacrifice and devotion together. Since the followers of non- violence has to face not only physical suffering, but also mental suffering on his way. However, if he follows the path with full devotion, he will not be affected by physical sufferings, because he puts the whole emphasis on his soul which is far above his physical body and mind too. Gandhi, therefore, treated the term ahimsa as a means to lead the highest end. Those who are truly devout follower of non-violence will naturally achieve the supreme goal or the ultimate stage, where he finds the full support form the whole world. Here his enemies will be converted into bosom friend. Here is what Gandhiji remark: “Man who believes in the efficacy of this doctrine finds in the ultimate stage, when he is about to reach the goal, the whole world at his feet-not that he wants the whole world at his feet, but it must be so. If you express your love- Ahimsa- in such a manner that it impresses itself indelibly upon your so-called enemy, he must return that love.”15 What ahimsa renders is that man free from all kinds of evils or evil acts.
Thus Gandhi discovered a new law- the law of love, a new philosophy- the philosophy of non-violence. Non-violence is the law of human spirit. Since the practice of ahimsa requires an inner strength, which can only be generated by living faith in God. In his own words, “Non-violence is the first article of my faith. It is also the last article of my creed.”16 Here one can say that, faith in God is the basis of ahimsa. Where there is love there is pace, and where there is peace there is God (Truth). Thus, a sincere faith in God will make man see that all human beings are fellow-beings and essentially one. There is no question of doubt that the love of God would turn into a love of humanity, which alone make possible the exercise of non-violence. As a matter of fact, non-violence is the outcome of the realization of the unity of mankind
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that one will be able to love his fellow-beings. One who utilizes the law of love creates wonders as the force of ahimsa is higher and subtler than the forces of Nature. You could not see it, but only imagine it. That is why Gandhiji declares, “The man who discovered for us the Law of Love were greater scientists than any of our modern scientists.”17 Gandhi considers non-violence is the greatest and most powerful device in the world. Gandhi exercises the word ‘non-violence’ in order to bring out the real or original meaning of ahimsa. Here it is striking to point out that the particle ‘non’ does not imply any negative force. Literally ahimsa means non-killing. But to Gandhi, ahimsa means more than that of non-killing. According to Gandhi, it has a “world of meaning”18, because it is a superior force that surpasses all the forces. Gandhi clarifies it in the following words: “It does not express a negative force, but a force superior to all the forces put together. One person who can express ahimsa in life exercises a force superior to all the forces of brutality.”19
In fact, ahimsa is a composite term and a comprehensive philosophy. Unlike traditional sense, Gandhi uses the word ahimsa in certain special sense. Gandhi has stresses certain aspects of ahimsa which have not been given that importance by any other supporter in ahimsa or non-violence. Even Gandhian use of the word ahimsa has some distinguishing feature of its own from its usual meaning. In Gandhian sense the word ahimsa has both negative as well as positive import. For Gandhi the positive meaning of ahimsa is more important. Now the question is: why the positive aspect of ahimsa is more fundamental than its negative aspects? It is because positive aspect of ahimsa comprehends the negative aspects and represents the essence of ahimsa, for example, non-killing. Non-killing is only an example of ahimsa. “Ahimsa does not simply mean non-killing. Himsa means causing pain to or killing any life out of anger, or from a selfish purpose, or with intention of injuring it. Refraining from so doing is
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Ahimsa.”20 Whatever, ahimsa is conceived as non-injury. In a sense, ahimsa is the opposite of himsa (violence). Here it is important to note that in conceiving ahimsa Gandhi seems to be influenced via Jainism. Jainism recommends the exercise of non-violence in thought, speech as well as action or deed. For Jainism ill thinking for others is himsa. Therefore Jainism claims that one should not only commit himsa himself, he should not cause himsa or permit himsa to take place in any way. Thus, one should avoid himsa entirely according to Jainism. However, Gandhi’s negative requirements of non-violence are not rigid as that of Jainism claims. According to Gandhi, it is not possible to observe ahimsa in a rigorous sense as Jainism stresses. This makes the sense to say that Gandhi permits himsa under certain circumstances, not in general. Gandhi is aware that in certain cases himsa is inevitable. For example, in case of eating, drinking, breathing, and walking and so on himsa is unavoidable. Thus, to some extent violence is possible according to Gandhi. He says, “Taking life may be a duty. We do destroy as much life as we think necessary for sustaining our body. Thus, for food we take life, vegetable and other, and for health we destroy mosquitoes and the like by the use of disinfectants etc., and we do not think that we are guilty of irreligion in doing so… for the benefit of the species we kill carnivorous beasts…even man-slaughter may be necessary in certain cases. Suppose a man runs amuck and goes furiously about sword in hand, and killing anyone that comes in his way, and no one dares to capture him alive. Anyone dispatches this lunatic, will earn the gratitude of the community and be regarded as a benevolent man.”21 In his Young India Gandhi also says, “I see that there is an instinctive horror of killing living beings under any circumstances whatever. For instance, an alternative has been suggested in the shape of confining even rabid dogs in a certain place and allow them to die a slow death. Now my idea of compassion makes this thing impossible for me. I cannot for a moment bear to see a dog or for that matter any other living being, helplessly suffering the torture
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of a slow death. I do not kill a human being thus circumstanced because I have more hopeful remedies. I should kill a dog similarly situated, because in its case, I am without a remedy. Should my child be attacked with rabies and there was no helpful remedy to relieve his agony, I should consider it my duty to take this life. Fatalism has its limits. We leave things so Fate after exhausting all the remedies. One of the remedies and the final one to relieve the agony of a tortured child are to take his life.”22 This is all about why Gandhi openly recommends killing under certain conditions. It is apparent that Gandhi considers it almost a virtue to take life under certain cases. In fact, Gandhiji feels that under circumstances similar to the examples advanced by him, continuing to live itself is pain and that, so, non-killing amounts to prolonging pain and agony. Therefore, Gandhi has been conceived non- injury to some extent or in a slightly different style.
However, nobody can deny that killing or injury to life as an act of violence. Gandhi also recommends that killing or injury to life may be an act of violence (himsa). But it is not an act of violence at any rate. Killing or injury to life is an act of violence under certain conditions. Here one can ask: under what conditions or circumstances killing or injury to life can be an act of himsa? To reply this question it can be said that any injury to life (any living being) done under anger, pride, hatred, selfish consideration, bad intention and similar other grounds is violence (himsa). In short, any killing done with bad intention or bad motives is called himsa. It reflects that the negative meaning of ahimsa is non-killing or non-injury to life, but what this presupposes that ahimsa is free from anger, malice, and bad intention too. In fact, the positive characters of non-violence are much more fundamental than its negative aspects as noted above. In the same vein of negative attitudes, the positive act of Ahimsa represents one of the basic and essential qualities of mankind. That means Ahimsa is not a negative attitude but a positive act. Ahimsa is not merely abstinence from a tit
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for tat or an eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth, it stands for certain positive attitudes towards other living beings that one must cultivate. It is a doctrine of overcoming evil with good, and doing good unto those who do evil unto you, of forgiving them that trespass against you, and giving your coat unto him that stealth your clock. Yet that does not mean that violence does not have any place in life. In fact, even in preserving one’s existence one has to commit violence of one kind or the other, and yet non-violence is considered to be the law of our species. This is apparent from the fact that even when himsa appears to do some good, the good that appears is temporary, not permanent. So, nothing permanent can be built on violence (himsa). Even to some extent violence may be permissible as we advance, even violence is better than cowardice, but ahimsa is better than violence (himsa).
Of course, Gandhi has deep faith with non-violence. He understands non-violence as the most active force in the world as well as supreme law. This particular type of belief of Gandhi is expressed in his oft-quoted statement that Ahimsa is natural to man. Gandhi explains this in different ways. If we survey the history of human evolution we shall find that although in opening stage brute force appeared to be dominant, the progress of evolution towards non- violence. Gandhi said, “If we turn our eyes to the time of which history has any record down to our time, we shall find that man has been steadily progressing towards ahimsa.”23 It is because man is both mind and body. Human body can represent physical power and so, on certain case, do violence. But man’s true nature, i.e. mind or spiritual nature is essentially non-violent. For example, body can be injured, the mind, i.e. soul can never be injured. Violence, therefore, is alien to man’s nature. When the inner side of human is roused, his ahimsa nature becomes apparent. Gandhi has a profound belief in the inner reality of rational being. For him man should attempt to achieve the hidden divine power lying within him with the aid of non-violence. Otherwise there will be
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no distinction between himself and the brute. When all men will universally practice the non-violence, there will be divine bliss. Non- violence is the law of love that rules mankind. If violence would have been the law, the human race would have become extinct long ago. Even violence may have the appearance of strength, but it is born out of fear. Therefore, violence is a sign of weakness. It is worthless to say that violence is a sign of strong. In contrast to violence, ahimsa or love is strong because a true non-violent has conquered fear. Now it becomes clear that the capacity to kill is not a sign of strength. The sigh of real strength is the strength to die. Only when one has this power within him that he can claim to have risen above fear and is able to practice ahimsa. That means really strong wins not by brute force but by fearless love (ahimsa). It is important to note that ahimsa involves sacrifice. According to Gandhi, sacrifice is an indispensible companion to love. What love demands is a going beyond, a self-transcendence. He can love who only believes in giving and not in taking. In short, only who is selfless he can love. Gandhi says, “Love never claims, it ever gives. Love ever suffers, never resents, and never revenges itself.”24 This is the reason for love is self sacrifice and eventually involves suffering. Gandhi says, “The test of love is tapasya and tapasya is self- suffering.”25 Thus, in a nutshell it can be said that the essence of love (ahimsa) is suffering as there must be a love for opponent. It is not enjoyment as we fell in our ordinary, sensual or physical life. All these show that ahimsa is uttermost selflessness which means complete freedom from a regard for one’s body. If man desired to realize himself, i.e., Truth, he could do so only by being completely detached from the body, i.e. by making all other beings feel safe from him. That is the path of non-violence. For Gandhi ahimsa “is not merely a negative state of harmlessness but it is a positive state of love, of doing well even to the evil-doer. But it does not mean helping the evil-doer to continue the wrong or tolerating it by passive acquiescence. On the contrary, love, the active state of ahimsa, requires you to resist the wrong doer by
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dissociating yourself from him even though it may be offended him or injure him physically.”26 Thus, non-violence is a way of purification as a non-violent resister is constantly constructing and creating sound and fine conditions. That is to say, non-violence is no dead abstraction, but a living virtue in the heart and moral nature of men. In other words, it enlivens the dullest soul with an ideal out of and beyond itself, lifting each and every faculty to a higher intellect with a fealty to something better than self. Perhaps, this is another reason why Gandhi placed Ahimsa above all.
Regarding the place of non-violence in the Gandhian philosophy Bondurant remarks: “The testing of truth can be performed only by strict adherence to ahimsa–action based upon the refusal to do harm, or, more accurately, upon love. For truth, judged in terms of human needs, would be destroyed, on whichever side it lay, by the use of violence. Non-violence or ahimsa becomes the supreme value, the one cognizable standard by which true action can be determined. If there is dogma in the Gandhian philosophy, it centre’s here: that only test of truth is action based on the refusal to do harm.”27 But his non-violence is not cowardice. In his article entitled The Doctrine of the Sword he wrote in Young India on 11th August 1920: “I do believe that there is only a choice between cowardice and violence, I would advice violence. ……..But I believe that non-violence is infinitely superior to violence, forgiveness is more manly than punishment. ….I am not a visionary. I claim to be a practical idealist. Religion of non-violence is not meant for the common people as well. Non-violence is the law of our species as violence is the law of the brute. The spirit lies dominant in the brute, and he knows no law but that of physical might. The dignity of man requires obedience to a higher law, to the strength of spirit. …I am not pleading for India to practise non-violence because is weak. I want her to practise non-violence being conscious of her strength. We seem to need it because we seem to think that we are but a lump of flesh.”28 It
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appears that non-violence is the core of Gandhian idealism. He held the view that Swaraj could be attained through non-violence.29 According to Indian history, Gandhi had taken up since 1920 the leadership of the Indian National Congress and turned into a fighting mass organization.30 “The two new weapons with which Gandhi decided to fight were non-violent Non-Co-operation and Civil Disobedience-the two outward manifestations of the great principle which Gandhi described as Satyagraha. It was an old principle, which according to Gandhi, was preached by the Indian sages of yore, but he was the first to use it in politics.”31 This makes the sense to say that Gandhi entered Indian politics with his slogan of non-violent non-co-operation against the ‘satanic’ imperial system32 and his method of fight continued to be the predominant one in Indian politics till India attained her political independence in 1947. But this does not mean that revolutionary movement was worthless according to the history of our national freedom movement. In the same vein of Gandhi and Gandhian Congress, the contribution of the Indian national revolutionaries was meaningful. Here Biman Behari Majumdar remarks that “the independence of India has been achieved as much by constitutional agitation and non-violent non-co-operation as by militant nationalism. The heroes who dared to think of liberating an unarmed nation and sacrificed their lives for effecting the purpose are entitled to eternal gratitude of successive generations of Indians.”33 Again, R. C. Majumdar shares the same view by following words: “Either by habit or by convention the name of Gandhi alone is popular view associated with the freedom of India… But incidental reference should be made here to other agencies at work towards the end. Among these, which are often ignored, I have laid special stress on the revolutionary movements in India and the formation of I. N. A. by Subhas Bose.”34 Even M. K. Gandhi himself said, “We in India have never given non- violence the trail it has deserved. The marvel is that we had attained so much even with our mixed non-violence.”35 Thus, in contrast to
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revolutionary movement, Gandhi played ‘a very great role in rousing the political consciousness of the masses’36 and ‘took the movement to the masses’37 for the 1st time in Indian history via his non-violent non- co-operation movement. Thus, India conquered her freedom, i.e. Poorna Swaraj not by violence, but by Ahimsa and its technique Satyagraha.
References
1Gandhi, M. K. (1961). My Philosophy of Life, edited by Anand T. Hingorani, Bombay: Pearl Publications Private Limited, p. 65. 2Ibid., p. 29. 3Varma. V. P. (1959). The Political Philosophy of Mahatma Gandhi and Sarvodaya, Agra: Lakshmi Narain Agarwal Educational Publishers, p. 252. 4Joad, C. E. M. (n.d.). The Authority of Detachment and Moral Force, n. p., p. 160. 5Gandhi, M. K. (1954). The removal of Untouchability, Ahmedabad: Navajivan publishing House, p. 96. 6Gandhi, M. K. (1961). My Philosophy of Life, op cit., p. 6. 7Gandhi, M. K. (1949). Non-violence in Peace and War, Vol. I. Ahmedabad: Navajivan Publishing House, p. 52. 8Char Narasimha, K. T. (Ed.). (1951). A Day Book of Thoughts from Mahatma Gandhi, Calcutta: Macmillan and Co. Limited, p. 101. 9Bose, N. K. (1948). Selections from Gandhi, Ahmedabad: Navajivan Publishing House, p. 27. 10Pyarelal. (1956). Mahatma Gandhi-The Last Phase, Ahmedabad: Navajivan Publishing House, pp. 429-430. 11Kripalini, J. B. (1949). “Unity-Gandhi’s Conception”, in Gandhi Memorial Peace Number, edited by Kshitis Roy, Santiniketan: The Visva Bharati Quarterly, p. 21. 12Bose, N. K. (1948). Selections from Gandhi, op cit., p. 77. 13Ibid., pp. 13-14. 14Gandhi, M. K. (1961). My Philosophy of Life, op cit., pp. 26-27. 15Ibid., pp. 34-35. 16Tendulkar, D. G. (1969). Mahatma: Life of Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, Vol. II. Government of India: Publication Division, p. 97. 17Gandhi, M. K. (1961). My Philosophy of Life, op cit., p. 26.
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18 Ibid., p. 33. 19 Ibid. 20(1969).The Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi (CWMG), Government of India: The Publication Division. Vol. XXXI, p. 545. 21 Young India, 4-11-26. 22 Young India, 18-11-26. 23 Gandhi, M. K. (1961). My Philosophy of Life, op cit., p. 29. 24 Young India, 7-7-25. 25 Young India, 12-6-22. 26 (1965).The Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi (CWMG). Government of India: The Publication Division. Vol. XVIII, p. 195. 27Bonduart, J. V. (1959). Conquest of Violence: The Gandhian Philosophy of Conflict, London: Oxford University Press, p.25. 28The Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi (CWMG), Vol. XVIII, op cit., pp. 132-3. 29 Ibid., p.234. 30 Kothari, R. (1970). Politics in India, New Delhi: Orient Longman Ltd., p. 51. 31 Majumdar, R. C. (1977). History of the Freedom Movement in India, Vol. III. Calcutta: Firma KLM Pvt. Ltd., p. XIX. 32The Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi (CWMG), Vol. XVIII, op cit., p. 369. 33Majumdar, B. B. (1966). Militant Nationalism in India and Its Socio- Religious Background (1897-1917), Calcutta: General Printers and Publishers Pvt. Ltd., p. 179. 34 Majumdar, R. C. (1977). History of the Freedom Movement in India, Vol. III, op cit., p. XXVII. 35“Harijan”, 20th April 1940, in (1978) The Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi (CWMG), Government of India: The Publication Division. Vol. LXXI, p. 424. 36Majumdar, R. C. (1977). History of the Freedom Movement in India, Vol. III, op cit., p. XXII. 37Kothari, R. (1970). Politics in India, op cit., p. 51.
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THE DECONTRUCTION IDEOLOGY ON THE BALI MEDIA PROMOTION OF BALI CULTURAL TOURISM
A.A Gde Bagus Udayana Fakultas Seni Rupa dan Desain Institut Seni Indonesia Denpasar
Abstract
Region Regulation of the Bali Province Number 2 in the year 2012 positioning of TriHitaKarana, a Hindu philosophy of the three causes of welfare, as important entities in cultural tourism in Bali. Therefore, media promotion of tourism ideally nuanced ideology TriHitaKarana. However, in reality it appears that the ideology of TriHitaKarana is marginalized in the media promotion of cultural tourism in Bali.
This study uses the deconstruction theory, practice theory, and the theory of social construction of reality. The use of this theory is done by applying qualitative research methods, descriptive, and interpretive through observation, interview and documentation deconstructive use.
It can be concluded that there is a capitalist ideology, the ideology of cultural duality, the ideology of consumerism, commercialism ideology, totalitarialisme ideology, and ideology of social responsibility that marginalize false ideology TriHitaKarana in the media promotion of cultural tourism in Bali. The system of construction of tourism promotion of Balinese culture media include government, private, and graphic design consultant, a role is oriented to the ideology and interests of each. Media promotion of cultural tourism Bali constructed by oriented ideology and interests have brought a lot of implications on the image of Bali as a tourist area. Bali as a place development of modern spirituality, and the emergence of a picture that is less correspond to the reality of human identity and culture of Bali.
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Keywords: deconstruction, promotional media, ideology, social construction, globalization
INTRODUCTION
The development of tourism in Bali is a cultural tourism which is clearly defined in the Regional Regulation (Perda) Bali Province No. 2 of 2012 on Cultural Tourism Bali. Under this provision, should all activities of cultural tourism development in Bali, including the promotion of tourism is really showing application philosophy of TriHitaKarana. However, based on observations in mind there are some media in tourism promotion shows how marginal ideology of TriHitaKarana in the media promotion of cultural tourism in Bali. Marginalization according Piliang (2003: 211) marginal elements by placing them on the edge of the image. Thus the ideology of TriHitaKaranamarginalization in this case can be interpreted as marginalization or neglect that ideology in visual display media promotion of cultural tourism in Bali.
Based on the understanding that the media is a reality that has been constructed in the form of meaningful discourse, it can be said that basically the content of media promotion of tourism Balinese culture is shaped construction meaningful discourse on cultural tourism in Bali. Meanwhile, as stated by Althusser (2008) discourse is ideology in practice, there is no discourse without ideology and no ideology without discourse. Starts from this premise, then the media culture of Bali tourism promotion can be seen as a discourse that reflects a certain ideology. Therefore, as reflected in the title of this study, that the focus of this study is the ideology of the media promotion of cultural tourism in Bali. For that is necessary deconstruction of the ideology of the media promotion of cultural tourism in Bali. Barker said (2005: 510), "deconstruction: unload goal is to explore and uncover the assumptions, strategies rhetoric and blind
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spots of a text". Based on the above quote can be understood that briefly deconstruction of an effort to uncover and reveal the hidden meaning behind the text or discourse.
Based on the facts as well as an understanding of the media, discourse, ideology and relationship to one another as described above, it can be formulated some conjecture. First, that ideology termarginalisasinyaTriHitaKarana in the media culture of Bali tourism promotion related to the ideology that is behind the media campaign of the Bali cultural tourism. Secondly, there is a possibility that ideology and interests of the parties involved in the construction process of the tourism promotion influential media so that the system of construction of media promotion of cultural tourism Bali ideology led to the marginalization of TriHitaKarana. Third, the media promotion of cultural tourism Bali TriHitaKarana ideology pushed out its implications in imaging of Bali as a cultural tourism.
In accordance with the formulation of the above problems, the general purpose of this study is to deconstruct the ideology of the media promotion of the ideology of cultural tourism Bali TriHitaKarana its marginalized. The results of this study would be useful, both teoretids and practically. The theoretical benefits expected are as follows. Increase knowledge about: (1) the ideology of what is behind the media promotion of cultural tourism of Bali that ideology TriHitaKarana is marginalized in the media, (2) the system of construction of media promotion of cultural tourism of Bali that ideology TriHitaKarana its marginalized, (3) the implications of media promotion of the ideology of cultural tourism Bali TriHitaKarana its marginalization in the image of Bali as a cultural tourism from the perspective of the parties involved in the tourism industry.
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RESEARCH METHODS
This study used a qualitative research approach with an emphasis on the excavation, explanation and description descriptive knowledge, holistic, and interpretative on matters pertaining to the formulation of research problems.
The data analysis was conducted by following the qualitative data analysis procedures that perform data reduction, data presentation while, interpretation of data, and draw conclusions. Reduction of data covering a wide range of activities, namely selecting, focusing, simplifying, classification of data, citation information in the interview that has a subjective meaning, and reflection. Data presentation and interpretation of data carried out by the preparation of narrative text that shows regularity, explanation, and the flow of cause and effect; while drawing conclusions or verification is done with abstract research that has been presented so raises associated with ideologies on media promotion of cultural tourism in Bali.
DISCUSSION
Based on the results of deconstruction, both the media and the promotion of cultural tourism Bali information provided by informants it can be seen that the images / illustrations, color, and sentences in Bali's cultural tourism promotion media seen loading some ideology. It should be emphasized that without in-depth scrutiny or simply through exploration ideology seems difficult to know what is behind the media campaign that the ideology of cultural tourism Bali TriHitaKarananya marginalized. As for some of these ideologies are as follows; 1) The ideology of capitalism, cultural dualism ideology, ideology of consumerism, commercialism ideology, totalitarian ideology, ideology of pseudo social responsibility.
Understanding the ideology of capitalism in this case refers to the opinion of experts as described by, Atmadja (2010: 75-76) that the
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characteristics of capitalist ideology or religion, also called market refers to the idea that not only different, but it also contradicts the characteristics of Hinduism, which is ideological source TriHitaKarana. Characteristics of capitalist ideology as dipapaprkan above can be expressed in the goal of selling a product. Activities sell can be done through a media campaign, including media promotion of tourism. What was shown in the media campaign was not just a show, but a load hopes to sell based on the principles of capitalism, that gain. If nature were featured in the media, then alampun has shifted its functions into a commodity, or serves as a valuable product exchange for money
Based in deconstructive scrutiny against these ideologies is seen that the capitalist ideology is an ideology that is dominant compared to other ideologies. That is capitalism's ideology which initially gives a boost to the parties concerned to make the media promotion of tourism in a certain way. To carry out the manufacture of media promotion of tourism in the shadow of the ideology of capitalism comes the ideologies of others as mentioned above.
In this case, the construction was about to be seen as a system that led to the marginalization of the ideology of TriHitaKarana.Dalam fact the system of construction of tourism promotion of Balinese culture media can be sorted according to pemerakarsanya, namely government, private, and graphic design consultant. It turned out that the products produced by the system imposed by the government involving consultants graphic design is also a product produced by the private sector was like, brochures, folders, leaflets, and advertising tabloid / magazines and billboards do not reflect the ideology of the Tri Kita Karana and it is dominated by the ideology kaptalisme , Parties that have accumulated capital, both economic capital and other capital became the dominant party and is able to get rid of those who have smaller capital accumulation.
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The theory of social construction according to Berger and Luckmann, which is used in terms of imagery and depictions with the meaning that goes through the perception of the area which is the ideology of cultural tourism Bali TriHitaKarana its marginalized in the media promotion of tourism. Thus defined, because the process of construction of reality by Berger and Lukmann (in Hamad, 2004: 12), includes a meaning through a process of perception of an object. In other words, it is understood that perception is a vehicle for the practice of signification. That the terms of perception and meaning can be understood adequately so in this case need to be confirmed pengetian terms of perception and the meaning.
In summary, the perception can be interpreted as a depiction of the environment (Koentjaraningrat, 2009: 84), and according to Charon referred by Mulyana (2006: 7), the perception was guided by the perspective that people use to view an object. Meanwhile, the definition of the term or word meanings can be traced from the root that is the meaning. In the science of semiotics, interpreted as meaning the content of the sign as understood by the user of the mark (Hoed, 2008: 3). Therefore, it can be understood that the meaning can be equated with the process of understanding. According to Barker (2005: 168), the meaning lies in the belief, justification, and the reason that people use everyday; or by Mulyana (2006: 21), meaning there is in the mind of the person and not on the object interpreted.
Based on the explanation above, then the image of Bali as a cultural tourism according to the parties involved in the tourism industry can be traced from the meaning that they do through their perception of Bali as a tourist area. More fundamentally, it pemaknaannya process can be seen in justification, beliefs, and their reasons for Bali according to their own image. In this regard, the results can be known is; Bali as a tourism culture, Bali as the home of human cultured postmodern, Bali as glocalization arena, Bali as the
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development of modern spirituality, and the identity of the Bali experience hyperreality. When examined, it appears that in fact the culture of Bali as a tourism and cultural tourism is not an implication that is very basic, even by implication appears other implications.
CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTIONS
The ideology of capitalism is the dominant ideology in the manufacture of media promotion of cultural tourism in Bali. This happens because the media making the promotion of tourism was primarily aimed at increasing the number of tourists visiting the attractions being promoted. Of course, that goal led to an increase in the gain or money.
In case this happens the control of the government relations consultant with the graphic design; and the private sector with desainnernya. It turns out weaker the government capital, only has economic capital in the form of money to finance the manufacture of media promotion of tourism. Therefore, the graphic design consultancy that has a stronger capital in the form of economic capital, social capital and cultural capital is more powerful in making tourism promotion media.
The main implications of media promotion of cultural tourism of Bali is that the culture of Bali as a pariwisata.Berdasarkan implications as it is, then the media promotion of cultural tourism of Bali looks less support efforts to assert the identity of Balinese cultural tourism, cultural tourism is based TriHitaKarana.Then the suggestions can be submitted to the government, consultants, graphic design, and the private sector that the stakeholders in order to follow the mandate of the Bali Regional Regulation No. 2 of 2012. Thus, the media promotion of cultural tourism of Bali still show these peculiarities as Bali's identity as a tourist area, but still too attractive to tourists to visit Bali.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The author would like to thank the infinite primarily to Prof. Dr. I Nyoman Darma Putra, M.Litt., As Promoter, which has provided guidance, motivation, encouragement, support and advice. Thanks also goes to the esteemed author, Prof. Dr. Bring nengahAtmadja, M.A., and DR. I Nyoman Dhana, M.A., who sincerely and patiently take the time and mind completely to provide guidance, input systematically and the detailed and provide useful literature in this paper.
References
1. Althusser, Louis. Tentang Ideologi: MarxismeStrukturalis, Psikoanalisis, Cultural Studies. Yogyakarta : Jalasutra.2008.
2. Atmadja, Nengah Bawa. Ajeg Bali: Gerakan, IdentitasKultural, dan Globalisasi. Yogyakarta:LkiS. 2010.
3. Barker, Chris. Cultural Studies: Teori dan Praktik. Yogyakarta: KreasiWacana. 2005.
4. Hamad, Ibnu. KonstruksiRealitasPolitikDalam Media Massa Sebuah Studi CriticalDiscourse Analysis terhadapBerita- beritaPolitik. Jakarta: Granit.2004.
5. Koentjaraningrat.Pengantar Ilmu Antropologi. Jakarta: RinekaCipta. 2009.
6. Mulyana, Deddy. Metode PenelitianKualitatif: ParadigmaBaruIlmu Komunikasi dan Ilmu sosial Lainnya. Bandung: PT Remaja Rosdakarya. 2006.
7. Piliang, Yasraf Amir. Hipersemiotika: Tafsir Cultural Studies AtasMatinyaMakna. Yogyakarta: Jalasutra. 2003.
8. Hoed, Benny H. Semiotik dan Dinamika Sosial Budaya. Depok: FakIlmuPengetahuan Budaya (FIB) UI. 2008.
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NAGA INTELLIGENTIA AND FORMATION OF POLITICAL PLATFORM Dr. Akram Ali Bhutto Assistant Professor Department of Political Science Indira Gandhi College, Boitamari Bongaigaon, Assam
The region that has come to be known as the seven sisters, in today’s Northeastern India, has undergone severe political unrest in the last couple of decades. Culturally and ethnically distinct, the area is home to hundreds of tribes spread throughout its seven states: Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland and Tripura. Such mosaic of culture not only reiterates the diverse nature of the Northeast but has also proven to be a critical source of ambiguity, as some of the conflicts taking place in the region drive directly from the differences in beliefs and judgments regarding certain values and ideas.
It should, however, be noted that this is not being claimed with respect to Huntington’s “Clash of Civilizations”, in which differences in identities are looked upon as the main sources of conflict in the contemporary world. Identity formation does play a role in the development of the separatist movement, but it cannot be labeled as the main source of conflict in the region. If anything, as we will further discuss, it was the core element that brought these people to realize they had common concerns and could thus together to fight for their cause.
Diversity is a feature particularly present in Nagaland, India’s smallest state and home to a large population of Nagas, a group originally comprised of independent heterogeneous hilltop tribes. Nagas were able to maintain their own lifestyle for a very long time, as they suffered little influence from the outside. Therefore, when they
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suddenly fell under foreign control, the British presence was met with immediate hostility. This original reaction, which put into question the legitimacy of the rule itself, eventually, became a channel for the Naga people to find their own identity. It led the heterogeneous tribes to discover they had similar interests and they could pursue them together. The nationalism that was slowly being built in the 20th century nourished the Naga feeling towards separatism and reached its high point in the 1940s and 50s. For this reason, the region is regarded to hold the longest running insurgency movement in Asia (Chasie & Hazarika, 2009).
In 1947, as India gained its independence, the Naga homeland became part of the Indian Union. Yet, it was only in 1963 that Nagaland was granted its own state status. In the meantime, freedom militants were able to organize themselves and develop political forces to fight for their cause. Underground activities became one of the channels they used to induce the government to hear their pleas. Eventually, the integrity of the movement began to crumble, as signs unrest became more evident. This led to the division of the main organism into different factions. The most influential underground group in the present day is the NSCN (IM), a faction of the original NSCN, created in 1988.
Naga identity formation and the understanding of their appeal for self determination in the light of international law and politics is the scope of this paper. The importance of investigating this theme lies in the scant amount of research being carried out comparing the formation of the Naga identity and the development of the independence movements, which evolved from their society upon being incorporated into India. I argue that the development of their identity was a key factor in their coming together as a social group. This process allowed them to realize the importance of joining forces, and led them to create the necessary forces to fight their causes.
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A number of authors (Cline, 2006; Lacine, 2009; Nardi, 2008; Kolas, 2011) argues that the long history of corruption among Indian forces and their use of repressive means have contributed to the violence and consequently to the spread of the separatist movements. I welcome this position but I argue that these are not the sole factors surrounding the growing nationalist feeling. Of course, I interviewed Frans Welman, from the Naga International support Centre, who has maintained close relationship with the NSCN (IM), while engaging in peace discussions with the Indian government. During our conservation, he warned me regarding the terms used in several occasions, because one should always be careful when describing a social group based on the assumptions generally made by others. In other words, the freedom fighting movements do not see themselves as “separatist” or “insurgency” groups. They do not consider the Naga inhabited lands to belong to India; therefore, ‘separation’ is not the best term to describe their movement. Separatism would mean they wish to break away from India, but this is not a reality they accept as true. They recognize that they have been occupied for a long time, but whether those regions now legally belong to Myanmar or India, is not an issue they feel should keep them from continuing to support the independence movement. They also do not consider themselves ‘insurgents’, because they are only pursuing what they believe is already legitimately theirs. Here it is important to note that the term ‘underground’ is also considered to be inaccurate, bearing in mind the fact that the government now recognizes the movements and has agreed to engage in discussions with them. They cannot be referred to as ‘underground’, if they are no longer hidden or secret organization.
One of the main focuses of this paper is tom present a study of the Naga identity formation and the impact it had on their society, as this development was one of the factors that encouraged the people to come together and fight against foreign rule. The concepts of nation
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and nationality and nationalism have been widely studied in the academic community. Theorists of nationalism have posed different ideas concerning the establishment of states and the role of the past in the creation of the present. The challenges encountered by the authors in defining and analyzing these concepts are evident. Despite the plurality of attempts, the phenomena of state formation and statehood exist and play an important role in world politics. As for nationalism, it is considered to be one of the strongest moving forces in the modern day political arena (Buckley and Parisi, 2004:409).
According to Benedict Anderson, nationalism should not be understood as an ideology, placed along the lines of ‘fascism’ or ‘liberalism’; but rather as a term that proposes an identification of the individual with a certain group, such as ‘kinship’ or ‘religion’ (Anderson, 2003:6). He goes on to argue that “nation is an imagined political community – and imagined as both inherently limited and sovereign” (idem). It denotes a group of people that are united through the convention of a national identity, even if the de jure state does not yet exist. Thus, in a nutshell it can be said that nationalism can occur in different ways, such as Germans, Quebec and Basque country for examples. Equally, identification may occur on the basis either of shared values or languages or customs or history or religion or traditions and so on. The formation of Naga identity has close ties with the development of the nationalist ideal. Nagaland has, throughout history, been a very heterogeneous region in terms of language, tribes and even culture. Nevertheless, the people have always shared a few related traditions, namely, Nagas found among themselves common characteristics that led to the acknowledgement of their own identity. This was further reinforced by the arrival of foreign actors, whose imposed views threatened the preservation of their own customs and traditions. Perhaps, this is the reason behind nationalism grew as a natural phenomenon against severe imposed policies, in their effort to
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protect their own identity. There is no question of doubt that the Nagas have their own identity as a group, the connection they hold to their tribal identity has always been stronger. Accordingly, the nationalist drive was pushed by their struggle to regain full control of their original lands. The aspiration for the creation of their own nation gives the birth of Naga intelligentsia and formation of political platform.
References:
1. Chasie, Charles and Hazarika, S. 2009. “The State Strikes Back: India and Naga Insurgency”, in Policy Studies 52. Washington, D. C.: East – West Centre in Washington. 2. Cline, L. E. 2006. “The Insurgency Environment in Northeast India”, in Small Wars and Insurgencies, Vol. 17, No. 2, pp. 126-147. 3. Lacina, B. 2009. “The problem of political Stability in Northeast India: Local Ethnic Autocracy and the Rule of Law”, in Asian Survey, Vol. 49, No. 6, pp. 998-1020. 4. Nardi, D. J. 2008. “Cross-Border Chaos: A Critique of India’s Attempts to Secure Its Northeast Tribal Areas through Cooperation with Myanmar” in SAIS Review, Vol. 28, No. 1, pp 166-171. 5. Kolas, A. 2011. “Naga Militancy and Violent politics in the shadow of ceasefire”, in Journal of peace Research, Vol. 48, No. 6, pp. 781- 792. 6. Buckley, F. and Parisi, F. 2004. Political and cultural Nationalism. In Rowley, Charles and Schneider, Friedrich. The Encyclopedia of Public Choice. Springer Us, pp. 734-736.
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ENERGY USE AND ITS IMPACT ON RURAL WOMEN: A CASE STUDY IN DHENKANAL DISTRICT OF ODISHA, INDIA
Chinmayee Mishra Research Scholar Utkal University Bhubaneswar, Odisha Abstract
Energy is fundamental to human existence. Feminization of poverty limits the accessibility and affordability of modern energy services to the rural women. This ultimately affects the health as well as productivity of women. The present paper on “Energy Use and its Impact on Rural Women: A case study in Dhenkanal District of Odisha” sketches the energy use pattern and its impact on the lives of rural women. The research is empirical in nature which uses both qualitative and quantitative methods to maximize the results from the data collected. The study revealed that energy sources like firewood, kerosene and electricity were popularly used in Chitalapur village. The social (caste and gender) and economic dynamics of the households had crucial role in collection and consumption of various energy. Collection of firewood was the most draining activity which consumed maximum portion of women’s daily work and also had adverse impact on their health like severe leg pain, backache,eye irritation, weakness etc. The research paper concludes with a note that access to basic and modern energy services are the rudiments not only for the empowerment of women but also for sustainable development of nation.
Key words: Energy, poverty, women empowerment, sustainable development.
Introduction
Energy is central to human life and its importance in our daily lives cannot be over accentuated. Access to energy ensures a decent
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living, economic and social development. So, today energy is declared as a basic entitlement to be assured to every individual in the development agenda of the nations. Irrespective of the continuous and concerted efforts at increasing access to energy, it is estimated that nearly 1.6 billion of people of the world do not have access to modern energy services. The poor, rural milieu and women are the worst victims of the inaccessibility to modern energy services. The gender dimensions of energy access and use are also quite important. Women are the largest users of energy; but access to easy, affordable and sustainable energy supply is limited among them. Women in large parts of the world suffer from energy deficit and energy poverty. This has a bearing on their productivity, health, participation in public life which has been confirmed by past studies. Thus, there is a nexus between access to energy and empowerment of women.
Research background
Energy, women and poverty are linked in various ways. Energy consumption pattern, collection mode by the women is decided by their economic condition, in many cases, it is also responsible for their economic marginalization (Ramani, 2003). There is correlation among the income level and the use of various energy sources(Nesarani, 2005). Furthermore, there is difference in the consumption pattern and problems of people in urban and rural areas. While urban people depend on commercial energy rural households depend on non- commercial energy sources (Hasalkar, 2002,Chun-Shenget al., 2012). Energy has gender differentiated aspects which are evident from the earlier studies. Women and girls are primarily responsible for the collection of water and fuel in the family which has an adverse impact on them(Agarwal, 2010, Habtezion, 2011). Women who use bio fuel have a burdensome life. They spend maximum time in their domestic work .The collection of firewood and water consume the maximum portion of women and girls. (Blackden and Wodon, 2012).Every
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yeararound 2 million people die out of indoor air pollution.Rural residents suffer from higher health risk from the energy they use than the urban residents (Chung Sheng et al., 2012). Study of women fuel wood carriers in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia shows that women suffer from frequent falls, backache, bone fractures, anemia, headache and other physical injuries and illness(Sovacool, 2012).Women suffer from respiratory illness, eye problem which are common among women who work on traditional chulhas( Barnes and Sens,2004). Along with the health condition it also affects the productive and reproductive work of women. The review of literature on the present research gives a picture of the research gaps in this area.
• Studies in the context of Odisha on the present topic does not figure in the research archives
• Studies relating to time, physical exertion in collecting energy sources is still scanty.
• Studies on energy use pattern and empowerment of women is yet to be undertaken.
Research objectives
To trace out the socio- economic profile of the sample respondents.
To outline the basic energy need and energy use pattern of women in the area under study.
To locate the consequence of presentenergy use pattern and its access on women.
Research setting
The present study was conducted in the Chitalapur village in Dhenkanal district of Odisha.
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Research Design and Methods used-
The study adopted descriptive research design and has used both qualitative and quantitative analysis to arrive at substantial finding. For the purpose a well-designed interview schedule was prepared to derive standardized data for statistical treatment. Observation was present throughout the research. Case study and personal interview were also used in the study.
Sample chosen-
A total number of 72 households of Chitalapur village was taken. Stratified disproportionate random sampling was used to cover different sahis(different caste people residing in different part of the village). Women within the age group of 15-65 years were taken as the respondents as they are responsible for collection and dealing with various energy sources in their daily lives.
Study outcomes:
Socio economic profile of the respondents
The socio-economic profile of the respondentsare presented inTable 1. Out of total respondents,11.1 per cent werefrom two age groups of 15- 24yrs and 55-65 years; 25 per cent of the respondents belonged to 25-34 age group and both the age group 35-44years & 45-54 years had 26.3 per cent respondents each. It is marked that most of the respondents were middle aged women between 25-54 years.
Of the respondents, it was found that 37.5 per cent women were illiterate,while 26.3 per cent and 12.5 percent of women had received primary and middle school education respectively. Only 5.5 per cent of them were graduates. The education level of the respondents depicts a dismal educational status of women in the village. About 12.5 per cent of respondents were daily wage labourers, 83.3 percent were house wives and only 4.16 per cent of the respondents were service holders.
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Out of the total respondents, 90.27 percent were married, 5.5 percent were unmarried and 4.16 percent were widow.
Half of the respondents’ monthly income of the family was found to be below 2500 rupees, 19.4 per cent of the households had 2500- 5000 rupees and 30.5 per cent households had family income above 5000. It is evident that most of the households were living in poor economic conditions. From the total sample chosen 30.5 per cent, 31.94 per cent, 37.5 per cent were General, Scheduled Caste and Other backward classes respectively.
Table-1 Socio economic profile of the respondents.
Socio-economic profile Frequency Percentage
of the respondents
Age
15-24 yrs 8 11.1
25-34 yrs 18 25
35-44 yrs 19 26.3
45-54 yrs 19 26.3
55-65 yrs 8 11.1
Level of education
Illiterate 27 37.5
Primary 19 26.3
Middle 9 12.5
High School 13 18.0
Graduate 4 5.5
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Occupation
Daily wage labour 9 12.5
House wife 60 83.3
Service 3 4.16
Marital status
Unmarried 4 5.5
Married 65 90.27
Widow 3 4.16
Family Income
Below 2500 36 50
2500-5000 14 19.4
Above 5000 22 30.5
Caste
General 22 30.5
Scheduled Caste/Tribe 23 31.94
OBC 27 37.5
Energy consumption pattern and need
The consumption pattern of the energy sources depends on the income level and availability of energy services (Murugan, 2011).The energy in the domestic sector is obtained from non-commercial like cow dung and firewood as well as commercial sources like kerosene, LPG and electricity; and for different domestic uses, they contribute differently. As per the study, it has been found that out of 72 households, 80.5 per cent of the houses had electricity in their houses but still 19.44 percent of the houses did not. Firewood was the most
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popularly used energy which was used by 94.4 percent of the respondents. The share of LPG users was 62.5 percent out of the total households studied. While kerosene was used by 91.6 percent of households, agricultural wastes were used by only 25 percent of the respondents and 34.7 percent used cow dung. During the study it was observed that higher caste and high income group people had easy access to modern energy sources.
Table-2 Types of energy consumed
Energy source (N=72) Frequency Percentage
Electricity 58 80.5
LPG 45 62.5
Kerosene 66 91.6
Firewood 68 94.4
Cow dung 25 34.7
Agricultural wastes 18 25
Purpose of using
The respondents were asked about the purpose of use of the energy sources. All the users of electricity (58) said they used it for lighting purposeand 36.20 percent of the users used it for other purposes like for fans, charging mobile, using grinders and refrigerators. LPG was used for cooking by all the users and 24.44 per cent of the users used it for water heating. Kerosene was a popular fuel for lighting; people used it during power cuts or it was used by the households who did not have access to electricity. Kerosene was a minor fuel used for cooking as only 13.63 per cent of its users preferred it for the same purpose.
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Table-3 Purpose of use of various energy sources
Energy Source Cooking Water Lighting Others heating
N f % f % f % f %
1.Electricity 58 - - - - 58 100 21 36.20
2. LPG 45 100 24.44 - - - - 11
3.Kerosene 66 9 13.63 - - 66 100 - -
4.Firewood 68 68 100 25 - - - - 17
5.Cowdung 25 9 36 - - - - 6 24
6.AgriWaste 18 15 83.3 - - - - 5 27.7
Firewood was the widely used fuel by most of the people and all of them used it for cooking purpose while 25 per cent of the users used it for water heating purpose also. Cow dung though being widely used in other rural areas of India for cooking, few residents of Chitalapur village comprising of 36 per cent used cow dung for cooking purpose. Agricultural wastes were used for cooking and other purposes like thatching; 83.3per cent of the users used it to supplement the firewood while cooking and 27.7 percent of the users used it for other purposes.
Reasons of using
From the respondents using electricity, 58.6 per cent used it as it was easily available for they got it as“BPL electricity” given by the government while 18.96 per cent said that it was easy to maintain.
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Time was saved in case of 17.24 per centrespondents and other reasons like social prestige, comfort etc. accounted 5.17 per cent.
Major chunk of people i.e. 53.3 per cent used LPG just because it was time saving while 17.77 per cent used for it was clean and prestigious and 11.11 per cent used it as it was easy to handle while 17.77 per cent had other reasons for use like they were getting it through BPL card etc.
Table-4 Reasons of using
Energy Source Frequency Percentage
Electricity (N=58)
Easily available 34 58.6
Easy to maintain 11 18.96
Time saving 10 17.24
Other 3 5.17
LPG (N=45)
Time saving 24 53.3
Clean and Prestigious 8 17.77
Easy to handle 5 11.11
Other 8 17.77
Kerosene(N=66)
Easy availability 26 39.39
Cheap 12 18.18
Labour saving 13 19.69
Others 15 22.72
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Firewood and Agricultural waste (N=68)
Traditionally used 27 39.70
No investment 20 29.41
Easy to handle 5 7.35
Other 16 23.5
Amongst Kerosene users 39.39 per cent used it due to easy availability while 18.18 per cent usedbecause of less price and 19.69 per cent used as it was labour saving. But 22.72 per cent had other factors like no access to alternate sources such as electricity etc.
Firewood and agricultural wastes were used by 39.70 per cent respondents because it was a traditional source of energy for them while 29.41 per cent used as there were no investments to make for it. 7.35 per cent people used as it was easy to handle as they have been using since long time but 23.5 per cent had some other reasons for it like lack of access to other alternative sources.
Frequency of use
The types of energy used in the domestic sector of the Chitalapur village has been depicted in fig-. But the frequency of use of these energy sources vary regardless of the maximum members using it. For instance 80.5 per cent of the households use electricity (table), out of which 63.7 percent respondents frequently used it. It was found that 62.22 per cent of the LPG users used it rarely. They used it mainly for making tiffin, tea and other cooking items which take few minutes to get prepared and consumed less energy. Although 91.6 per cent of respondents used kerosene in their household 57.75 per cent of them used it rarely. They used it only during power cuts or for igniting firewood to cook. Firewood and agricultural wastes was used very often by the households who used it counting to
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86.76 per cent and 94.44 per cent respectively. It was interesting to find that cow dung which is considered as an important energy source in rural area, less than half of the households i.e. 44 per cent used cow dung frequently. The following graph represents the frequency of energy used.
Figure-1 Frequency of Energy Use 100 5.55 90 13.23 80 36.2 56 70 62.22 57.57 60 50 94.44 Rarely used 40 86.76
Percentage Frequently Used 30 63.79 44 20 37.77 42.42 10 0
Sources of energy Impact of energy on women
As per the study, 94.5 percent of the respondents used firewood. This was basically used for cooking purpose. The time demand was found to be very high (>4 hrs) by 64.7 percent of the respondents. The women collected firewood from the mountain Budhi Parbat and from village tress. Women were sometimes prevented to collect firewood, their axes were taken away and after paying 5-10 rupees they were allowed to enter the forest to collect firewood.While 8.82 percent of them considered that it required 3-4 hrs a day to collect firewood, 11.76 percent had to spend 2-3 hrs in collecting it. Only 5.8 percent of women reported firewood collection is less time demanding activity (1-2) hr. For 8.82 percent of women firewood collection demanded less than an hour time. It should be noted that they do not go every day to collect
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firewood but twice or thrice a week according to the need and quantity of fuel collected the previous time. Some of families ( 3-4 families) kept together their collected firewood at one place separated by recognisable distance and they helped each other if there was any shortage of firewood.
Figure2- Time demand
Time Demand
8.82 5.8 Collection of Firewood 11.76 8.82 Very Less (< 1hr) 64.7 Less (1-2 hrs) 55.55 Purpose 29.16 Medium( 2-3 hrs) Collection of Water 8.33 2.77 4.16 High (3-4 hrs) Very High ( >4hrs) 4.15 47.2 Cooking 36.11 8.33 4.16
0 20 40 60 80 Percentage
Although the village had a number of tube wells and wells, some wells had dried up in summer. Out of all the respondents 55.5 percent of women felt water collection took less than 1hour time. The study found 29.16 percent of the women took 1-2 hours , 8.33 percent of required 2- 3hours and 4.16 percent required 3-4 hours to collect water. It was also found that for 4.6 percent of women it was a very high time demanding activity as they had to go for long distance and number of times to fetch water shown in figure 2
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Problems faced
Electricity has made lives of people easier than ever before. But all the households of the village do not have access to electricity. The problems faced for using electricity or during using it has been studied here. The main problem faced in using electricity amongst the ones who used, was the cost factor which amounts to 51.72 per cent, followed by power cut problems 25.8 per cent. While 18.96 per cent respondents had no problems, 3.4 per cent people sometimes found it dangerous as they did not have much knowledge about the connections, broken switch boards etc. Nearly 18.6 percent of women found no problems in using electricity.
LPG which was used by 62.5 per cent of the household only 37.7 percent of them used it frequently. Amongst the LPG users, 71.1 per cent of the respondents said that it was very pricy while 13.33 per cent apprehended it to be dangerous. Moreover, there were supply problems for 6.66 per cent of people and 8.88 per cent had lack of knowledge to operate it.
Table-5 Problems faced while using various energy sources
Problems Frequency Percentage
Electricity (N=58)
Expensive 30 51.72
Dangerous 2 3.4
Power cuts 15 25.8
No problem 11 18.96
LPG (N=45)
Expensive 32 71.1
Dangerous 6 13.33
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Supply Problem 3 6.66
Lack of knowledge of operation 4 8.88
Kerosene (N=66)
High Costs 14 21.21
Limited supply 26 39.39
Fire Hazard 2 3.03
No problem 24 36.36
Firewood and Agricultural Wastes (N=68)
Smoke and Health hazard 9 13.23
Difficulty in collection 40 58.8
Storage problem 7 10.29
All of the above 12 17.64
Of the 66 respondents who used kerosene, 39.39 per cent had complaints of limited supply, 21.21 per cent had price issues,and 3.03per cent had fire hazard problems while 36.36 per cent had no problems. The most important problem for use of firewood and agricultural wastes was the difficulty in collection which accounted 58.8 per cent. Problems like smoke and health hazards comprised of 13.23 per cent and storage problem accounted for 10.29 per cent. But 17.64 per cent responded had all the above problems. While interviewing one of the respondents narrated a fire hazard which took place in their adjacent village that burnt several houses and it took over a year for the recovery. Since then they have become conscious while cooking in chulahs.
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Impact on health
Past studies have shown that the use of biofuels in traditional stoves and chulahs leads to the emission of pollutants that have several adverse outcomes on the health of women and children. A number of studies report that the indoor air pollution levels in homes using traditional stoves far exceeds levels recommended by the World Health Organization.
Figure 3- Impact on health
Impact on health 120
100 14.7
80 41.17
60 88.2 100 No
Percentage 40 85.29 Yes 58.82 20 11.76 0 0 Burns Eye irritation Aches Respiratory problems Health issues
Irony of the situation is that, while these sources of energy provide us ease and meet our requirements, they simultaneously have got negative impacts on our health. Firewood use was the major cause for health issues. Maximum respondents out of 68, who consumed firewood, had aches (headache, backache, leg pain etc.) which accounts to be 85.29%. This was followed by eye irritation due to smoke especially which was the complaint of 58.82% respondents. Around
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11.76% respondents got affected by burns. In this study, it was observed that although the respondents had eye irritation problem during cooking in traditional chulahs none of the respondents complained about respiratory problem. It was also noted that their chulhas was located mostly outside to vent out the smokes that comes out during the burning of firewood.
Conclusion
With the growing environmental and energy crisis it becomes pertinent to understand the need of the hour that adequate attention should be given to meet the energy demands of the people and concerns of environment. The rapid depletion of natural sources of energy remains in neglected domain of the people who are unconscious about their sustainable use. So, awareness campaigns should be promoted to develop individual consciousness among people. Women should be integrated into the Government programs which often remain confined to the elite NGOs and sentient communities so that it can percolate to the grassroots. Rain water harvesting, use of bio gas plants, solar cooking traditions can be developed in rural areas where women can play significant role in implementing it. Energy cooperatives can be developed in rural Odisha which will help in producing, providing and distributing energy where women can play key role in empowering themselves at the same time contribute for sustainable development.
References
1. Agarwal, B.(2010). “Gender and Green Governance: The Political Economy of Women’s Presence Within and Beyond Community Forestry”, Oxford University Press, UK. 2. Barnes, F., Sen, M. ( 2004). “The Impact of Energy on Women's Lives in Rural India”. The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/The World Bank/ESMAP. 3. Batliwala, S., and Reddy, A.(2003), Energy for Women and Women for Energy: Empowering Women through Energy
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Entrepreneurship, Energy for Sustainable Development, Vol VII No. 3, September 2003 4. Blackden, C. M. & Wodon, Q. (2006). “Gender, Time Use, and Poverty in Sub-Saharan Africa”, World Bank Working Paper No. 73. Washington, DC: World Bank. 5. Cecelski, E. (2004). “Re-thinking gender and energy: old and new directions”. ENERGIA/EASE Discussion Paper. 6. Murugan, M. (2011) “An analysis of Rural Household Energy Consumption in Kanyakumari district- Tamil Nadu” ZENITH International Journal of Multidisciplinary Research, Vol.1 Issue 7 , 130-139. 7. Nesarani,Y. et al. (2007). “ Socialisation and Conservation”. In Raj, D. S.(Eds). “ Energy and Environment Interaction: Future Challenges.” (33-40). New Delhi: Deep and Deep Publication Private Lmt. 8. Ramani, K.V. (2003). "Energy as an instrument of women's economic empowerment." ENERGIA News, 5:1, pp. 8-10. 9. Ramji , A. et al. (2012) . “Rural Energy Access and Inequalities: An analysis of NSS Data from 1999-2000 to 2009-10. New Delhi: The Energy and Resource Institute. 10. Singh,S. & Bajpai, U. (2010). “Integrated energy planning for sustainable development in rural areas: A case study from Eastern Uttar Pradesh.”International Journal of Energy and Environment, Volume 1, Issue 6, pp.1083-1096. 11. Sovacool, B. K., Dworkin, M. H.(2014) “Global Energy Justice- Problem, Principle and Practice” ,UK, Cambridge University Press. 12. ZHAO Chun-sheng, Z., Shu-wen, N., Xin, Z.(2012). “Effects of household energy consumption on environment and its influence factors in rural and urban areas”. Energy Procedia 14, 805-811.
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A STUDY ON THE EVALUATION OF THE VI STANDARD SOCIAL STUDIES TEXT BOOK
Dr. A. Dhanalakshmi Principal Triplaar School of Learning Guntur, Andhra Pradesh
Abstract
The present investigation was an attempt to determine A study on the evaluation of the VI standard social studies text book. Various Indian and foreign studies were reviewed. Descriptive survey method has been used in this study. The sample consisted of 100 teachers from Government and Private schools of East Godavari district using stratified random sampling method. Self constructed tools were prepared and standardized and adopted for the study. The tools were used for the 49 Government school teachers and 51 private school teachers to find out the opinion on evaluation of the VI standard social studies text book .The data were analyzed using various statistical methods like Mean, SD, t-test and ANOVA by SPSS package .The score obtained by different groups are compared across the variable like gender, teaching experience, location of the school, type of management, qualification with respect of teachers. The results indicated that there is a positive response on the evaluation of the VI standard social studies text book.
INTRODUCTION:
The primary object of education is to develop good citizenship among the children attending the school .In discharging this responsibility of education different activities in the form of syllabus and subjects are taken up in schools, while mathematics and science develop the knowledge and skills required to utilize the material
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resource s, social studies develops the knowledge and skills required to maintain good social order. These social studies assure the responsibility of developing proper co-existence among the people. Social studies were introduced in environmental approach in the beginning and gradually rise to global approach.
These things show that social studies are not a content or leap of knowledge to be acquired. The part of be played by social studies can be understood properly after careful analysis of the meaning of education as perceived by different educationists.
METHODOLOGY
The purpose of the study was to investigate the evaluation of the VI standard social studies text book. The present investigation was an attempt to determine A study on the evaluation of the VI standard social studies text book. Various Indian and foreign studies were reviewed. Descriptive survey method has been used in this study. The sample consisted of 100 teachers from Government and Private schools of East Godavari district using stratified random sampling method. Self constructed tools were prepared and standardized and adopted for the study. The tools were used for the 49 Government school teachers and 51 private school teachers to find out the opinion on evaluation of the VI standard social studies text book .The data were analyzed using various statistical methods like Mean, SD, t-test and ANOVA by SPSS package .The score obtained by different groups are compared across the variable like gender , teaching experience , location of the school, type of management, qualification with respect of teachers. The results indicated that there is a positive response on the evaluation of the VI standard social studies text book.
Objectives of the study:
A good text book is a useful instrument in the hands of a teacher in realizing the objectives of teaching social studies permission of
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quality text books and other teaching material. It is a key problem for raising standard at comparably low cost, immediate steps should be taken for production of high quality text books for schools and universities. Frequent changes of text books should be avoided and their pieces should be low enough for the students of ordinary means to buy them.
The general objectives of the present research are to make an evaluation of social studies text book of class-VI.
To evaluate the mechanical elements and presentation of the subject matter of VI class social studies text book.
To evaluate the illustration used and exercises given in the VI class social studies text book.
To analyzing the content of VI-class social studies text book in term of the stated curriculum.
To assess how far the curriculum were suited to the need and interest of the learners.
Hypotheses of the study:
There would be no significant difference between male and female teachers towards evaluate of VI class social studies text book.
There would be no significant difference between teachers of rural and urban areas towards evaluating VI class social studies text book.
There would be no significant difference between of private and government school teachers towards evaluate of VI class social studies text book.
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There would be no significant difference between experience of 5Years and above 5 years teachers towards evaluate of VI class social studies text book.
There would be no significant difference between post graduation teachers and graduate teachers towards evaluate of VI class social studies text book.
Need and importance of the Study:
Social is the greatest of all sciences in the present scientific world, it is the basic to the understanding of every science relatively to the earth. Social plays a vital role in India not only India but also in the world. A country cannot develop without using their natural resources properly. To drawn the Natural resource from earth knowledge of science is important. Country which is sound in the science of biology can develop both economical and socially by utilizing the same.
Moral values and human, relations are depended up on social studies. But now a days the importance of social studies decreases due to some reasons. It leads to destroy the peaceful human relations. So every person should have knowledge about the importance of social studies.
Table
Over all response of teachers towards evaluation of VI standard social studies text book.
Respondent N Min Max Mean Mean percent Std .Dev
Teachers 100 25 75 71.36 95.15 3.37
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Table: Observed that, the teachers showed positive response evaluating VI standard social studies. The mean percentage are found to be 95.15
Major findings of the study:
In depth and individual analysis of the statements in the questionnaire review that 20 percentage of teachers feel that a. content of every lesson b. lacking clarity c. contemporary issues are well incorporated and satisfactory while evaluating the history aspects of VI social studies text book
On the whole the evaluation on VI class social studies text book teachers showed partial satisfaction
Most of the VI class social studies teachers agreed the fact that curriculum is not coordinate with present trends of social activities of the country
Few teachers seem to have high dissatisfaction while evaluating the economics aspects of VI class social studies text book
Suggestions:
Teachers should give knowledge about the importance of social studies to their students.
Every school should have sufficient social teachers, lab and library.
There is need to given much importance in curriculum in order to make VI class students aware of current socio- economic conditions.
Encouraging the teachers to conduct workshops, discussions to bring an understanding about their
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problems in social studies subject teaching to develop concrete measure to solve the problems.
Various problems of teachers in teaching social studies subject can be identified in all areas like Geographical, History, economics, civics, reframing of curriculum and be discussed as a part of the refreshers classes of teachers.
Conclusion:
The present study is focused on the evaluation VI class social studies text book by the teachers in the East Godavari District. It is found that there is dissatisfaction among social studies teachers on the evaluation of VI class social studies text book. The researcher hopes that this research will be a model for teachers, parents, authorities to know the mistakes of VI class Social studies text book noticed by social studies teachers and their problems in teaching these lessons, which are not given the much importance. The results of the study definitely provide seriousness among the authorities to take up more vigorous work to avoid such mistakes of the text books.
Reference
1. Armeto B.J.:Research on teaching social studies
rd 2. M.C.Wittrac : In Hand of Research on teaching edited by 3 new work Macmillan 2005.
3. American Commege : Integrity in the college curriculum: A. Report to the Academic community chronicle of higher Education
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4. Atood. V.A. : Elementary social studies: Research as a guide to practice. Washington D.C. National Council for the social studies – 2008
5. Berkowitz. M.W.: A Critical appraisal of the educational and psychological perspectives on moral Discussion. Journal of Educational though 15 (1981)
6. J.C.Gibbs:“Measuring the Developmental feature of a moral Discussion.
7. Task Force:“A nation prepared: Teachers for the twenty first century New yark : 2009
8. Bullock Lokd:Presidential address “School social review” Vo.57, Nov-June, 1976, P.621
9. GARRET:Educational Statistics
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SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND DEMOGRAPHIC FEATURES OF FISHER WOMEN :A-CASE STUDY OF RURAL AND URBAN AREAS IN VISAKHAPATNAM DISTRICT
K.Swarna Latha Research Scholar Department of Economics Andhra University, Visakhapatnam Abstract
The fishermen are generally indebted to the middlemen, who control the marketing or the sale of fish. Several factors such as low social status, poor economic conditions, illiterates, heavy dependency on middlemen, traditional method of fishing, and low catch per unit effort influences the socio-economic condition of fishermen. Fisher women play a pivotal role in activities of fish trading, while attending to their domestic duties. This leads to tremendous stress on fisherwomen, who face several problems in the domestic sphere, and also in conducting their business activities. Hence, an attempt is made in this chapter to determine the socio-economic conditions of fisher women like age, education, size of family, marital status, sources of income. The study is mainly undertaken with a view to find out the nature and quality of human capital available and evaluate the socio-economic problems of the fisher women.
From times immemorial women have played a pivotal role in building better homes, shaping the society and sowing seeds for a prosperous nation. In addition, women also have contributed significantly in income earning; live stock engagement and agriculture operations. In fact, a large number of women are status is an important variable.
Demographic variable also play a major role influencing in the status of women. Keeping this in view, in this paper the socio-economic, profile of the fisher women is presented.
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Introduction:
The fishermen are generally indebted to the middlemen, who control the marketing or the sale of fish. Several factors such as low social status, poor economic conditions, illiterates, heavy dependency on middlemen, traditional method of fishing, and low catch per unit effort influences the socio-economic condition of fishermen. Fisher women play a pivotal role in activities of fish trading, while attending to their domestic duties. This leads to tremendous stress on fisherwomen, who face several problems in the domestic sphere, and also in conducting their business activities. Hence, an attempt is made in this chapter to determine the socio-economic conditions of fisher women like age, education, size of family, marital status, sources of income. The study is mainly undertaken with a view to find out the nature and quality of human capital available and evaluate the socio-economic problems of the fisher women.
From times immemorial women have played a pivotal role in building better homes, shaping the society and sowing seeds for a prosperous nation. In addition, women also have contributed significantly in income earning,live stock engagement and agriculture operatons.In fact, a large number of women are status is an important variable.
Demographic variable also play a major role influencing in the status of women. Keeping this in view, in this paper the socio-economic, profile of the fisher women is presented.
Objectives of the study:
To study the socio-economic profile of fisher women both rural and urban in Visakhapatnam district of Andhra Pradesh.
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Methodology:
Visakhapatnam district, one of the 23 districts (one among 9 coastal districts) of Andhra Pradesh is purposively selected for the present study. The study based on both primary and secondary data. As a background of the study, the socio-economic features of the study area and growth of fisher women in the study are analyzed. This analysis status of Andhra Pradesh.
1) Age Distribution:
As prelude to an analytical study of the sample households of the study area, a study of the age distribution of sample population is an attempted. Age may be considered as an important factor seeking employment since capacities to work and acquisition of skills are governed by age. It is helpful to determine the proportion of labour force in the total population. The age-wise sample population of the study is taken in class intervals often for convenience. The data relating to age distribution of fisher women is presented in the table.1
Table-1 Distribution of fisher women by age group.
Region Total Up to 20-30 30-40 40-50 50-60 60 20 above Rural 2 49 64 36 29 20 200 (1.00) (24.50) (32.00) (18.00) (14.50) (10.00) (100.00) Urban 8 70 58 39 20 5 200 (4.00) (35.00) (29.00) (19.50) (10.00) (2.50) (100.00) Total 10 119 122 75 49 25 400 (2.50) (29.75) (30.50) (18.75) (12.25) (6.25) (100.00) (The figures in brackets are percentages to total)
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Age is one of the factors of socio-economic conditions.table-1 presents the age wise distribution of fisher households for rural and urban area of Visakhapatnam district. It can be seen from the table that 122members are in the age group between 30 and 40 constituting 30.50 percent which is the highest in the total sample. The lowest percentage is in the age group between 10 and 20, which is only 2.50 percent, in urban area majority of the fisher women are in the age group of 20-30.while in the lowest percentage is the age group of 60-70 years. On the other hand, majority of fisher women are belong to the age group of up to 20.from this .it may be pointed out that around 50 percentages of women in total sample are engaged in the age group of at 20-50 years; an enhancement in their skills will go along away in improving their standard of living.
2) Distribution of fisher women by sub caste:
The data relating to the distribution of fisher women by sub case is presented in table-2
Table-2
Distribution of fisher women by sub caste
Region Sub –caste Vada balija jalari Total Rural 100 100 200 (50.00) (50.00) (100.00) Urban 100 100 200 (50.00) (50.00) (100.00) Total 200 200 400 (100.00) (100.00) (100.00)
The figures in brackets are percentages to total
Caste can determine the social of the fisher women households to some extent. The data relating to caste distribution of the
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households is given in table.2.it can be seen from the above table that equal number of fisher women belongs to Vadabalaja and Jalari communities in the study area.
Across the two categories, the same sample percent of fisher women are in urban and rural area.
3) Distribution of fisher women by Education:
Education is the most powerful tool in enhancing the members to play their indispensable and important role for their households and society. The literacy level is the best index to express the socio- economic status. Generally, fishermen community belongs to most backward class. In rural area, most of the fishermen communities have only primary education, when compared to urban areas. But now-a- days the literacy rate is gradually raising both in rural and urban area.table-3 shows the educational status of fisher women.
Table-3 Distribution of sample fisher women by educational level
Region Educational level Total illiterate Up to Middle High college primary school school Rural 184 4 6 5 1 200 (92.00) (2.00) (3.00) (2.50) (0.50) (100.00) urban 180 6 2 12 0 200 (90.00) (3.00) (1.00) (6.00) (0.00) (100.00) total 364 10 8 17 1 400 (2.50) (2.00) (4.25) (0.25) (100.00) The figures in brackets are percentages to total
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The above data shows that in the rural areas, 92 percent of the fisher women are illiterates, which is comparatively 2 percent higher than the urban areas. On the whole majority of the fisher women in the study area are illiterates. In both the regions, very few have primary and higher education. From this it may be inferred that level of income, rural backward. And lacks of awareness are the major causes for the predominance of illiteracy among fisher women.
4) Marital status:
Margie is an essential social ceremony and is considered to be an important in human life. Early marriage is one of the causes for growing population. The marital status of fisher women is presented in the table-4
Tabl-4
Distribution of sample fisher women by marital status.
Region Married women Un married women Rural married Widow diversed total Urban 185 15 0 0 200 (92.50) (7.50) (0.00) (0.00) (100.00) total 170 27 2 1 200 (85.00) (13.50) (1.00) (0.50) (100.00) 355 42 2 1 400 (88.75) (10.50) (0.50) (0.25) (100.00) The figures in brackets are percentages to total
Regarding the marital status of the fisher women, it is observed that the percentage of married women is higher in rural area I.e. (92.50 percent), while it is relatively lower in urban areas (85 percent).As
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whole married women constitute 88.75 per cent, which is highest in the study area. It may be inferred that for fisher women, marriage is considered to be an important social factor which facilities them to enter into work force.
5) Sources of income:
Fishing is subject to uncertainty. One cannot rightly calculate the daily or weekly or monthly income of fisher women. Sometimes they get hundreds of rupees and at other times they get nothing. In spite of these difficulties, spatial efforts have taken to compute annual income of the sample households. The data relating to the distributing of fisher women by sources of income is presented in table-5
Table-5
Distribution of sample fisher women by sources of average annual income:
Region Fish Daily Servant Total vending labour maid Rural 21932.34 18890.95 16268.37 19030.55 (63) (85) (52) (200) Urban 23446.12 19203.51 20474.48 210041.48 (45) (50) (105) (200) total 22689.23 19047.23 18371.43 20035.87 (108) (135) (157) (400) The figures in brackets are percentages to total
From the above table, it may be observed that the average income from fishing is more in both rural and urban area (22689.23). it may be observed that the average income from daily labor (18890.95) is very high when compared servant maid) 16268.37).on the other hand in
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the urban areas women have more average income from servant maid (20474.48) when competed to daily labour activity (19203.51).however, it may be observed that the average from fish vending is more, when compared to income from other sources (daily labor an servant maid) in case of both rural and urban areas.
6) Pattern of expenditure:
Consumption takes away a substaible portion of one’s income, particularly consumption expenditure incurred by the fisher women on times like food clothing, fuel, housing, education, medical care, festivals. Loans and so on. It has a major role in determining the standard of living of the fisher women. Table 6 shoes the annual pattern of expenditure of the fisher women.
Table-6
Distribution of fisher women by pattern of annual average family expenditure (in rupees)
S.no Community Rural Urban Total group 1 Food 9281.27 10466.25 9873.76 (45.69) (42.80) (44.02) 2 Education 1026.74 1572.06 1299.40 (5.05) (6.42) (5.80) 3 Electricity 927.04 1297.02 1112.03 (4.75) (5.30) (4.95) 4 Health 698.00 926.08 830.04 (3.43) (3.93) (3.70) 5 Fuel 1161.06 1480.06 1320.56 (5.71) (6.05) (5.90)
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6 Clothes 1522.06 1899.25 1710.65 (7.49) (7.77) (7.62) 7 Festivals 1277.01 1511.25 1438.13 (6.29) (6.91) (6.41) 8 Other items 4421.75 5268.08 4844.91 (21.77) (21.54) (21.60) Total 2031.93 24456.05 22429.48 (100.00) (100.00) (100.00) The figures in brackets are percentages to total
The above table clearly that the expenditure on food item consumes a huge share in the total expenditure. It constitutes 45.69 percent in any rural fisher community women and 42.80 percent in case of urban fishing community. Other major item of expenditure I the study area is on other items (21.60 percent).the average other items expenditure of rural area is 21.77 percent, while in the urban area is 21.54 percent. The average expenditure of fishing community spending on clothes in urban area is 7.77 percent and in rural area it is 7.49 percent.6.91 percent of the respondents are spending very high for festivals in urban area with compare to rural areas.
Similarly the average expenditure on fuel in urban area is recorded as 6.05 percent while it is 5.71 percent in case of rural areas. This understands from the fact that the women in urban area use more gas for cooking, than women in rural areas, who use more firewood for cooking. As can be seen from the table, the urban households are spending more money on education (6.42 percent) when compare rural to households. The average electricity expenditure in urban area is 5.30 percent, while in the rural areas where it is 4.75 percent. This pattern shows that urban households consume more electricity than the rural areas, which may be due to frequent power cuts. In rural areas the
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average expenditure in urban area is 3.93 percent in rural areas it is 3.43 percent. From this it may be inferred that in urban areas people more on private hospitals, while in the rural are household poor government hospitals.
7) Pattern of saving:
The rate of savings also an important factor to know the financial status of the fisher women. The fisher women save a meager amount from their incomes. The saving habit among the fisher women is very poor since they spend a major portion of their incomes. The main reasons attributable for this low saving rate or the uncertainty of income and big size of the family. The statistical information relating to the savings of the fisher women in different categories on instructions’ is presented in table-7
Table-7 Distribution of sample fisher women by source of annual average savings Region Average amount of saving(in Rupees) Total Post Banks Chit SHG’s offices funds Rural 122.50 540.30 270.75 750.50 1684.05 (7.28) (32.08) (16.08) (44.50) (100.00) urban 157.50 1550.50 650.40 350.20 2708.60 (5.81) (57.25) (24.01) (12.93) (100.00) total 280.00 2090.80 921.15 1100.70 4392.65 (6.27) (47.60) (20.98) (25.05) (100.00)
The figures in brackets are percentages to total
As can be seen from the table the average savings of fisher women is relatively high in case of self help groups (44.50 percent), in rural areas. Next to SHG’s, the among of savings is high in case of chit
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funds (16.08 percent), followed by banks (32.08 percent) and post offices (7.28 percent).on the other hand the average savings of fisher women households is relatively high in use of banks (57.25 percent) , in urban areas. After to banks the amount of savings are high in case of chit funds (24.01 percent), followed by SHGs (12.93 percent) and post offices 5.81 percent.
From this table it may be concluded that the savings rate in generally is satisfactory among the fisher women and most of them are opting the method of saving with self help groups. Hence, there is need to encourage self help groups among fisher women in order to promote more saving habit in the study area.
8) Barrowings of the fishing community:
The data relating to the distribution of fisher women by barrowing is presented in table-8
Table-8
Distribution of sample fisher women by annual average barrowings (in Rupees)
Region Rural Urban Total Outstanding 5973.80 7377.20 6675.50 loan (68.20) (56.46) (61.18) Interest on 2785.20 5686.92 4235.97 loan (31.80) (43.54) (38.82) Total 8758.82 13064.12 10911.47 (100.00) (100.00) (100.00) The figures in brackets are percentages to total
The statistical information relating to the borrowings of the fisher community are presented in table-8. As can be seen from the table, outstanding loans are relatively higher in case of rural areas
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(68.20 percent) when compare to urban areas (56.46 percent).on the other hand to average interest on loan is relatively high in urban areas (43.54 percent) when compare to rural areas (31.80 percent).on the whole the barrowing pattern indicates that urban people on an average barrowing more when compare to rural area.
Conclusion:
The major conclusions that emerge from the above analysis may be briefly presented as follows.
As majority of the fisher women in the sample fall in the productive as group of 20-50 years, any improvement in their skills will not only result in the betterment of their own standard of living but also it goes a long way in accordance with the concept of demographic dividend”.
The analysis of literacy levels attained by the fisher women in the sample gives a disheartening picture. Majorty of fisher women are illitarates. This calls for more public expenditure in the social sector in order to promote particularly the education and health status of fishing population of the society. Economic growth becomes more meaningful it is resulted in ‘inclusive growth’ where in the and weaker sections will have a role in important in nation building.
Improvement in the literacy rates and skills of fisher women also bring down the dependency rate as noticed in the analysis. It is interesting to note that the fishing community is largely in favor of joint family system rather than nuclear family system.
Further it is observed that the positive aspects of urbanization have made an impressive impact on the electrification of houses in urban areas. It is also concluded that fisher women are opting to save more in self help groups. Hence, SHGs are to be strengthened and encouraged. Finally, appropriate steps are to be taken by governmental
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and NGOs (Non governmental organizations) to motive the people of fishing communities to give up cigarettes, smoking, alcohol consumption, which will ensure the building up of a better society.
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PERSONAL VALUES OF SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS: INFLUENCE OF SCHOOL ENVIRONMENT
Dr. Anshu Narad Assistant Professor Lovely School of Education Lovely Professional University Phagwara,Punjab
Abstract: The present study aimed to investigate how school environment shapes the personal values of senior secondary school students. The respondents were students fromsenior secondary schools of Punjab. A sample of 900 senior secondary school students studying in class 11 (300 from each of the three cultural regions of Punjab, namely, Doaba, Majha and Malwa) were selected by employing simple random sampling. Descriptive survey method was used. One –way ANOVA and t-test were applied to analyse the data. The study revealed that senior secondary school students did not differ significantly with respect to Religious, Social, Hedonistic and Power values but differed significantly with respect to Democratic, Aesthetic, Economic, Knowledge, Family Prestige and Health values. School environment of senior secondary schools as perceived by the students did not differ significantly with respect to Permissiveness dimension of school environment but it differed significantly with respect to Creative Stimulation, Cognitive Encouragement, Acceptance, Rejection and Control. Further,Religious, Social, Democratic, Economic and Hedonistic values of the senior secondary students differed significantly with respect to the different dimensions of school environment.
Keywords: Personal values, School Environment, senior secondary schools
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1 Introduction
Education modifies the behaviour of a person from ‘instinctive behaviour’ to ‘rational behaviour’. The first and the foremost aim of any educative process is to provide good life. Good life means maximum realization of values. Good education is unthinkable if it fails to inculcate values essential to good life and social well- being. Today in the world based on science and technology, the importance given to ‘good life’ as an aim of education is fast decreasing, resulting in value crises which in turn is affecting the character of the rising generation. As a consequence the children lack proper perspectives in values or proper sense of values. The children are facing a problem of what is good, what is right and what is desirable.
The values can be inculcated through various social institutions or agencies like school, church, home, museum, library etc. that are established directly or indirectly by the society. The child receives the first experience of informal education in the family in which he is born. And finally he steps into the school which is considered as one of the most important agency of inculcating values in a methodical manner through formal system of education. The school not only picks up where the home leaves, but also carries along to supplement the earlier influences and to strengthen the roots of virtuous life, the seeds of which were previously sown in soil of home.A school environment denotes all the circumstances, people, events and things that are around the pupils at school and influence their lives.Researchers like (Gupta, 2002); (Sharma and Shukla, 1999);(Sharma, 1997); (Pradhan, 1992); (Sambhi, 1989) and (Sportsman, 1983) found significant differences in the values of students studying in different types of schools. On the other hand (Cicuro,1966) and (Gananadevan, 2005) were of the view that there was no or little difference in the values of the students studying in different types of schools.
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The current study was undertaken in Government schools ( managed and financed by government) and Privately managed- aided schools (managed by private management but receive 95%grant in aid from government) of three cultural regions of Punjab, namely Doaba, Majha and Malwa(accepted cultural regions of Punjab according to Punjab Gazzetiar, having distinct differences with respect to total way of life, i.e. material and non-material aspect of culture).The available literature in values indicated that regional and cultural differences influence the values of the adolescents as revealed by the studies of (Beg,1966), (Gupta,1989) and (Sibia,1990). However, (Dwivedi,1979) found no effect of cultural background on the aesthetic and social values.Further the study was undertaken on senior secondary school students, the age that belongs to adolescence stage of human development, a period of stress and strain, a period of heightened emotionality, the adolescent faces many problems such as adjustment in school, home, opposite sex, suitable vocation, developing a sound philosophy of life, etc. Moreover, keeping in view the declining trend of values in the younger generation, the personal values ofstudents were explored, as personal values are the core values of an individual which guides the behaviour and actions of an individual and enables him to choose between good or bad throughout his life. The children try to imitate the teachers, teachers’ behaviour in the classroom interaction and interrelation; all prove instrumental in value development.(Makoto,2010) revealed that character education is intensely depended on the way the teachers lived inside and outside the school environments with clear insight of goal of education as well as life itself. The student’s values were influenced by their teacher’s conduct and school culture sets up a place for value education(Singh, 1974); (Lobo,1983); (Sharma,1995); (Sandhya,1999). While (Sibia,1990) reported that the school climate does not influence the values of the teachers to the extent that it influences the values of the students. A close perusal of related literature revealed inconsistencies in
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findings,further greater concern for societyas youngsters are the building blocks of society and to develop proper perspective of values among them inspired to investigate the personal values of students in context to school environment.
2Objectives
2.1To compare the personal values of senior secondary school students of the three cultural regions of Punjab namely, Doaba, Majha, Malwa.
2.2To compare the school environment of senior secondary schools of the three cultural regions of Punjab namely, Doaba, Majha, Malwa.
2.3 To examine the effect of school environment on the personal values of senior secondary school students.
3 Hypotheses
3.1 There will be no significant difference in the personal values of senior secondary school students of three cultural regions of Punjab.
3.2 There will be no significant difference in the school environment of senior secondary schools of three cultural regions of Punjab.
3.3 There will be no significant difference in the personal values of senior secondary school students with regard to school environment.
4 Method
Descriptive Survey method was used in the study.A sample of 900 senior secondary school students (300 from each cultural region of Punjab, namely Doaba, Majha and Malwa) was selected. Multi-Stage random sampling was employed. At each stage (namely, district, school and students) the sample was selected randomly, by listing the units of population. From the list of districts, belonging to Doaba, Majha and
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Malwa regions of Punjab, three districts one from each cultural region, was selected randomly. Further, from each of the selected district, out of the list of various coeducational Government schools and Privately managed and aided schools, 10 schools (5 Government schools and 5 Privately managed and aided schools) were selected by employing simple random sampling. 30 students (i.e. 15 male students and 15 female students) from each school were again selected i.e.150students (75 male students and 75 female students) were selected from each type of school.Data collection was done from students studying in senior secondary schools of three districts Hoshiarpur, Amritsar and Ferozepur of Punjab. Two tools were used to collect data, one was“personal values questionnaire”by Dr G.P. Sherry and Late Prof R.P. Verma(1994)and the second test“school environment inventory” by Karuna Shankar Mishra (2003). Data was analysed using descriptive statistics, ANOVA and t-test.
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5Results and Discussion
Table 5.1: Summary of one-way ANOVA for all the dimensions of Personal values
Personal Source of Sum of df Mean F Level of Values Variation Squares Square Significance (SS) (MS)
Religious value Between 1.22 2 0.61 0.059 Not significant groups 9242.14 897 10.303 Within groups 9243.36 899 Total Social value Between 13.216 2 6.608 0.552 Not significant groups 10733.783 897 11.966 Within groups 10746.999 899 Total Democratic value Between 688.22 2 344.11 24.887 0.01 groups 12402.78 897 13.827 Within group 13091 899 Total Aesthetic value Between 60.542 2 30.271 4.335 0.05 groups 6263.68 897 6.983 Within groups 6324.222 899 Total Economic value Between 317.927 2 158.963 12.691 0.01 groups 11235.863 897 12.526 Within groups 11553.79 899 w.ijmer.in 195
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Total Knowledge value Between 114.569 2 57.284 6.376 0.01 groups 8059.577 897 8.985 Within groups 8174.146 899 Total Hedonistic value Between 22.016 2 11.008 1.443 Not significant groups 6842.18 897 7.628 Within groups 6864.196 899 Total
Power value Between 23.216 2 11.608 1.044 Not significant groups 9973.09 897 11.118 Within groups 9996.306 899 Total Family Prestige Between 177.769 2 88.884 9.931 0.01 value groups 8028.013 897 8.95 Within groups 8205.782 899 Total Health value Between 393.802 2 196.901 19.545 0.01 groups 9036.397 897 10.074 Within groups 9430.199 899 Total The insignificant F-values in Table 5.1 showed no significant differences in the Religious, Social, Hedonistic and Power values of the students of the three cultural regions of Punjab. The significant F-values showed significant differences in the Democratic, Aesthetic, Economic, Knowledge, Family Prestige and Health values of students of the three cultural regions of Punjab. Since the F-values were found to be significant, so it was followed by t-test.
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Table 5.1.1: Shows the Mean differentials in the Personal values of students of three cultural regions of Punjab
Personal values Groups N Mean SD t-value Level of Significance Religious Value Doaba-Majha 300 13.02 3.24 3.41 0.147 Not Significant 300 12.98 Doaba- 300 13.02 3.24 2.96 0.355 Not Significant Malwa 300 12.93 Majha-Malwa 300 300 12.98 3.41 2.96 0.192 Not Significant 12.93 Social Value Doaba-Majha 300 13.32 3.72 3.41 0.721 Not Significant 300 13.11 Doaba- 300 13.32 13.4 3.72 3.23 0.269 Not Significant Malwa 300 Majha-Malwa 300 300 13.11 13.4 3.41 3.23 1.058 Not Significant Democratic Value Doaba-Majha 300 13.93 15.79 4.02 3.75 5.866 0.01 300 Doaba- 300 13.93 15.78 4.02 3.36 6.115 0.01 Malwa 300 Majha-Malwa 300 300 15.79 15.78 3.75 3.36 0.034 Not Significant Aesthetic Value Doaba-Majha 300 11.59 10.99 2.72 2.66 2.698 0.01 300 Doaba- 300 11.59 11.49 2.72 2.54 0.465 Not Significant Malwa 300 Majha-Malwa 300 300 10.99 11.49 2.66 2.54 2.323 0.05 Economic value Doaba-Majha 300 10.97 10 4.06 3.04 3.833 0.01 300 Doaba- 300 10.97 11.42 4.06 3.45 1.453 Not Significant Malwa 300 Majha-Malwa 300 300 10 11.42 3.04 3.45 5.365 0.01 Knowledge Value Doaba-Majha 300 13.3 12.53 2.84 2.96 3.237 0.01 300 Doaba- 300 13.3 12.55 2.84 3.18 3.03 0.01
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Malwa 300 Majha-Malwa 300 300 12.53 12.55 2.96 3.18 0.08 Not Significant Hedonistic Value Doaba-Majha 300 10.41 10.4 2.83 2.62 0.045 Not Significant 300 Doaba- 300 10.41 10.08 2.83 2.82 1.456 Not Significant Malwa 300 Majha-Malwa 300 300 10.4 10.08 2.62 2.82 1.468 Not Significant Power Value Doaba-Majha 300 9.19 8.91 3.91 2.96 1.013 Not Significant 300 Doaba- 300 9.19 8.82 3.91 3.06 1.315 Not Significant Malwa 300 Majha-Malwa 300 300 8.91 8.82 2.96 3.06 0.367 Not Significant Family Prestige Value Doaba-Majha 300 12.57 13.6 3.28 2.65 4.246 0.01 300 Doaba- 300 12.57 12.79 3.28 3.01 0.855 Not Significant Malwa 300 Majha-Malwa 300 300 13.6 12.79 2.65 3.01 3.513 0.01 Health Value Doaba-Majha 300 10.48 9.7 3.47 3.16 2.889 0.01 300 Doaba- 300 10.48 8.86 3.47 2.86 6.238 0.01 Malwa 300 Majha-Malwa 300 300 9.7 8.86 3.16 2.86 3.401 0.01
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The insignificant t-values for Religious, Social, Hedonistic and Power values of students in Table 5.1.1 indicated no significant differences in the mean scores of Religious value (i.e. faith in God, fear of divine wrath and acting according to the ethical codes prescribed in the religious books), Social value (i.e. kindness, love and sympathy for people and efforts to serve God through the service to mankind), Hedonistic value (i.e.desirability of loving pleasure and avoiding pain) and Power value (i.e. desire to rule over others and also of leading others) of students of Doaba, Majhaand Malwa regions. This suggested that the students of three cultural regions of Punjab equally possessed these values.
The significant t-values for Democratic, Aesthetic, Economic, Knowledge, Family Prestige and Health values of students in Table 5.1.1 indicated significant differences in the mean scores of Democratic, Aesthetic, Economic, Knowledge, Family Prestige and Health values of students of Doaba, Majha and Malwa regions.
In Table 5.1.1the higher mean of Majha region, indicated that students of this region had higher Democratic value (i.e. they believe in equal social, political and religious rights to all) as compared to those of Doaba region. Similarly, the higher mean of Malwa region indicated that students of this region had significantly higher Democratic value as compared to those ofDoaba region. While the insignificant t- value,indicated no significant difference betweenMajha and Malwa regions with respect to Democratic value.
In Table 5.1.1 the higher mean of Doaba region indicated that students of this region had significantly higher Aesthetic value (i.e. they have greater appreciation for art and beauty) as compared to those of Majha region.While the insignificant t-value indicated no significant difference between Doaba and Malwa regionswith respect to Aesthetic values. Further, the higher mean of Malwa region indicated that
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students of this region had significantly higher Aesthetic value as compared to those of Majha region.
In Table 5.1.1the higher mean of Doaba region, indicated that students of this region had significantly higher Economic value (i.e. they have more desire for money and material gains) as compared to those of Majha region. While the insignificant t-value indicated no significant difference between Doaba and Malwa regions with respect to Economic value. Further, the higher mean of Malwa region indicated that students of this region had significantly higher Economic value as compared to those of Majha region.
In Table 5.1.1the higher mean of Doaba region indicated that the students of this region had significantly higher Knowledge value as compared to those of Majha region. Similarly, the higher mean of Doaba region indicated that students of this region had significantly higher Knowledge value as compared to students of Malwa region. The students belonging to Doaba region scored significantly higher than those belonging to Majha and Malwa regions with regard to Knowledge value (i.e.more love for knowledge). While the insignificant t- valueindicated no significant difference between Majha and Malwa regions with respect to Knowledge value.
In Table 5.1.1 the higher mean of Majha region, indicated that students of this region had significantly higher Family Prestige value as compared to students of Doaba region. While the insignificant t-value indicated no significant difference between Doaba and Malwa regions with respect to Family Prestige value. Further, the higher mean of Majha region indicated that students of this region had significantly higher Family Prestige value as compared to the students of Malwa region. The students belonging to Majha region scored significantly higher than those of Malwa and Doaba regions with regard to Family
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Prestige value i.e. they have greater respect for the conservative outlook as enshrined in the traditional institution of family.
In Table 5.1.1the higher mean of Doaba region for Health value, indicated that students of this region had significantly higher Health value as compared to those of Majha region. Similarly, the higher mean of Doaba region indicated that students of this region had significantly higher Health value as compared to those of Malwa region. Further, the higher mean of Majha region indicated that students of this region had higher Health value as compared to the students of Malwa region. The students belonging to Doaba region scored significantly higher than those of Majha and Malwa regions with regard to Health value i.e. give more consideration to good physical health as compared to the students of other two regions.
On the basis of above findings, it can be stated that hypothesis no.1, i.e. “there will be no significant difference in the personal values of senior secondary school students of three cultural regions of Punjab” stands rejected to a great extent.The findings of the present study are in consonance with the findings of(Beg, 1966);(Gupta,1989);(Sibia,1990) and (Grewal,1996)who reported that regional and cultural differences influence the values of the adolescents. However,(Dwivedi,1979) has found no effect of cultural background on the values.
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Table 5.2: Summary of one-way ANOVA for all the dimensions of School Environment
School Environment Source of Sum of df Mean F- Level of Variation Squares Square value significance SS MS Creative Stimulation Between 5094.776 2 2547.388 19.873 0.01 Groups 114977.8 897 128.180 Within 120072.6 899 Groups Total Cognitive Between 1363.802 2 681.901 15 0.01 Encouragement Groups 40776.46 897 45.459 Within 42140.26 899 Groups Total Permissiveness Between 240.629 2 120.314 2.073 Not Significant Groups 897 52061.15 58.039 Within 899 Groups 52301.78 Total
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Acceptance Between 178.042 2 89.021 3.366 0.05 Groups 897 23726.5 26.451 Within 899 Groups 23904.55 Total Rejection Between 1490.229 2 745.114 19.831 0.01 Groups 897 33703.37 37.573 Within 899 Groups 35193.6 Total Control Between 264.616 2 132.308 3.603 0.05 Groups 897 32937.31 36.719 Within 899 Groups 33201.93 Total The insignificant F-value in Table 5.2 showed no significant differences in the Permissiveness dimension of school environment of senior secondary schools as perceived by the students of the three cultural regions of Punjab. The significant F-values showed significant differences in the Creative Stimulation, Cognitive Encouragement, Acceptance, Rejection and Control dimensions of school environment of senior secondary schools as perceived by the students of the three cultural regions of Punjab. Since F-values were found to be significant, so it was followed by t-test.
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Table 5.2.1: Shows the mean differentials in School Environment of students of three cultural regions of Punjab
School Groups N Mean SD t-value Level of Environment Significance Creative Doaba- 300 51.65 12.08 4.219 0.01 Stimulation Majha 300 55.49 10.13 Doaba- 300 51.65 12.08 1.936 Not significant Malwa 300 49.77 11.66 Majha- 300 55.49 10.13 6.049 0.01 Malwa 300 49.77 11.66 Cognitive Doaba- 300 31.29 7.27 1.866 Not significant Encouragement Majha 300 32.24 4.99 Doaba- 300 31.29 7.27 3.286 0.01 Malwa 300 29.28 7.66 Majha- 300 32.24 4.99 5.599 0.01 Malwa 300 29.28 7.66 Permissiveness Doaba- 300 26.26 7.86 1.928 Not Significant Majha 300 27.41 6.75 Doaba- 300 26.26 7.86 1.574 Not Significant Malwa 300 27.29 8.17
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Majha- 300 27.4127.29 6.75 8.17 0.202 Not Significant Malwa 300 Acceptance Doaba- 300 19.94 5.32 2.528 0.05 Majha 300 20.99 4.84 Doaba- 300 19.94 5.32 1.799 Not Significant Malwa 300 20.72 5.25 Majha- 300 20.99 4.84 0.663 Not Significant Malwa 300 20.72 5.25 Rejection Doaba- 300 16.94 6.5 2.524 0.05 Majha 300 15.7 5.53 Doaba- 300 16.94 6.5 3.606 0.01 Malwa 300 18.83 6.32 Majha- 300 15.7 5.53 6.456 0.01 Malwa 300 18.83 6.32 Control Doaba- 300 26.4326.35 5.614.34 0.187 Not Significant Majha 300 Doaba- 300 26.4325.24 5.617.73 2.151 0.05 Malwa 300 Majha- 300 26.3525.24 4.347.73 2.168 0.05 Malwa 300
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In the Table 5.2.1,the insignificant t-values indicated no significant differences in the mean scores of Permissiveness dimension of school environment (i.e. a school climate where students are provided opportunities to express their views freely) as perceived by the students of Doaba, Majha and Malwa regions. This suggested that the schools of three cultural regions are similar with regard to Permissiveness dimension.
In the Table 5.2.1, the significant t-values indicated significant differences in the mean scores of Creative Stimulation, Cognitive Encouragement, Acceptance, Rejection and Control dimensions of school environment as perceived by the students of Doaba, Majha and Malwa regions.
In the Table 5.2.1the higher mean score of Majha region indicated that schools of this region provide significantly higher Creative Stimulation as compared to those of Doaba region. While the insignificant t-value indicated no significant difference in the Creative Stimulation dimension of school environment as perceived by the students of Doaba and Malwa regions. Further, the higher mean score of Majha region indicated that the schools of this region provide significantly higher Creative Stimulation as compared to those of Malwa region. The schools belonging to Majha region scored significantly more than those of Doaba and Malwa regions with regard to Creative Stimulation (i.e. the teachers in the schools provide more opportunities to stimulate creative thinking in the students).
In the Table 5.2.1 the insignificant t-valueindicated no significant difference in Cognitive Encouragementdimension of school environment as perceived by students of Doaba and Majharegions. Further, the higher mean scores of Doaba region indicated that schools of this region provide significantly higher Cognitive Encouragement (i.e. the teachers in the schools provide more encouragement to
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stimulate cognitive development of students) as compared to the schools of Malwa region. Similarly, the higher mean score of Majha region indicated that schools of Majha region provided significantly higher Cognitive Encouragement as compared to the schools of Malwa region.
In the Table 5.2.1 the higher mean score of Majha region indicated that students of schools of this region feel significantly higher Acceptance (i.e. the teachers of this region give more recognition to the individuality of the child) as compared to those of Doaba region.While the insignificant t-values indicated no significant difference inAcceptance dimension of school environment as perceived by students of Doaba and Malwa and Majha and Malwa regions respectively.
In the Table 5.2.1 the higher mean scores of Doaba region, indicated that students of schools of this region feel significantly more rejected as compared to those of Majha region. Similarly, the higher mean scores of Malwa region indicated that students of schools of this region feel significantly more rejected as compared those of Doaba region. Further, the higher mean scores of Malwa region indicated that the students of schools of this region feel significantly more rejection (i.e. the teachers do not accord recognition to student’s right to deviate and act freely) as compared to those of Majha region. The schools of Malwa region scored significantly more in Rejection as compared to those of Doaba and Majha regions.
In the Table 5.2.1 the insignificant t-value indicated no significant difference in Control dimension of school environment as perceived by the studentsDoaba and Majha regions.Further, the higher mean scores of Doaba region, indicated that the schools of this region impose significantly higher Control (i.e. impose more restrictions on students in order to discipline them) as compared to the schools of Malwa region. Similarly, the higher mean scores of Majha region
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indicated that the schools of this region impose significantly higher Control as compared to the schools of Malwa region.
On the basis of above findings, it can be stated that hypothesis no.2, i.e. “there will be no significant difference in the school environment of senior secondary schools of three cultural regions of Punjab” stands rejected to a great extent.The findings of the present study are supported by (Gandhi and Meenakshisundaram, 2001) and(Kumari and Yadav,2005) who found that the school environment of students differ significantly in terms of type of school and learning experiences.
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Table 5.3: Shows the mean differentials in the personal values of senior secondary school students with Low and High scores in the different dimensions of School Environment namely, Creative Stimulation, Cognitive Encouragement, Permissiveness, Acceptance, Rejection and Control Personal Values Religio Soci Democ Aesth Econo Knowl Hedoni Powe Family Health us al ratic etic mic edge stic r Prestige Value
Value Valu Value Value Value Value Value Valu Value School Environment e e Creative Low Me 13.07 12.92 14.84 11.45 10.89 12.7 10.49 9.19 13.17 9.61 Stimulation Creative an Stimulati SD 3.34 3.57 3.96 2.64 3.69 3.02 2.8 3.3 3 3.25 on High Me 12.88 13.64 15.49 11.26 10.7 12.88 10.11 8.76 12.8 9.74 Creative an Stimulati SD 3.07 3.31 3.64 2.66 3.48 3.01 2.72 3.36 3.03 3.23 on t-value 0.915 3.149 2.559* 1.081 0.79 0.873 2.079* 1.952 1.878 0.607 ** Cognitive Low Me 12.83 13.05 15.04 11.38 11.22 12.85 10.33 9.18 12.89 9.6 Cognitive an Encourage Encourag SD 3.39 3.63 3.95 2.73 3.63 3.07 2.81 3.31 2.99 3.2 ment ement High Me 13.12 13.5 15.29 11.33 10.37 12.73 10.27 8.77 13.08 9.75 Cognitive an Encourag SD 3 3.27 3.68 2.57 3.5 2.96 2.72 3.35 3.05 3.28 ement t-value 1.373 1.96* 0.996 0.251 3.566** 0.586 0.313 1.852 0.927 0.689 Permissive Low Me 12.93 13.05 15.02 11.41 10.97 12.89 10.45 9.19 12.87 9.56 ness an Permissiv SD 3.26 3.41 3.98 2.73 3.65 2.96 2.74 3.32 3.05 3.23
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eness High Me 13.02 13.5 15.32 11.3 10.62 12.7 10.15 8.76 13.1 9.79 an Permissiv SD 3.16 3.49 3.64 2.57 3.52 3.07 2.78 3.34 2.99 3.25 eness t-value 0.416 1.96* 1.188 0.628 1.479 0.962 1.642 1.952 1.148 1.06 Acceptance Low Me 12.93 13.21 15.41 11.34 10.37 12.91 10.24 9 13.09 9.8 Acceptanc an e SD 3.19 3.53 4.01 2.64 3.72 3 2.71 3.3 3.1 3.4 High Me 13.02 13.34 15.19 11.37 10.86 12.67 10.36 8.95 12.88 9.56 Acceptanc an e SD 3.23 3.39 3.61 2.67 3.45 3.03 2.82 3.37 2.94 3.06 t-value 0.416 0.569 0.21 0.126 0.53 1.183 0.651 0.21 1.081 1.081 Rejection Low Me 13.21 13.37 15.28 11.3 10.67 12.75 10.09 8.9 13.12 9.69 Rejection an SD 3.17 3.55 3.8 2.6 3.52 3.07 2.62 3.34 2.89 3.37 High Me 12.73 13.19 15.06 11.42 10.92 12.48 10.51 9.05 12.85 9.67 Rejection an SD 3.23 3.37 3.83 2.71 3.64 2.96 2.89 3.33 3.15 3.11 t-value 2.25* 0.8 0.873 0.678 1.051 0.453 2.273 0.69 1.302 0.072 Control Low Me 12.97 13.1 15.04 11.44 11.04 12.78 10.28 9.18 12.84 9.65 Control an SD 3.21 3.62 3.86 2.67 3.6 2.96 2.73 3.48 3.08 3.34 High Me 12.98 13.46 15.3 11.27 10.56 12.8 10.32 8.77 13.13 9.71 Control an SD 3.2 3.28 3.78 2.63 3.56 3.08 2.8 3.18 2.96 3.14 t-value 0.042 1.573 1.031 0.93 2.021* 0.122 0.241 1.832 1.479 0.278
** Denotes significant at 0.01 level, * Denotes significant at 0.05 level
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In the above Table 5.3, the insignificant t-values showedno significant differences in the Religious, Aesthetic, Economic, Knowledge, Power, Family Prestige and Health values of students with low and high scores in Creative Stimulation. The significant t-values showed significant differences in the Social, Democratic and Hedonistic values of students with low and high scores in Creative Stimulation. The higher mean scores in Social and Democratic values of students with high scores in Creative Stimulation indicated that they had significantly higher Social and Democratic values than those with low scores in Creative Stimulation. The higher mean scores in Hedonistic value of students with low scores in Creative Stimulation indicated that they had significantly higher Hedonistic value than those with high scores in Creative Stimulation.
In the Table 5.3 the insignificant t-values showed no significant differences in the Religious, Democratic, Aesthetic, Knowledge, Hedonistic, Power, Family Prestige and Health values of students with low and high scores in Cognitive Encouragement. The significant t- values showed significant differences in the Social and Economic values of students with low and high scores in Cognitive Encouragement. The higher mean scores in Economic value of students with low scores in Cognitive Encouragement indicated that they had significantly higher Economic value as compared to those with high scores in Cognitive Encouragement. The higher mean scores in Social value of students with high scores in Cognitive Encouragement indicated that they had significantly higher Social value than those with low scores in Cognitive Encouragement.
In the Table 5.3 the insignificant t-values showed no significant differences in the Religious, Democratic, Aesthetic, Economic, Knowledge, Hedonistic, Power, Family Prestige and Health values of students with low and high scores in Permissiveness. The significant t- value showed significant differences in the Social value of the students
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with low and high scores in Permissiveness. The higher mean scores in Social value of students with high scores in Permissiveness showed that they had significantly higher Social value as compared to those with low scores in Permissiveness.
In the Table 5.3 the insignificant t-values showedno significant differences in the mean scores of Religious, Social, Democratic, Aesthetic, Economic, Knowledge, Hedonistic, Power, Family Prestige and Health values of students with low and high scores in Acceptance. This suggested that these values were equally possessed by the students with low and high scores in Acceptance.
In the Table 5.3 the insignificant t-values showed no significant differences in the Social, Democratic, Aesthetic, Economic, Knowledge, Power, Family Prestige and Health values of students with low and high scores in Rejection. The significant t-values showed significant differences in the Religious and Hedonistic values of the students with low and high scores in Rejection. The higher mean scores in Religious value of students with low scores in Rejection indicated that they had significantly higher Religious value as compared to those with high scores in Rejection. The higher mean scores in Hedonistic value of students with high scores in Rejection showed that they had significantly higher Hedonistic value as compared to those with low scores in Rejection.
In the Table 5.3 the insignificant t-values showed no significant differences in the Religious, Social, Democratic, Aesthetic, Knowledge, Family Prestige, Hedonistic, Power and Health values of students with low and high scores in Control. The significant t-value showed significant differences in the Economic value of the students with low and high scores in Control. The higher mean scores in Economic value of students with low scores in Control indicated that they had
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significantly higher Economic value as compared to those with high scores in Control.
On the basis of above findings, it can be stated that hypothesis no.3, i.e. “there will be no significant difference in the personal values of senior secondary school students with regard to the school environment” stands rejected to a great extent.
The findings of the present study are consonance with the studies of(Makota, 2010); (Gupta, 2002); (Pradhan, 1992); (Sharma and Shukla, 1999); (Sharma, 1997)and(Sambhi, 1989) and who reported that school climate influences the values of the students.
6 Conclusions of the Study
Comparison of personal values of senior secondary school students of three cultural regions of Punjab.
• The senior secondary school students of three cultural regions of Punjab i.e. Doaba, Majha and Malwa did not differ significantly with respect to Religious, Social, Hedonistic and Power values but they differed significantly with respect to Democratic, Aesthetic, Economic, Knowledge, Family Prestige and Health values.
• The students belonging to Doaba region had higher Knowledge and Health values as compared to the students belonging to Majha and Malwa regions. Also, the students belonging to Doaba region had higher Aesthetic and Economic values as compared to the students of Majha region. Further, the students belonging to Majha region had higher Family Prestige value as compared to the students belonging to Doaba and Malwa regions. In addition, the students belonging to Majha region had higher Democratic value as compared to the students of Doaba region. Also, the students of Majha region had higher Health value as compared to the students of Malwa region. The students of Malwa region had higher Democratic value than the students of Doaba
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region. Also, the students of Malwa region had higher Aesthetic and Economic values as compared to the students of Majha region.
Comparison of school environment of senior secondary schools of three cultural regions of Punjab.
• The school environment of senior secondary schools as perceived by the students of three cultural regions of Punjab i.e. Doaba, Majha and Malwa did not differ significantly with respect to Permissiveness dimension of School environment but it differed significantly with respect to Creative Stimulation, Cognitive Encouragement, Acceptance, Rejection and Control dimensions.
• The schools belonging to Doaba region provide higher Cognitive Encouragement and impose greater Control on the students as compared to those of Malwa regions. Also, the students studying in schools of Doaba region receive more Rejection in their schools as compared to those of Majha region.The schools belonging to Majha region provide higher Creative Stimulation, to the students as compared to the schools of Doaba and Malwa regions. In addition, the schools belonging to Majha region provide higher Cognitive Encouragement and impose greater Control on the students as compared to those of Malwa region. Further, the schools of Majha region provide higher Acceptance to their students as compared to the students of Doaba region. On the other hand, the students studying in schools belonging to Malwa region receive more Rejection in their schools as compared to the other two regions i.e. Doaba and Majha.
Comparison of personal values of senior secondary school students with regard to school environment.
The Religious, Aesthetic, Economic, Knowledge, Family Prestige and Health values of students with low scores in Creative Stimulation did not differ significantly from those with high scores
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in Creative Stimulation but these students differed significantly with respect to Social, Democratic and Hedonistic values.
The students with low scores in Creative Stimulation possess higher Hedonistic value than those with high scores in Creative Stimulation, while the students with high scores in Creative Stimulation possess higher Social and Democratic values than those with low scores in Creative Stimulation.
The Religious, Democratic, Aesthetic, Knowledge, Hedonistic, Power, Family Prestige and Health values of students with low scores in Cognitive Encouragement did not differ significantly from those with high scores in Cognitive Encouragement but these students differed significantly with respect to Social and Economic values.
The students with low scores in Cognitive Encouragement possess higher Economic value than those with high scores in Cognitive Encouragement, while the students with high scores in Cognitive Encouragement possess higher Social value than those with low scores in Cognitive Encouragement.
The Religious, Democratic, Aesthetic, Economic, Knowledge, Hedonistic, Power, Family Prestige and Health values of students with low scores in Permissiveness did not differ significantly from those with high scores in Permissiveness but these students differed significantly with respect to Social value.
The students with high scores in Permissiveness possess higher Social value as compared to those with low scores in Permissiveness.
The Religious, Social, Democratic, Aesthetic, Economic, Knowledge, Hedonistic, Power, Family Prestige and Health values of the students with low scores in Acceptance did not differ significantly
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from those with high scores in Acceptance. This suggests that these values were equally possessed by the students with low and high scores in Acceptance.
The Social, Democratic, Aesthetic, Economic, Knowledge, Power, Family Prestige and Health values of students with low scores in Rejection did not differ significantly from those with high scores in Rejection but these students differed significantly with respect to Religious and Hedonistic values.
The students with low scores in Rejection possess higher Religious value than those with high scores in Rejection, while the students with high scores in Rejection possess higher Hedonistic value as compared to the students with low scores in Rejection.
The Religious, Social, Democratic, Aesthetic, Knowledge, Hedonistic, Power, Family Prestige and Health values students with low scores in Control did not differ significantly from those with high scores in Control but these students differed with respect to Economic value.
The students studying in schools with low scores in Control have higher Economic value as compared to those with high scores in Control.
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SEBI AND THE CLAUSE 49 FOR THE CORPORATE GOVERNANCE AND INVESTOR SAFETY
Savita Rajendra Giri Assistant Professor Dept of law S.S. Lahoti College Kalaburagi Abstract
The world is in the verse of the competition and comparison in the all the sectors, it is due to the renaissance and reformation and the new innovation and intuition of the mind of the human beings in general particularly the state of the ruling governance of the nation. The first Committee submitted its report in early 2000, and the second three years later. These two committees have been instrumental in bringing about far reaching changes in corporate governance in India through the formulation of Clause 49 of Listing Agreements. It was stated in press release of SEBI 2000 that “Corporate Governance is an important instrument of investor protection, and it is therefore a priority on SEBI’s agenda. The development of capital market is dependent on good corporate governance without which investors do not repose the confidence in the companies. It is imperative for the companies to maximize the shareholders value and wealth. . The schedule of implementation of the new clause 49 was as follows: By all entities seeking listing for the first time, at the time of seeking in principle approval for such listing. For existing listed entities which were required to comply with clause 49 which is being revised. The key mandatory features of Clause 49 regulations deal with the (i) composition of the board of directors; (ii) the composition and functioning of the audit committee; (iii) governance and disclosures regarding subsidiary companies; (iv) disclosures by the company; (vi) CEO/CFO certification of financial results; (vi) reporting on corporate
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governance as part of the annual report; and (vii) certification of compliance of a company with the provisions of Clause 49.
Key words: Corporate, Investor Safety, Committee, Board and Clause
Introduction
The world is in the verse of the competition and comparison in the all the sectors, it is due to the renaissance and reformation and the new innovation and intuition of the mind of the human beings in general particularly the state of the ruling governance of the nation. The Securities and Exchanges Board of India has introduced a rigorous regulatory regime to ensure fairness, transparency and good practice. For example, for greater transparency, the SEBI has mandated disclosure of all transactions where the total quantity of shares is more than 0.5% of the equity of the company. Brokers must disclose to the Stock Exchange, immediately after trade execution, the name of the client and other trade details, and the Exchange must then disseminate this information to the general public on the same day. The new environment of improved transparency, fairness, and efficient regulation led BSE to also become a transparent electronic limit order book market in 1996, with an efficient trading system similar to the NSE. Equity and equity derivatives trading in India has skyrocketed to record levels over the last ten years.
The first Committee submitted its report in early 2000, and the second three years later. These two committees have been instrumental in bringing about far reaching changes in corporate governance in India through the formulation of Clause 49 of Listing Agreements. The SEBI implemented the recommendations of the Birla Committee through the enactment of Clause 49 of the Listing Agreements. Clause 49 may well be viewed as a milestone in the evolution of corporate governance practices in India. It is similar in spirit and in scope to the Sarbanes- Oxley measures in the United States. The requirements of Clause 49
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were applied in the first instance to the companies in the BSE 200 and S&P C&X NIFTY stock indices, and all newly listed companies, on March 31, 2001.
Committee for Corporate Governance and Investor Safety:
It was stated in press release of SEBI 2000 that “Corporate Governance is an important instrument of investor protection, and it is therefore a priority on SEBI’s agenda. The development of capital market is dependent on good corporate governance without which investors do not repose the confidence in the companies. It is imperative for the companies to maximize the shareholders value and wealth. Hence, to further improve the level of corporate governance, need was felt for a comprehensive approach at this stage of development of capital market, to accelerate the adoption of globally acceptable practices of corporate governance. This would ensure that the Indian investors are in no way less informed and protected as compared to their counterparts in the best development capital market.
The recommendations of the Kumar manglam Birla Committee on Corporate Governance have been implemented by the SEBI through the listing agreement. By its circular SEBI/ CFD/ DIL/ CG/1/ 2004/12/10, dated 29th October, 2004 SEBI notified the revised clause 49 of the listing agreement. All stock exchanges have been directed to immediately replace the existing clause 49 of the listing agreement by the revised clause 49. The schedule of implementation of the new clause 49 was as follows:
1. By all entities seeking listing for the first time, at the time of seeking in principle approval for such listing.
2. For existing listed entities which were required to comply with clause 49 which is being revised i.e those having a paid up share capital of Rs. 3 crore and above or net worth of Rs. 25 crores or more at any time in the history of the company by April 1, 2005.
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The SEBI Board in its meeting held on January 25, 2000 considered the recommendation of the Committee and decided to make the amendments to the listing agreement in pursuance of the decision of the Board, it is advised that a new clause, namely clause 49, be incorporate in the listing agreement.
Various circulars and master circular for Corporate Governance on Investor Safety:
The SEBI vide various circulars instructed to amend the listing agreement clause 49 for corporate governance. Thereafter SEBI issued various circular dated 21-02-2000, 9-03-2000, 12- 09 2000, 22-01-2001, 16-03-2001, 31-12-2001, circular no. SEBI/MRD/SE/31/2003/26/08 dated 26 -08- 2003, SEBI/CFD/DIL/CG/1/2004/12/10 dated 29 -10-2004 (This was the master circular which has superseded all earlier circular), SEBI/CFD/DIL/CG/1/2006/13/1 dated 13-01- 2006, and circular no. SEBI/CFD/DIL/CG/2/2008/23/10 dated 23-10- 2008, thus the consolidated position of clause 49 of the listing agreement is as under :
Clauses 49 of Listing Agreement Regarding Corporate Governance and Investor Safety:
The company agrees to comply with the following provisions:
Board of Directors
Composition of Board
I. The Board of directors of the company shall have an optimum combination of executive and non-executive directors with not less than fifty percent of the board of directors comprising of non-executive directors.
II. Where the Chairman of the Board is a non-executive director, at least one-third of the Board should comprise of independent directors and in case he is an executive director, at least half of the Board should comprise of independent directors. Provided
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that where the nonexecutive Chairman is a promoter of the company or is related to any promoter or person occupying management positions at the Board level or at one level below the Board, at least one-half of the Board of the company shall consist of independent directors.
III. The expression ‘independent director’ shall mean a non- executive director of the company who:
a. apart from receiving director’s remuneration, does not have any material pecuniary relationships or transactions with the company, its promoters, its directors, its senior management or its holding company, its subsidiaries and associates which may affect independence of the director;
b. is not related to promoters or persons occupying management positions at the board level or at one level below the board;
c. has not been an executive of the company in the immediately preceding three financial years;
d. is not a partner or an executive or was not partner or an executive during the preceding three years, of any of the following:
I. the statutory audit firm or the internal audit firm that is associatedwith the company, and
II. the legal firm(s) and consulting firm(s) that have a materialassociation with the company.
e. is not a material supplier, service provider or customer or a lessor or lessee of the company, which may affect independence of the director.
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f. is not a substantial shareholder of the company i.e. owning two percent or more of the block of voting shares.
g. Is not less than 21 years of age.
iv. Nominee directors appointed by an institution, which has invested in or vent to the company shall be deemed to be independent directors.
Non executive directors’ compensation and disclosures
All fees/compensation, if any paid to non-executive directors, including independent directors, shall be fixed by the Board of Directors and shall require previous approval of shareholders in general meeting. The shareholders’ resolution shall specify the limits for the maximum number of stock options that can be granted to nonexecutive directors, including independent directors, in any financial year and in aggregate. The requirement of obtaining prior approval of shareholders in general meeting shall not apply to payment of sitting fees to non- executive directors, if made within the limits prescribed under the Companies Act, 1956 for payment of sitting fees without approval of the Central Government. Limit for commission to Non executive Directors- The limit on remuneration payable to directors other than managing director and whole time directors within the overall limit of 11% is as follows: 1% of the net profit if the company has one or more managing director or whole time director; and (ii) 3% if the company has no managing director or whole time director.(section 304 of companies act)
Sitting Fees- A director who is not a managing or whole time director may be paid fee for attending meetings of the Board or of the committees of directors. These fees are outside the purview of the ceiling laid down in section 198 and 309 of the companies act. No approval of the Central Government under that section will be necessary to pay sitting fees up to the prescribed limit. Directors traveling and incidental expenses- Where the articles contain a
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provision identical with art 65 of Table A in Schedule I to the Companies Act, the directors may be paid all traveling, hotel or other expenses properly incurred by them in attending and returning from meetings of the Board or a committee or general meetings of the company or in connection with the business of the company. These expenses are not remuneration or fees and hence do not require approval of the shareholders.
Other provisions as to Board and Committees
i. The board shall meet at least four times a year, with a maximum time gap of four months between any two meetings. The minimum information to be made available to the board is given in Annexure– I A.
ii. A director shall not be a member in more than 10 committees or act as Chairman of more than five committees across all companies in which he is a director. Furthermore it should be a mandatory annual requirement for every director to inform the company about the committee positions he occupies in other companies and notify changes as and when they take place.
iii. The Board shall periodically review compliance reports of all laws applicable to the company, prepared by the company as well as steps taken by the company to rectify instances of non compliances.
iv. An independent director who resigns or is removed from the Board of the Company shall be replaced by a new independent director within a period of not more than 180 days from the day of such resignation or removal, as the case may be.
However, where the company fulfils the requirement of independent directors in its Board even without filling the vacancy created by such resignation or removal, as the case may be, the
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requirement of replacement by a new independent director within the period of 180 days shall not apply.
Code of Conduct
i. The Board shall lay down a code of conduct for all Board members and senior management of the company. The code of conduct shall be posted on the website of the company.
ii. All Board members and senior management personnel shall affirm compliance with the code on an annual basis. The Annual Report of the company shall contain a declaration to this effect signed by the CEO.
Audit Committee- Companies have to comply with the requirements of this sub clause besides the provisions of section 292 A of the companies act.
Qualified and Independent Audit Committee.
A qualified and independent audit committee shall be set up, giving the terms of reference subject to the following:
i. The audit committee shall have minimum three directors as members. Two-thirds of the members of audit committee shall be independent directors.
ii. All members of audit committee shall be financially literate and at least one member shall have accounting or related financial management expertise.
iii. The Chairman of the Audit Committee shall be an independent director;
iv. The Chairman of the Audit Committee shall be present at Annual General Meeting to answer shareholder queries;
v. The audit committee may invite such of the executives, as it considers appropriate (and particularly the head of the finance
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function) to be present at the meetings of the committee, but on occasions it may also meet without the presence of any executives of the company. The finance director, head of internal audit and a representative of the statutory auditor may be present as invitees for the meetings of the audit committee;
vi. The Company Secretary shall act as the secretary to the committee.
Meeting of Audit Committee
The audit committee should meet at least four times in a year and not more than four months shall elapse between two meetings. The quorum shall be either two members or one third of the members of the audit committee whichever is greater, but there should be a minimum of two independent members present.
Powers of Audit Committee
The audit committee shall have powers, which should include the following:
1. To investigate any activity within its terms of reference.
2. To seek information from any employee.
3. To obtain outside legal or other professional advice.
4. To secure attendance of outsiders with relevant expertise, if it considers necessary.
Role of Audit Committee- As the audit committee acts as the bridge between the board, the statutory auditors and internal auditors, the role should include the following (source- Recommendations of Kumar Mangalam Birla Committee) The role of the audit committee shall include the following:
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Oversight of the company’s financial reporting process and the disclosure of its financial information to ensure that the financial statement is correct, sufficient and credible.
Recommending to the Board, the appointment, re-appointment and, if required, the replacement or removal of the statutory auditor and the fixation of audit fees.
Approval of payment to statutory auditors for any other services rendered by the statutory auditors.
Reviewing, with the management, the annual financial statements before submission to the board for approval, with particular reference to:
a) Matters required to be included in the Director’s Responsibility Statement to be included in the Board’s report in terms of clause (2AA) of section 217 of the Companies Act, 1956
b) Changes, if any, in accounting policies and practices and reasons for the same.
c) Major accounting entries involving estimates based on the exercise of judgment by management.
d) Significant adjustments made in the financial statements arising out of audit findings.
e) Compliance with listing and other legal requirements relating to financial statements.
f) Disclosure of any related party transactions.
g) Qualifications in the draft audit report.
Reviewing, with the management, the quarterly financial statements before submission to the board for approval. 5A. Reviewing, with the management, the statement of uses /
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application of funds raised through an issue (public issue, rights issue, preferential issue, etc.), the statement of funds utilized for purposes other than those stated in the offer document/prospectus/notice and the report submitted by the monitoring agency monitoring the utilization of proceeds of a public or rights issue, and making appropriate recommendations to the Board to take up steps in this matter.
Reviewing, with the management, performance of statutory and internal auditors, and adequacy of the internal control systems.
Reviewing the adequacy of internal audit function, if any, including the structure of the internal audit department, staffing and seniority of the official heading the department, reporting structure coverage and frequency of internal audit.
Discussion with internal auditors any significant findings and follow up there on.
Reviewing the findings of any internal investigations by the internal auditors into matters where there is suspected fraud or irregularity or a failure of internal control systems of a material nature and reporting the matter to the board.
Discussion with statutory auditors before the audit commences, about the nature and scope of audit as well as post-audit discussion to ascertain any area of concern.
To look into the reasons for substantial defaults in the payment to the depositors, debenture holders, shareholders (in case of non- payment of declared dividends) and creditors.
To review the functioning of the Whistle Blower mechanism, in case the same is existing.12A. Approval of appointment of CFO (i.e., the whole-time Finance Director or any other person heading the
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finance function or discharging that function) after assessing the qualifications, experience & background, etc. of the candidate.
Carrying out any other function as is mentioned in the terms of reference of the Audit Committee.
Review of information by Audit Committee
The Audit Committee shall mandatorily review the following information:
Management discussion and analysis of financial condition and results of operations;
Statement of significant related party transactions (as defined by the audit committee), submitted by management;
Management letters / letters of internal control weaknesses issued by the statutory auditors.
Internal audit reports relating to internal control weaknesses; and
The appointment, removal and terms of remuneration of the Chief internal auditor shall be subject to review by the Audit Committee.
Subsidiary Companies
At least one independent director on the Board of Directors of the holding company shall be a director on the Board of Directors of a material non listed Indian subsidiary company.
The Audit Committee of the listed holding company shall also review the financial statements, in particular, the investments made by the unlisted subsidiary company.
The minutes of the Board meetings of the unlisted subsidiary company shall be placed at the Board meeting of the listed holding company. The management should periodically bring to the attention of the Board of Directors of the listed holding company, a
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statement of all significant transactions and arrangements entered into by the unlisted subsidiary company.
Disclosures
Basis of related party transactions
A statement in summary form of transactions with related parties in the ordinary course of business shall be placed periodically before the audit committee.
Details of material individual transactions with related parties, which are not in the normal course of business, shall be placed before the audit committee.
Details of material individual transactions with related parties or others, which are not on an arm’s length basis should be placed before the audit committee, together with Management’s justification for the same.
Disclosure of Accounting Treatment
Where in the preparation of financial statements, a treatment different from that prescribed in an Accounting Standard has been followed, the fact shall be disclosed in the financial statements, together with the management’s explanation as to why it believes such alternative treatment is more representative of the true and fair view of the underlying business transaction in the Corporate Governance Report.
Board Disclosures – Risk management
The company shall lay down procedures to inform Board members about the risk assessment and minimization procedures. These procedures shall be periodically reviewed to ensure that executive management controls risk through means of a properly
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defined framework. Proceeds from public issues, rights issues, preferential issues etc.
When money is raised through an issue (public issues, rights issues, preferential issues etc.), it shall disclose to the Audit Committee, the uses / applications of funds by major category (capital expenditure, sales and marketing, working capital, etc), on a quarterly basis as a part of their quarterly declaration of financial results. Further, on an annual basis, the company shall prepare a statement of funds utilized for purposes other than those stated in the offer
Document/prospectus/notice and place it before the audit committee.
Such disclosure shall be made only till such time that the full money raised through the issue has been fully spent. This statement shall be certified by the statutory auditors of the company. Furthermore, where the company has appointed a monitoring agency to monitor the utilization of proceeds of a public or rights issue, it shall place before the Audit Committee the monitoring report of such agency, upon receipt, without any delay. The audit committee shall make appropriate recommendations to the Board to take up steps in this matter.
Remuneration of Directors
All pecuniary relationship or transactions of the non-executive director’s vis-à-vis the company shall be disclosed in the Annual Report.
Further the following disclosures on the remuneration of directors shall be made in the section on the corporate governance of the Annual Report:
All elements of remuneration package of individual directors summarized under major groups, such as salary, benefits, bonuses, stock options, pension etc.
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Details of fixed component and performance linked incentives, along with the performance criteria.
Service contracts, notice period, severance fees.
Stock option details, if any – and whether issued at a discount as well as the period over which accrued and over which exercisable.
The company shall publish its criteria of making payments to non- executive directors in its annual report. Alternatively, this may be put up on the company’s website and reference drawn thereto in the annual report.
The company shall disclose the number of shares and convertible instruments held by non- executive directors in the annual report.
Non-executive directors shall be required to disclose their shareholding (both own or held by / for other persons on a beneficial basis) in the listed company in which they are proposed to be appointed as directors, prior to their appointment. These details should be disclosed in the notice to the general meeting called for appointment of such director.
Management
As part of the directors’ report or as an addition thereto, a Management Discussion and Analysis report should form part of the Annual Report to the shareholders. This management Discussion & Analysis should include discussion on the following matters within the limits set by the company’s competitive position:
Industry structure and developments.
Opportunities and Threats.
Segment–wise or product-wise performance.
Outlook
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Risks and concerns.
Internal control systems and their adequacy
Discussion on financial performance with respect to operational performance.
Material developments in Human Resources / Industrial Relations front, including number of people employed.
Senior management shall make disclosures to the board relating to all material financial and commercial transactions, where they have personal interest that may have a potential conflict with the interest of the company at large (for e.g. dealing in company shares, commercial dealings with bodies, which have shareholding of management and their relatives etc.)
Shareholders
In case of the appointment of a new director or re-appointment of a director the shareholders must be provided with the following information:
A brief resume of the director;
Nature of his expertise in specific functional areas;
Names of companies in which the person also holds the directorship and the membership of Committees of the Board; and
Shareholding of non-executive directors as stated in Clause 49 (IV) (E) (v) above.
Disclosure of relationships between directors inter-se shall be made in the Annual Report, notice of appointment of a director, prospectus and letter of offer for issuances and any related filings made to the stock exchanges where the company is listed.
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Quarterly results and presentations made by the company to analysts shall be put on company’s web-site, or shall be sent in such a form so as to enable the stock exchange on which the company is listed to put it on its own web-site.
A board committee under the chairmanship of a non-executive director shall be formed to specifically look into the redressal of shareholder and investors complaints like transfer of shares, non-receipt of balance sheet, non-receipt of declared dividend etc. This Committee shall be designated as ‘Shareholders/Investors Grievance Committee’.
To expedite the process of share transfers, the Board of the company shall delegate the power of share transfer to an officer or a committee or to the registrar and share transfer agents. The delegated authority shall attend to share transfer formalities at least once in a fortnight.
Conclusion
The key mandatory features of Clause 49 regulations deal with the (i) composition of the board of directors; (ii) the composition and functioning of the audit committee; (iii) governance and disclosures regarding subsidiary companies; (iv) disclosures by the company; (vi) CEO/CFO certification of financial results; (vi) reporting on corporate governance as part of the annual report; and (vii) certification of compliance of a company with the provisions of Clause 49. The composition and proper functioning of the board of directors emerges as the key area of focus for Clause 49. It stipulates that non-executive members should comprise at least half of a board of directors. It defines an “independent” director and requires that independent directors comprise at least half of a board of directors if the chairperson is an executive director and at least a third if the chairperson is a non- executive director. It also lays down rules regarding compensation of
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board members, sets caps on committee memberships and chairmanships, lays down the minimum number and frequency of board meetings, and mandates certain disclosures for board members. Clause 49 pays special attention to the composition and functioning of the audit committee, requiring at least three members on it, with an independent chair and with two-thirds made up of independent directors--and having at least one “financially literate” person serving. The Clause spells out the role and powers of the audit committee and stipulates minimum number and frequency of and the quorum at the committee meetings. With regard to “material” non-listed subsidiary companies (those with turnover/net worth exceeding 20% of a holding company’s turnover/net worth), Clause 49 stipulates that at least one independent director of the holding company must serve on the board of the subsidiary. The audit committee of the holding company should review the subsidiary’s financial statements, particularly its investment plans. The distinction drawn between boards headed by executive and non-executive chairmen and the lower required share of independent directors is special to India—and is also somewhat intriguing, given the prevalence of family-run business groups. The market reaction to the corporate governance improvements sought by Clause 49 seems to have been quite positive.
Reference
1. CFR - Working Paper NO. 08---2002, Corporate Governance in India, R. Chakrabarti , W. Megginson , P. Yadav
2. Omkar Goswami, 2002, “Corporate Governance in India,” Taking Action Against Corruption in Asia and the Pacific (Manila: Asian Development Bank), Chapter 9.
3. Importantly, Narayan Murthy has been the Chair of Infosys, a company that built its success on a widely held ownership structure
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rather than the traditional family-controlled Indian model; and he has led key corporate governance initiatives in India.).
4. SEBI’s press release No. PR 49, dated February 21, 2000.
5. SEBI Circular no. SMDRP/POLICY/CIR-10/2000 , February 21, 2000
6. Inserted vide Circular No. SEBI/ CFD/ DIL/ CG/ 1/20065/13/1, dated 13-1-2006.
7. Section 310 of companies act, 1956
8. Tarun Khanna and Yishay Yafeh, 2005, Business Groups in Emerging Markets: Paragons or Parasites?, Finance Working Paper N° 92/2005, European Corporate Governance Institute.
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