African Cities for the Future Final Report | October 2009 to September 2014
Water & Sanitation for the Urban Poor October 2014
Water & Sanitation for the Urban Poor Capital Tower, 91 Waterloo Road, London, SE1 8RT, United Kingdom tel: +44 (0)203 170 0935 web: www.wsup.com
WSUP has prepared this report in accordance with the terms of their contract agreement, for their sole and specific use. Any other persons who use any information contained herein do so at their own risk. © WSUP 2014 Year 5 ACF Programme Annual Report Water & Sanitation for the Urban Poor
African Cities for the Future Final Report: october 2009 to September 2014 Sponsoring USAID Office: usAID/Washington Agreement Number: ePP-A-00-09-00006-00
Photo credit: Anita Layden. Image caption: school children in Madagascar during latrine commissioning.
This publication was produced for review by the United States Agency for International Development. It was prepared by Ruby Cowling with contributions from Jonathan Douglas and Andy Narracott. The author’s views expressed in this publication do not necessarily reflect the views of the United States Agency for International Development or the United States Government.
ii WSUP - Water & Sanitation for the Urban Poor Year 5 ACF Programme Annual Report Contents 1. Executive Summary ...... 1 2. Summary of ACF Activities and Results ...... 7 2.1 nairobi, Kenya ...... 7 2.1.1 Introduction ...... 7 2.1.2 Key Achievements ...... 8 2.1.3 Year 5 Activities ...... 11 2.2 naivasha, Kenya ...... 13 2.2.1 Introduction ...... 13 2.2.2 Key Achievements ...... 14 2.3 nakuru, Kenya ...... 17 2.3.1 Introduction ...... 17 2.3.2 Activities and Achievements in Year 5 ...... 18 2.4 Kumasi, Ghana ...... 19 2.4.1 Introduction ...... 19 2.4.2 Key Achievements ...... 20 2.4.3 Year 5 Activities ...... 22 2.5 Antananarivo, Madagascar ...... 23 2.5.1 Introduction ...... 23 2.5.2 Key Achievements ...... 24 2.6 Maputo, Mozambique ...... 26 2.6.1 Introduction ...... 26 2.6.2 Key Achievements ...... 27 2.7 Bamako, Mali ...... 29 2.7.1 Introduction ...... 29 2.7.2 Key Achievements ...... 30 3. Lessons Learned ...... 31 3.1 introduction ...... 31 3.2 10 Key Learnings from the ACF Programme ...... 32 3.3 synthesis of Learning Documents ...... 35 4. After ACF: Future Challenges and Opportunities ...... 39 5. Final Fiscal Report ...... 46
WSUP - Water & Sanitation for the Urban Poor iii Year 5 ACF Programme Annual Report Acronyms
ACF African Cities for the Future AdeM Águas da Região de Maputo, Mozambique AWSB Athi Water Services Board (Nairobi) CBO community Based Organisation CMC community Management Committee CMM conselho Municipal Maputo CUA urban Commune of Antananarivo FIPAG fundo de Investamento e Patrimonio do Abastecimento de Agua, Mozambique FSM faecal Sludge Management GWCL Ghana Water Company Ltd IWA international Water Association ISD informal Settlements Department (NCWSC, Nairobi) JIRAMA Jiro sy rano Malagasy, Madagascar KMA Kumasi Municipal Authority KPi Key Performance Indicator LSP Local Service Provider Naivawass naivasha Water and Sewerage Company NAWAssco nakuru Water and Sanitation Services Company NCWSC nairobi City Water and Sewerage Corporation NRW non-revenue water O&M operations & Management POPs Private Operators PPP Public-Private Partnership RVWSB rift Valley Water Services Board (Naivasha and Nakuru) SME small-Medium Enterprise SOMAGEP societe Malienne de Gestion de l’Eau Portable, Mali SOMAPEP societe Malienne de Patrimoine de l’Eau Portable, Mali SPOs standpipe Operators USAID united States Agency for International Development WAsh Water, Sanitation and Hygiene WUA Water User Association WSTF Water Services Trust Fund (Kenya) WSUP Water and Sanitation for the Urban Poor
iv WSUP - Water & Sanitation for the Urban Poor Year 5 ACF Programme Annual Report 1. Executive Summary
Mali Ghana Kenya Mozambique Madagascar WSUP’s ACF programme locations Mechanised borehole: part of the improved water delivery system in Fiapre-Sunyani, Ghana.
ACF aimed to demonstrate approaches of improving water supply and sanitation to the urban poor that are scalable, sustainable and financially viable, and which mobilise additional investment
aunched to support the agencies in increasing access to ACF aimed to demonstrate goals of the Senator Paul improved WASH services for the approaches of improving water Simon Water for the urban poor in six cities: Nairobi supply and sanitation to the urban LPoor Act of 2005, the African and Naivasha (Kenya), Maputo poor that are scalable, sustainable Cities for the Future (ACF) (Mozambique), Antananarivo and financially viable, and which programme was part of USAID/ (Madagascar), Kumasi (Ghana) mobilise additional investment. Washington’s African Urban and Bamako (Mali). An extension At heart, the approach has been to Poor-Improved Water Supply period of two further years of promote cooperative partnerships and Sanitation (AUP-IWS) USAID funding continued the between communities, local Programme. It was initially work in Nairobi, Naivasha, service providers and government, funded for three years, starting in Antananarivo and Kumasi, and demonstrating ways to ensure 2009, for work to test effective and the work extended to a further pro-poor services are sustainable innovative partnerships between Kenyan city, Nakuru, in the final and eventually deliverable at scale communities, civil society, local year. within government programmes. service providers and government
WSUP - Water & Sanitation for the Urban Poor 1 Our five years of work in Nairobi have seen in-depth support for the utility NCWSC, helping to consolidate its informal settlements department
In each of the four previous ACF annual reports, we Nairobi: have detailed the work done in each city, hoping to Our five years of work in Nairobi have seen in-depth illustrate the impact ACF has had in both immediately support for the utility NCWSC, helping to consolidate measurable and more far-reaching ways. Rather than its informal settlements department. It has now a detailed retrospective of all activities, this final adopted pro-poor KPIs, recognising the commercial report comprises a brief summary of the programme’s and wider social benefits of improving services in achievements across each ACF city, bringing out some low-income communities. Work to reduce NRW has detail from the final extension year (Section 2), then been key in this and other ACF cities, and NCWSC draws together some of the important lessons learned now operates a city-wide NRW reduction strategy, (Section 3), and recommendations for the future following a pilot which improved water supply to (Section 4). A final fiscal report forms Section 5. 5,000 customers as a result of a 20% reduction in NRW. Working with NCWSC, ACF also established Achievements a Water Action Group and an anti-corruption Activities under the ACF programme addressed the committee. In addition, ACF oversaw the construction following six Strategic Objectives: of (and management arrangements for) water supply improvements for 1,500 low-income consumers, and • Create an Enabling Environment achieved a 40% price decrease for water from vendors. The enabling environment includes the institutional Neighbourhood committees established by ACF now arrangements, relationships and policies which are oversee WASH infrastructure and management in fundamental to the city-wide improvement of services their communities. to the urban poor 18,000 people are benefiting from improved access • Targeted Capacity Building to sanitation, including through an ongoing “gradual Delivering operational support to key parts of the sewering” strategy which is promoting to landlords urban water and sanitation system the connection of household latrines to existing sewer • Demonstrate Services lines and more are benefiting through an improved Demonstrating water and sanitation service faecal sludge management in the area. improvements at a sufficient scale to test both the An extensive handwashing education campaign viability of alternative delivery mechanisms and the amongst schoolchildren – “School of 5” – eventually capacity of strengthened service providers reached 300,000 pupils (and, by extension, their • Document & Disseminate Learning families) through 500 schools in Nairobi and three Documenting and disseminating successful approaches other Kenyan counties after an initial 80-school pilot. for wider use by the sector The children were encouraged to become “change agents”, receiving and spreading potentially life-saving • Plan for Implementation at Scale messages about the importance of handwashing with Developing plans for scale-up and preparing the case soap. for mobilising additional investment Naivasha: Explicitly Address Women’s Needs and Social • ACF work in Naivasha began with the construction Inclusion of WASH improvements, including water network Explicitly addressing women’s needs and engaging extensions designed with “built-in sustainability” both men, women and disadvantaged groups in more under an innovative delegated management model. equitable participation in the urban WASH sector This model, providing a legally structured relationship between the service provider Naivawass, SSIPs, and community Water User Associations, has received
2 WSUP - Water & Sanitation for the Urban Poor Year 5 ACF Programme Annual Report
A problem particular to Naivasha is the high level of fluoride in untreated drinking water, and its associated health impacts including dental fluorosis significant international interest in the wider water sector and is a major legacy of the ACF programme. A problem particular to Naivasha is the high level of fluoride in untreated drinking water, and its associated health impacts including dental fluorosis. ACF work has included fluoride level monitoring at kiosks, installation of fluoride filters, and educating kiosk operators and consumers. Over 380 latrine/bathroom units were constructed, acting to demonstrate the utility of low-cost sanitation products (and build the capacity of local entrepreneurs to produce and market them). Community-held toilet design clinics aimed to ensure that the specific needs Child suffering from dental fluorosis as a result of high fluoride in water of women and children were taken into account in supplies. sanitation choices for their settlements. ACF worked closely with Naivawass and the water A complete water supply asset holder RVWSB to bolster their working system was built and brought relationship, which had been causing significant to operation, under innovative difficulties. The Ministry of Public Health & Sanitation was also supported to implement a peer-learning O&M and finance arrangements scheme amongst its District Public Health staff on negotiated by ACF, benefiting issues of hygiene and health, including the effects of 7,000 people in the peri-urban fluoride in untreated drinking water. “School of 5” in Naivasha also benefited children from 30 schools and Kotei area of Kumasi their families. Kumasi: Nakuru: A complete water supply system was built and In the fifth and final year of the ACF programme brought to operation, under innovative O&M and in Kenya, work expanded into Nakuru, focusing on finance arrangements negotiated by ACF, benefiting supporting the local service provider NAWASSCO to 7,000 people in the peri-urban Kotei area of Kumasi, implement a system of pre-paid water dispensers in Ghana. A similarly-managed toilet block also runs low-income areas. These are now in operation, with under the ACF-designed hybrid management model, benefits to 16,500 consumers and the utility alike. featuring a Community Management Committee Work was also done under ACF to extend and repair (Kotei CMC) with members ranging from traditional the water supply network, to prepare for installation leaders and women’s groups to the District Assembly of the dispensers, to reduce leakages and to prevent representative for the area. groundwater contamination of the supply, which enabled benefits to 4,000 consumers. Later in the programme, work extended to the district of Fiapre-Sunyani with the implementation of
WSUP - Water & Sanitation for the Urban Poor 3 Year 5 ACF Programme Annual Report
Hygiene awareness messages have reached an estimated 18,250 people, and the Kotei CMC operates a regular monthly “clean-up” which also acts as an opportunity for liaison with bigger service providers
improves environmental sanitation and also acts as an opportunity for liaison with bigger service providers. Antananarivo (Tana): In two peri-urban Communes (small districts) of Tana, Madagascar’s capital city, ACF constructed 21 water kiosks and three WASH blocks, giving comprehensive support to the Communes for this process from securing land tenure to connecting to the networks, resulting in improved services for over 22,000 people. Capacity building and advocacy with the water utility, JIRAMA, has led to its establishing an NRW reduction unit. At a community level, ACF strengthened WASH management through capacity building in two Development Committees and 32 Local Development Platforms; the DCs then produced formal Communal Development Plans with water and sanitation as key priorities. Primary school pupils carrying out a clean up exercise at Kasarani, Naivasha. An extensive multi-media campaign marketed a major water system serving 5,400 people, featuring sanitation improvements (largely latrine slabs) commercialised kiosks run under a small delegated to householders & landlords, under a “Kabone management model. The system in Fiapre will also test Madio” (“clean toilet”) brand, and associated work various approaches to NRW reduction. strengthened the entire supply chain including support to local artisans and product outlets. A revolving The public water utility GWCL was supported to loan fund to enable slab purchase was set up; 50% take responsibility for water infrastructure, and to of participants have made use of this, with a 100% set up a dedicated low-income communities support repayment rate to date. Around 9,000 people have unit. A pilot of water meter clusters was carried improved their sanitation situation through this out in Obuasi, and supply problems caused by illegal mechanism. mining activities were ameliorated by GWCL investing in a decommissioned treatment plant and extended New sanitation technologies were tested, including pipeline. Loowatt, a waterless system whose gas and solid by- products have re-use and resale value. Kumasi Municipal Authority (KMA) was supported to develop a range of sanitation interventions including in Maputo: school sanitation, FSM and the optimisation of toilet ACF work took place from 2009 to 2012 in three design. ACF has also worked with KMA to develop a bairros (boroughs) of Mozambique’s capital, financial model for attracting private sector investment contributing to WSUP’s longer-term Tchemulane into the operation of public toilet blocks. Project here. Achievements included a major water network extension and supply improvements, and Hygiene awareness messages have reached an work with households (through Community Based estimated 18,250 people, and the Kotei CMC Organisations) to promote connections to the water operates a regular monthly “clean-up”, which
4 WSUP - Water & Sanitation for the Urban Poor Year 5 ACF Programme Annual Report network. ACF helped the asset holder FIPAG to however, achievements included the installation of 10 develop a funded strategy to increase connections in tap stands and two water kiosks with storage tanks, low-income bairros. Work with the utility on reducing improving the continuity of water supply for over NRW and identifying illegal connections also increased 6,000 people. ACF established Water Management the number of households with reliable connections Committees to manage the new facilities. Eleven and good supply. school latrine blocks were built, improving access to sanitation for about 6,500 children. Advocacy has been carried out with the water regulator CRA to promote a pro-poor water tariff, ACF set up a municipal sanitation forum, bringing and the government has recently decided to halve the stakeholders to discuss waste management and other minimum fixed tariff threshold for domestic water sanitation issues in a strategic way, as well as creating consumption, which is likely due at least in part to this and supporting water and sanitation Technical Units advocacy. in the three project communes. A comprehensive sanitation marketing strategy promoted sanitation Sanitation blocks were constructed, to serve upgrades to households and landlords. communities directly and to act as demonstration A training manual and sessions were developed to address issues arising from a study which was ACF set up a municipal sanitation commissioned into the challenges faced by SSIPs in forum, bringing stakeholders the Bamako urban water market. The findings of a to discuss waste management further study into Equity and Inclusion, exploring Mali’s approach to gender issues at a policy level, were used and other sanitation issues in a to develop a plan to support Civil Society Organisation strategic way, as well as creating to advocate for more equitable treatment of women in and supporting water and the WASH sector. sanitation Technical Units in the Learning three project communes The ACF programme, along with associated work by WSUP and other partners, has resulted in a significant output of learning documents which have been widely projects to stimulate government investment in disseminated in the sector. These are listed in section effective sanitation solutions for high-density, 3, where, in addition, 10 Key Learning points drawn unplanned low-income settlements. A sanitation from across ACF’s research and evaluation output platform was established to coordinate key sanitation have been highlighted. These may act as useful points stakeholders, where previously no such provision for consideration for other WASH-implementing existed, and ACF also set up Water & Sanitation organisations, as well as being evaluative conclusions Commissions at the bairro level to oversee O&M of from the programme itself. Some broad points: the completed facilities. • Early planning and project design is a critical time A Maputo Hygiene Promotion Strategy delivered for getting formal (more than verbal) commitments handwashing and other hygiene messages via the ACF from service providers, and for identifying and sanitation facilities, as well as through work in schools, securing the involvement of all other stakeholders reaching about 5,000 people by the end of the ACF such as community members and small businesses. period. it’s also the time to build in inclusivity in terms of Bamako: involving women and people with disabilities or Six Communes of Mali’s capital city Bamako hosted health issues. Building formal involvement into the ACF work toward WASH improvements until April design and getting commitment will reduce the 2012, when the work was unfortunately halted due need to keep pushing the pro-poor agenda, as the to the military coup. During the intervention period, “argument” has already been settled.
WSUP - Water & Sanitation for the Urban Poor 5 Year 5 ACF Programme Annual Report
Overall, ACF has far exceeded the project’s targets, in terms of numbers of people benefiting from improved access to water supply and basic sanitation, and number of people reached by health and hygiene initiatives
• Getting utilities’ longer-term commitment can be prioritise pro-poor services), it has been effective done through demonstrating the bottom-line to use models in which management and benefits to them, i.e. the financial benefits of responsibility for improved services are shared reducing NRW, or the expensive impacts of under legally structured arrangements involving damaging activities such as illegal dumping of private sector and community based organisations sludge. as well as statutory service providers. • Peer learning is a very powerful way of spreading • It’s essential to keep advocating for an enabling success. Exchange visits between staff at equivalent policy environment, as well as intervening directly organisations (e.g. water utilities from different in WASH provision and building institutional cities or countries) to see successful models in capacity to deliver improved services. Such operation – or to learn about progressive institutional reform takes time, though, and institutional arrangements – can be highly advocating for a pro-poor policy agenda will involve influential for replicating success. It can also help facing political and institutional resistance to to develop pro-poor “Champions” within service- change. It is best received when backed up with providing organisations. At a community level, proof-of-concept data. sanitation upgrade promotional work gets its own Progress against targets momentum when landlords witness the boost to social standing (and rental potential) of Overall, ACF has far exceeded the project’s targets, neighbouring landlords having improved sanitation in terms of numbers of people benefiting from provision on their plots. improved access to water supply and basic sanitation, and number of people reached by health and hygiene Innovative management initiatives (see Table 1). In addition, ACF is ending arrangements for service delivery with a legacy of improved capacity amongst local service providers and – though there is much still to can be effective in difficult achieve – with growing evidence in some quarters of institutional contexts a policy environment more amenable to prioritising pro-poor WASH improvements as part of government • Innovative management arrangements for service programmes. delivery can be effective in difficult institutional contexts. Where there are challenging institutional frameworks (such as weak regulation, unclearly- drawn responsibilities, or lack of political will to
Project Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Year 4 Year 5 Programme Lifetime monitoring Percentage results results results results results totals Target data Water 21,000 29,882 45,156 15,848 52,842 164,728 80,000 206% Sanitation 4,800 27,059 13,731 49,990 17,435 113,015 65,000 170% Hygiene 12,300 86,150 191,162 64,554 33,437 387,603 153,000 253%
Table 1: Final achievements against key ACF Programme beneficiary targets, across the CFA programme. Throughout this report, a beneficiary in water or sanitation is someone who has either received access for the very first time, or who has, as a result of CFA received an improved service in water and sanitation provision respectively
6 WSUP - Water & Sanitation for the Urban Poor Year 5 ACF Programme Annual Report 2. Summary of ACF Activities and Results
KENYA
Nairobi
Desludging of one of the mixing chambers in Kibera by KARA Company.
2.1 Nairobi, KENYA As well as the directly measurable in Nairobi has contributed to a benefits to people living in target large number of WSUP-published 2.1.1 Introduction areas, and significant capacity learning documents (see Section 3, airobi is a fast-growing building with the utility, our work below) and exchange and learning city of around 4 million people, of Service providers in Nairobi Nwhom 60% live in informal settlements on 5% of the land. • Athi Service Water Services Board (AWSB) is the asset holder. ACF has focused on working with • Nairobi City Water and Sewerage Company Limited local service providers (LSPs), (NCWSC) is the formal service provider for the city. from the formal body NCWSC • Small water kiosk operators; Community Based Organisations to small independent operators, (CBOs); private water vendors; vacuum tankers; pit latrine to help expand their services in emptiers; sanitation block entrepreneurs. four communities of Nairobi’s informal settlements: Gatwekera, • Consumer goods companies, such as Unilever; provide health Kambi Muru, Kisumu Ndogo and and hygiene education via marketing of associated products. Soweto West.
WSUP - Water & Sanitation for the Urban Poor 7 Year 5 ACF Programme Annual Report
visits between corresponding service providers in 2.1.2 Key Achievements other cities and countries. Water In total over 318,000 people have benefited through Three water kiosks and three ablution blocks were Nairobi’s ACF programme. constructed under ACF, improving the water supply for approximately 1,500 Project Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Year 4 Year 5 Programme monitoring low-income consumers. Following results results results results results totals data that, AWSB and the kiosk and ablution Water 20,000 6,500 210 210 0 26,950 block operators were supported on Sanitation 0 22,690 0 40,000 11, 329 74,019 the asset handover process, as well as on making O&M contractual Hygiene 12,000 33,200 150,783 0 21,540 217,523 arrangements for all the facilities. Table 2: Number of beneficiaries for each key access area per project year. Following significant capacity building Three water kiosks and three support to NCWSC, non-revenue water (NRW) in the informal settlements was reduced from 94.6% ablution blocks were constructed to 74.6% in a six-month period to May 2011. ACF under ACF, improving the water supported NRW management training, as well as supply for approximately 1,500 capacity building in the use of water loggers and low-income consumers GIS/ referencing technology to map connections and collect flow data. Leak detection teams were then
Purchasing safe affordable water in Kibera.
8 WSUP - Water & Sanitation for the Urban Poor Year 5 ACF Programme Annual Report
The network improvements have increased the quantity and quality of water for approximately 5,000 consumers in the project area. A city-wide NRW programme now operates created and trained, and we advised on operational improvements to meter-reading and billing. The network improvements have increased the quantity and quality of water for approximately 5,000 consumers in the project area. A city-wide NRW programme now operates. Increased competition and improved supplies led to a 40% price decrease for water from project area vendors: from 5 Kshs in 2010 to 3 Kshs per 20-litre jerrycan today. Formal water vendors now sign a Water Kiosk Operator Contract with NCWSC that requires them to have a meter and charge the lower 3 Kshs price, thus resulting in more affordable water for consumers. NCWSC staff visited the corresponding body in Uganda, the pro-poor unit of which has a strong institutional structure and is well-positioned within the wider utility. One concrete outcome of this influential visit was the initiation, in Korogocho, of a pre-paid water dispenser system project. NRW in this settlement was at almost 100%, and the system will act as a demonstration project for potential scale-up. Kibera is crossed by sewer mains but most households are Laying pipes to connect a latrine to the sewer line in Kibera. not connected to them, due to “gradual sewering” improvements programme, in the prohibitively high cost and line with Nairobi Water’s commitment to providing complexity of doing so sanitation services for informal settlements, ACF has run a programme promoting to landlords the benefits Sanitation of upgrading existing latrines to pour-flush toilets with sewer connection. This work continued into the In collaboration with LSPs, 28 compound toilets have final ACF year – see below. By the end of the ACF- been constructed directly by ACF, serving a total funded period 218 landlords had completed toilet of 3,190 users, connected to a 2.5km sewer pipeline upgrades. which was also implemented through ACF after an influential NCWSC learning visit to Brazil. Hygiene Kibera is crossed by sewer mains but most households In collaboration with Australian Agency for are not connected to them, due to the prohibitively International Development and Unilever, ACF high cost and complexity of doing so. As part of a has been implementing a “School of 5” hygiene
WSUP - Water & Sanitation for the Urban Poor 9 Year 5 ACF Programme Annual Report
ACF enabled the Ministry of Public Health & Sanitation (Kenya) to develop a year-round strategy to plan for Global Handwashing Day, expanding the impact of this engaging and important day of hygiene promotion activities
promotion campaign, focusing on schools. The Informal Settlements Department (ISD) into a Nairobi pilot reached approximately 135,000 pupils vibrant and well supported unit with strong with potentially life-saving messages about the connections to other departments within the importance of handwashing, and demonstrated utility, and good relationships with other service viability for the consequent scale-up to other counties providers. The result is a genuine commitment in Kenya. An evaluation showed significant impacts by NCWSC to embed pro-poor services into its on handwashing behaviour amongst children both mainstream business operations. at home and at school, and a huge increase in • Encouraging NCWSC to adopt commercial KPIs hygiene awareness: 89.6% of children interviewed against various targets in programme areas. As a for the study demonstrated knowledge of the reasons result, the utility has begun to prioritise certain for proper handwashing with soap and water, as strategic activities in low-income areas, compared to a pre-intervention proportion of just specifically the piloting of pre-paid meters in 7%. low-income households, promoting the uptake of ACF enabled the Ministry of Public Health & sewered connections in previously unconnected Sanitation (Kenya) to develop a year-round strategy settlements, and encouraging landlords to to plan for Global Handwashing Day, expanding the upgrade latrines to pour-flush standards. impact of this engaging and important day of hygiene • Staff from NCWSC made learning visits to Brazil promotion activities. and Uganda which were highly influential, enabling them to learn about different Staff from NCWSC made learning technologies and service delivery models for visits to Brazil and Uganda which potential replication in Nairobi. were highly influential, enabling Capacity building activities have also involved them to learn about different communities and small-scale independent providers, to develop the all-important “buy-in” of people technologies and service delivery living in the intervention areas. In each project models for potential replication in area neighbourhood committees were established Nairobi to oversee WASH infrastructure management and decision-making in their communities, and numerous Cross-cutting training events conducted among consumers, small businesses and service providers in target Over the five ACF years, a significant amount of communities, including: partnership work with NCWSC has delivered good results on many different fronts: • Supporting small-scale operators with the leadership, management and O&M of WASH • Helping the utility establish a Nairobi Water facilities. Primarily, a small business, KARA, Action Group, to improve the process of was supported to expand its pit-emptying liaising with consumers, and an NCWSC anti- activities to areas which previously had no such corruption committee. service, and to unblock sewers and latrines and • Helping the utility build its newly-formed maintain sewer lines under contract with
10 WSUP - Water & Sanitation for the Urban Poor Year 5 ACF Programme Annual Report
The Urban Programming Guide is a major output, coming out of discussion initiated at a 3-day workshop in Nairobi
NCWSC. Though services were initially improved, there were many challenges; working with slightly larger businesses will be likely to result in a better outcome. • Support to water sub-committees to map water tanks in target communities. • Business planning for CBO-managed bio-centres. • Workshops involving water-services stakeholders of all levels, to improve relationships between them. Building toilet and bathroom superstructures in advance of connecting to the sewer line. Experience gained from ACF activities across all five countries has contributed to the publication In the extension period, work has of a substantial number of learning documents. focused on promoting to local The Urban Programming Guide (2014) is a major output, coming out of discussion initiated at a 3-day landlords the benefits of upgrading workshop in Nairobi attended by teams drawn existing pit latrines to pour-flush from the ACF programme in Kenya, Madagascar toilets with sewer connection and Ghana. More details of this and all relevant publications are in Section 3, below. context and requirements of each area. NCWSC’s 2.1.3 Year 5 activities ISD were involved in these sessions, and set up local follow-up teams that will lead future In the extension period, work has focused on community mobilisation. promoting to local landlords the benefits of upgrading existing pit latrines to pour-flush toilets >> Promotion is not only aimed at landlords: work with sewer connection. Some detailed analysis of the also continued to demonstrate to NCWSC and successes and challenges of this ongoing work appears AWSB the need and demand for sewer extensions in a 2014 WSUP Practice Note, Sewerage or FSM? and lateral connections in further areas. This was Sometimes both: ‘gradual sewering’ in Nairobi (see done by mapping landlords in close proximity to Section 3). the sewer line, and those in need of lateral extensions. >> Promotional work continued and expanded to new low-income areas. A partnership was agreed >> It had been noted that landlords whose plots are with African Development Bank and AWSB to further than 20m from the existing sewer line promote connections to the newly developed would find it particularly difficult to connect, so sewer infrastructure in several settlements. work was done to establish the level of a subsidy. Mapping and cost estimates were followed by Participating landlords were then given lengths promotional sessions tailored to the specific of pipe, on condition that the upgrade work
WSUP - Water & Sanitation for the Urban Poor 11 Year 5 ACF Programme Annual Report
To reduce sewer connection costs, landlords were encouraged to cost-share the construction of the secondary line connecting to the trunk sewer that would serve to connect tertiary networks
was completed straight away, and the result was theft and vandalism and on introducing an increased uptake in connections on these plots. household pre-paid meters. >> To reduce sewer connection costs, landlords were >> Águas da Região de Maputo (AdeM) came to encouraged to cost-share the construction of the NCWSC-ISD from Mozambique, to help AdeM secondary line connecting to the trunk sewer that better understand the role and efficient would serve to connect tertiary networks. operational structure of a pro-poor department. Landlords of 10 plots participated in this >> Staff from Mombasa Water and, separately, arrangement. AWSB were taken to visit the sewer line extension >> Technical support continued to be available project in Kibera by the NCWSC-ISD team. to landlords who needed it. This included linking The Mombasa team resolved to establish their them with local artisans for construction, and own low-income consumers services unit for with NCWSC for actual connection of toilets to Mombasa County. the sewer line. Seven local artisans were also >> A small Mombasa sanitation business, Pivot trained and appraised, and subsequently engaged Works Ltd, visited KARA to learn about its faecal across 3 villages in supporting the toilet upgrades. sludge management practices. >> 115 landlords completed upgrade of their toilets, Further dissemination activities included involving facilities for public use, several private participation in the 3rd IWA Development Congress compounds (shared among several households) & Exhibition, held in Nairobi in October 2013, and and a pre-school facility. The cumulative number a WSUP Masterclass in Kampala in December 2013 benefiting from the toilet upgrade programme is at which NCWSC was represented by an NCWSC- 12,639. ISD manager. ACF worked with the national Water Services WSUP also hosted the OPEC Fund for International Trust Fund (WSTF) to support better targeting Development team to visit the project work in and investment of the Fund’s Urban Project Cycle. Nairobi. Funding on Shaping Sustainable Water A Professional Services Agreement was signed to Services for the Future in Mukuru Sinai and support development of their 2013-18 corporate Korogocho, Nairobi, was approved in December strategy and investment plan, which has now been 2013. WSUP’s CEO and Country Programme endorsed by the Board. Final approval will be Manager held meetings with World Bank, Agence completed once the Water Bill 2014 is passed by Française de Développement and African Parliament and WSTF’s mandate is clear. Development Bank to explore how to align Kenya A range of learning visits were hosted in this final programmes to International Finance ACF year: Institution investment. >> Zambian Utilities came to visit NCWSC-ISD to learn about introducing pre-paid communal meters/tapstands and about bill payment by the mobile payments system M-Pesa. In return, Zambian Utilities shared experience on managing
12 WSUP - Water & Sanitation for the Urban Poor KENYA
Naivasha
In the ACF programme’s first years, water supply extensions were implemented and latrines built, with focus then shifting from construction Collecting water from an ACF kiosk in Naivasha for reduced cost and fluoride-free drinking water. to operation
2.2 Naivasha, KENYA Service providers in Naivasha
2.2.1 Introduction • Rift Valley Services Board (RVWSB) is the public asset holder. Assets formally handed over with agreement on pro-poor n collaboration with RVWSB concessions. and Naivawass, ACF has supported the improvement • Naivasha Water, Sewerage & Sanitation Company (Naivawass) Iof water and sanitation services is the local water service provider. in Mirera, Karagita, Kamere and • Small scale local service providers under subagency agreements Kwa Muhia, fast-growing peri- with Naivawass to service urban poor areas within the urban settlements in Naivasha. Naivawass mandate. Mirera and Karagita alone have a current estimated total population • A Water User Association (WUA) is a legally registered committee mandated to oversee operations of the water of 54,000. Kamere’s current supply system. The committee is made up of a cross-section of population is about 11,000 and local residents. an estimated 4,000 people live in Kwa Muhia.
WSUP - Water & Sanitation for the Urban Poor 13 Year 5 ACF Programme Annual Report
The delegated management approach continues to attract interest from stakeholders and WSUP/Naivawass host regular visits to see the model in operation
In the ACF programme’s first years, water supply for water supply projects in other areas such as Kibera extensions were implemented and latrines built, with (Nairobi). The delegated management approach focus then shifting from construction to operation. continues to attract interest from stakeholders and In Karagita, a delegated management model was WSUP/Naivawass host regular visits to see the model designed and established to involve small-scale in operation. independent providers in water supply services. The Later in the programme ACF developed a Master model has since become well recognised in the Kenya Plan for the Mirera-Karagita area, which includes water sector as a model for sustainable water services plans to scale up the model. The Master Plan was with potential for scale-up. used to successfully attract finance from DFID’s Almost 110,000 residents of Naivasha have benefited Global Poverty Action Fund for a follow-on project. as a result of ACF.
Project Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Year 4-5 Programme A major legacy of ACF in monitoring results results results results totals data Naivasha is the Karagita Water 0 15,000 0 22,317* 37,317 delegated management Sanitation 2,400 2,800 216 4,858* 10,274 model of water supply Hygiene 0 7,000 15,849 38,832** 61,681 services Table 3: Number of beneficiaries for each key access area per project year. *This figure was achieved through work co-funded by The Coca Cola Africa Foundation and Vitens Evides International. **Figure includes Nairobi beneficiaries. As well as developing the innovative management model, ACF has: 2.2.2 Key Achievements • Contributed to implementation of water supply extensions covering a total of 29,000 people in Water Mirera/Kiu, and 14,000 in Kamera and Kwa A major legacy of ACF in Naivasha is the Karagita Muhia. This involved laying the network delegated management model of water supply (installing over 20km of piping including the services. This model was designed to ensure supply main), installing storage tanks and affordable but high-quality services for consumers, constructing water kiosks fitted with profitability for the operators, and sufficient revenues defluoridation units. These are managed under for sustainable asset maintenance, and involves the the delegated model outlined above. utility having clear Sub-Agency Agreements with • Assisted with the establishment and training of small operators, with ring-fenced operations and Water User Associations (WUAs) in the project accounts. In 2011 WSUP published a Topic Brief, areas which now ensure better consumer interest Business models for delegated management of local representation in water service provision. water services, which goes into detail about the model using experience from Naivasha, and it has since • Been instrumental in reducing the retail price of become highly recognised in the water sector in a 20 litre container of water by 60% (and by 40% Kenya, influencing the management arrangements for defluoridated water) following a tariff review
14 WSUP - Water & Sanitation for the Urban Poor Year 5 ACF Programme Annual Report
A large study took baseline data on hygiene and fluoride from 2,572 households in five low-income areas of Naivasha
in Karagita, Mirera/Kiu, Kwa Muhia and Kamere. • Supported a number of activities to reduce the number of people exposed to high levels of fluoride in drinking water – a problem specific to Naivasha. >> A large study took baseline data on hygiene and fluoride from 2,572 households in five low-income areas of Naivasha. 65% of households had at least one case of dental fluorosis. The data enabled targeted education on the importance and availability of fluoride- free water at ACF-supported kiosks. The awareness creation was conducted through door-to-door household visits by Community Health Workers; awareness creation at flower
farms; chief’s public forums; and at the Promoting fluoride awareness with school children in Naivasha. individual kiosk level. >> Further direct interventions included We have worked to demonstrate installation of fluoride removal filters; and to landlords that investing in monitoring of fluoride in defluoridated water sold at kiosks. sanitation is both achievable and Sanitation desirable
We have worked to demonstrate to landlords that Local latrine artisan groups have also been supported investing in sanitation is both achievable and through involvement in the programme’s latrine desirable, triggering a “virtuous circle” of landlord-led construction process: we supported them to register sanitation improvements in target areas. 388 latrines/ as community contractors, to develop low-cost bathroom units have been constructed or upgraded products for latrine construction, and to produce and utilising ACF funds, serving approximately 10,000 market these products. people. The project as a whole has benefited a further The programme of sanitation improvements 7,000 people. Landlords have seen the value of their addressed inclusivity and gender issues by including plots rise after latrine upgrade, as tenants raise their women, children, and people with disabilities in demands for better on-site sanitation, and of course discussions on design of WASH facilities (at “toilet tenants have benefited from the improved facilities. design clinics”) and management arrangements. Whereas initially WSUP was providing a near-100% The design clinics were able to develop a catalogue financial subsidy for construction materials, this has of options that plot owners could choose from since dropped to a negligible percentage with most based on affordability and preference. The process landlords seeking only technical support for design of sanitation improvement involved a sanitation and construction labour. marketing approach that entailed development and
WSUP - Water & Sanitation for the Urban Poor 15 Year 5 ACF Programme Annual Report
demand for latrine access and has had a particularly enthusiastic take-up. In addition, the Nakuru County Ministry of Health was supported to develop a county legislation on Public Health which will provide a policy framework for public health functions in the entire county of Nakuru. Hygiene
Handwashing promotional activities, under the “School of 5” National Handwashing Campaign, have reached 30 schools within Naivasha. ACF provided support to the District Public Health Office for peer-learning training sessions on promoting hygiene and fluoride awareness, and helped Community Health Workers develop materials on these issues for direct use in schools and households. Cross-cutting ACF has demonstrated the importance of building and maintaining partnerships by convening and facilitating regular dialogue between RVWSB and Naivawass, who have historically had a problematic relationship. After management clashes (which included courtroom battles) between Naivawass and RVWSB delayed capacity building work, ACF helped Naivawass rebuild its governance structure and
Primary school children practice handwashing with soap. induct a newly-elected Board of Directors. Naivawass was also supported to set up its management system for the private operations being undertaken in Handwashing promotional Karagita, Kamere, Kwa Muhia, Mirera and Kiu. The activities, under the “School of 5” relationships are much improved. National Handwashing Campaign, ACF work in Naivasha has contributed to have reached 30 schools within several publications (see Section 3) including the Naivasha development of the Urban WASH Programming Guide. implementation of a communication strategy that was useful in marketing of sanitation options to the landlords. Naivasha District Public Health Office staff made a learning visit to Isiolo, after which they drew up priorities including a focus on triggering settlements to become Open Defecation Free. This raised
16 WSUP - Water & Sanitation for the Urban Poor KENYA
Nakuru
Around 40% of the total urban population of 308,000 live in the 40 low-income areas Installation in progress of prepaid water dispenser.
2.3 NAKURU, KENYA Around 40% of the total Service providers in Nakuru urban population of 2.3.1 Introduction 308,000 live in the 40 low- • Rift Valley Services Board (RVWSB) is the public asset income areas. n the final extension year holder. Assets formally handed of the ACF programme in The extension of ACF over with agreement on pro- Kenya, work expanded into work to Mwariki low- poor concessions. INakuru, Kenya’s fourth largest income area in Nakuru has town. According to the UN, it is • Nakuru Water and Sanitation meant a further 23,500 Services Company the fastest growing town in Africa people have benefited from – a huge number of migrants are (NAWASSCO) is the local improvements to water water and sanitation service finding their way into informal quality, affordability and provider. settlements with generally poor access. services in water and sanitation.
WSUP - Water & Sanitation for the Urban Poor 17 Consumers have 24-hour access to clean, automatically-dispensed water as well as avoiding inconvenient water rationing schedules by landlords on traditional post-paid meters
However, NAWASSCO has faced O&M challenges with this technology. A pre-paid metering business model and O&M policy was developed. Other O&M issues that have been addressed are development of the capacity of the utility’s zonal staff to install dispensers, sell water credit and service the dispensers; and training of the utility’s billing and IT staff on billing software management and generation of reports. All 85 dispensers have been inspected and installed, and are all in operation. The beneficiaries from new dispensers were 16,500, with a further 3,000 benefiting from repaired dispensers. Communication materials (including posters, flyers, stickers and a banner) were produced, designed to create community awareness of the new prepaid Fully functioning prepaid water dispenser. meters, how they work, and how to obtain them from NAWASSCO. Awareness and sensitisation 2.3.2 Activities and Achievements in Year 5 forums were held with landlords, caretakers and Work in Nakuru in Year 5 of ACF has focused on tenants on the token application process, security of supporting the local service provider, Nakuru Water the meters and communal meter sharing. and Sanitation Services Company (NAWASSCO), ACF also supported 8.6km of network repairs/ particularly in their operations relating to reduction intensification in the target area (Mwariki). Network of NRW through 8.6km of network repairs and leakages are responsible for poor water pressure, installation of 85 prepaid water dispensers, along with which leads to water being only intermittently repair of 20 more. available, and pathogens in groundwater surrounding These dispensers benefit low-income consumers and the leak site can cause contamination. Tackling these the utility alike. They are an effective way to reduce issues has resulted in NRW reduction and better the utility’s NRW, since water can only be obtained service – both in terms of reliability and water quality when it has already been paid for. Consumers have – for 4,000 people living in the target area. 24-hour access to clean, automatically-dispensed water as well as avoiding inconvenient water rationing schedules by landlords on traditional post-paid meters. Landlords also save money and time since they do not have to control water usage by tenants.
18 WSUP - Water & Sanitation for the Urban Poor Year 5 ACF Programme Annual Report
GHANA
Kumasi
New WASH block facility, providing safe and desirable toilet and hygiene access for school children in Kumasi.
2.4 KUMASI, GHANA 2.4.1 Introduction Service providers in Kumasi umasi is Ghana’s second- largest city – and its • Ghana Water Company Ltd (GWCL) was the public water fastest-growing – with a utility until May 2011, under a management contract with Aqua Kpopulation of about 2.5 million. Vitens Rand Ltd (AVRL). Following the departure of AVRL, the Because of its strategic location, operator became Ghana Urban Water Limited (GUWL). In Kumasi has a large transient and June 2013, GUWL and GWCL were merged and the water utility is now GWCL. immigrant population from rural areas of Ghana and from other • The Kumasi Metropolitan Assembly (KMA) is the city authority countries in West Africa. More and its Waste Management Department is engaged in the than 900,000 people lack access provision and management of sanitation facilities within the to safe drinking water and nearly City. 1.5 million people lack access to • There are 10 sub-metropolitan areas within the KMA and improved sanitation facilities. 24 town councils, each with a Unit Committee which looks after neighbourhood interests. Launched in March 2010, the ACF programme in Ghana • Small scale water service providers include private borehole first targeted five peri-urban owners in the peri-urban areas and water vendors in the city communities within the Kumasi who have a connection and storage tanks who resell water. Metropolis with support • Small scale sanitation providers include public toilet owners from WSUP partners CARE and operators, de-sludging vacuum trucks, manual pit emptiers, International and WaterAid, caretakers and latrine builders. and then expanded to Fiapre in Sunyani district.
WSUP - Water & Sanitation for the Urban Poor 19 Year 5 ACF Programme Annual Report
Much of ACF’s work has been to support the utility and asset holder to build institutional capacity and to develop new models of management for WASH provision in low-income areas
Much of ACF’s work has been to support the utility The capacity of GWCL was built to the point and asset holder to build institutional capacity and where the operator took on responsibility for major to develop new models of management for WASH maintenance of water infrastructure in the Kotei area. provision in low-income areas. As a result, GWCL is Early difficulties in stakeholder relationships meant establishing its own low-income communities support WSUP had to intervene whenever water supply unit, and setting up an NRW reduction department. problems arose, but a focus on better communication In addition, ACF developed the capacity of the between GWCL and the Community Management KMA to improve sanitation services systematically Committee (CMC) has led to greatly improved across the city, and in 2014 proposed interventions relations. were drawn up in detail in order to prepare for Later in the programme GWCL were supported potential private sector partnerships for public toilet to design a low-income communities pilot project improvements in Kumasi. involving the extension of its network in Fiapre- By the end of ACF, 70,000 people had benefited Sunyani. The extended system features two newly directly from the programme. drilled, mechanised boreholes to augment the erratic current supply, and five water kiosks Project Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Year 4 Year 5 Programme with water storage facilities. Besides monitoring results results results results results totals data providing improved water access for Fiapre’s 5,400 residents, the pilot Water 0 0 4,356 0 22,633 26,989 project’s objectives are to establish a Sanitation 0 0 800 0 4,539 5,339 business case for commercialised water Hygiene 300 3,500 16,750 8,550 11,897 40,997 kiosks and to test various approaches to Table 4: Number of beneficiaries for each key access area per project year. NRW reduction.
A complete water supplysystem Sanitation (borehole, storage and distribution) A public latrine block was planned, designed and to serve 7,000 people was constructed in Kotei by the same process as the new water supply system. This serves over 8,000 users per constructed in Kotei after a month. participatory and socially inclusive As a result of ACF advocacy, KMA has provisionally design process agreed to adopt the Sanitation 21 planning approach for city-wide strategic sanitation planning. 2.4.2 Key Achievements KMA were supported to develop a financial model Water for attracting private sector investment into the A complete water supply system (borehole, storage operation of public toilet blocks. Full implementation and distribution) to serve 7,000 people was plans for a large-scale, city-wide intervention are constructed in Kotei after a participatory and socially being developed with DFID funding and options for inclusive design process, and is fully operational private sector investments in public latrine blocks. under institutional and financial models negotiated by ACF. An exercise was also carried out to map public
20 WSUP - Water & Sanitation for the Urban Poor Year 5 ACF Programme Annual Report
ACF’s hygiene awareness work has reached over 18,250 people with key messages about hand washing, as well as targeting food vendors and using religious and social groups to get across the message in powerful ways latrine blocks in Kumasi, the result of which can be found here: https://www.google.com/ fusiontables/DataSource?docid=1TU7QOKhpkK- RpViHAZ3LKuI2QOOT4f_0QwcRZXU. Through facilitated sessions between ECOTACT and KMA, an initiative to modernise toilet blocks was developed. KMA has taken the concept up with 3 Toilets constructed in line with the concept & business Ghanaian children learning about handwashing with soap. model. The CMC has successfully involved Hygiene the community in an ongoing ACF’s hygiene awareness work has reached over monthly “clean-up”, part of a 18,250 people with key messages about handwashing, campaign on hygiene awareness in as well as targeting food vendors and using religious and social groups to get across the message in Kotei powerful ways. Logistical support was provided positions and performing leadership roles. Female to school health coordinators to institute monthly utility staff were also specifically targeted for handwashing demonstrations in schools. learning and capacity building, which opened up The CMC has successfully involved the community opportunities for advancement within the utility. in an ongoing monthly “clean-up”, part of a An innovative delegated management model was campaign on hygiene awareness in Kotei, with developed to improve the management of water evidence of improved hygiene and environmental and sanitation facilities in Kumasi. The CMC has a sanitation as a result. This monthly community central role in this model, described in detail in the session is also used as a platform for engagement and WSUP Topic Brief Delegated management of water an opportunity for consumer feedback, in recognition and sanitation services in urban areas (see Section 3, of the fact that scheduling extracurricular meetings below). with busy community members can be difficult. Other innovative service delivery models were Cross-cutting identified in order to demonstrate to GWCL the ACF supported the establishment of the Kotei CMC, financial viability of extending services to low-income which provides a forum for liaison between the communities in new ways. These models are being community and KMA and GWCL. ACF particularly put into operation, for example in Obuasi, where worked to ensure meaningful participation of a network of water meter clusters was set up with women, and the CMC achieved relatively good two different payment models (see The Urban Water representation at 30%, all of them in leadership Supply Guide, in Section 3); this model went on to be
WSUP - Water & Sanitation for the Urban Poor 21 ACF engaged with WaterAid to produce a widely circulated report into the legal mandates and institutional gaps in delivering WASH services to low income urban and peri-urban communities in Ghana
teachers, assembly members, community members, etc). KMA were then supported in Construction works for the school WASH blocks in Kumasi. developing a financing model for sustainable management. replicated in three further settlements. • Three schools were selected for a quick Due to ACF promotion, including exchange visits intervention ahead of the wider implementation. to Nairobi and Lusaka, GWCL accepted the idea ACF directly supported two of these, overseeing of establishing a Low Income Support Unit as a the procurement process, engagement of dedicated internal department. It has now made contractors and handover of sites for construction. significant progress toward implementing this. Construction on the two ACF-supported toilet blocks (and two additional blocks) has been ACF engaged with WaterAid to produce a widely completed in the selected schools. circulated report into the legal mandates and institutional gaps in delivering WASH services to • These changes are giving students access to low income urban and peri-urban communities WASH facilities which are safe, inclusive and in Ghana. A slideshow presenting the report desirable – meaning they will miss less school (Institutional Mandates, Gaps & Barriers in the time – and KMA will ultimately have a greater Urban WASH Sub-Sector) is available at http://www. capacity to develop and finance these facilities slideshare.net/coniwas/institutional-manadates-gaps- without external assistance. barriers-mole-xxiii-confernce [sic] As well as the work in schools, the final year saw 2.4.3 Year 5 Activities further dissemination of ACF learnings. A paper (Bringing toilets back to Kumasi’s compound houses: In the final ACF year, WSUP has supported KMA landlord and tenant behaviours and motivators) specifically by supporting its Waste Management was presented in Vietnam at the 37th WEDC Department with its role in delivering WASH International Conference, and the Kumasi ACF team improvements in schools. hosted a workshop on PPP options for public latrine • KMA’s Waste Management Department was blocks, to which the USAID WASH specialist came. supported in developing overall plans for Support to GWCL in reducing NRW has triggered both the rehabilitation of existing (but a utility-wide National NRW Conference to address inadequate) facilities and the construction of new NRW strategically rather than continuing the current facilities. 10 representative schools in Low-Income ad hoc approach. The Managing Director of GWCL Areas were selected, and after assessments of user said, “This is the first time GWCL is taking a knowledge, attitude and practices, and of existing strategic approach to NRW”. WASH facilities, an all-inclusive toilet design was developed by stakeholders (schoolchildren,
22 WSUP - Water & Sanitation for the Urban Poor Year 5 ACF Programme Annual Report
MADAGASCAR Antananarivo
Q&A game during the Global Handwashing Day event in Analamanga Region, animated by Michel Rakotoarinelina.
Best estimates are that 1 million out of the city’s 1.6 million population have inadequate water and sanitation services and suffer the effects of poor hygiene
2.5 Antananarivo, Madagascar. After the initial Alongside infrastructure and MADAGASCAR 3-year programme period, USAID delivery improvements, the extension funding was agreed for programme has built the capacity 2.5.1 Introduction consolidating and enhancing the of both local and municipal service adagascar’s capital city ACF sanitation programme here. providers to sustain the enhanced services over time. Antananarivo (Tana) The work in Tana has targeted has a population of the peri-urban Communes In total almost 90,000 lives in Maround 1.6 million, and is growing of Andranonahoatra and Tana have been improved through at about 3.5% per year. Best Bemasoandro. ACF. estimates are that 1 million out of the city’s 1.6 million population have inadequate water and Service providers in Antananarivo sanitation services and suffer the JIRAMA is the public utility responsible for the supply of water effects of poor hygiene. • to the city. USAID originally delayed • Urban Commune of Antananarivo (CUA) and peri-urban initiation of ACF activities in Tana Communes have responsibility for sanitation and community because of uncertainties associated water services. with the political crisis, but gave WSUP endorsement to begin • Water User Associations (WUAs) and private operators manage community-based water supply and sanitation services. in October 2010 under special guidelines provided by USAID/
WSUP - Water & Sanitation for the Urban Poor 23 Year 5 ACF Programme Annual Report
After advocacy and capacity building work with JIRAMA, the utility set out a declaration of intent to strengthen their pro-poor policy for water delivery, including a funded 5-year plan, and established an NRW unit
Project capacity were built in preparation to hand over Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Year 4 Programme monitoring results results results results totals management responsibility. data Water 0 7,500 9,250 0 16,750 After advocacy and capacity building work with JIRAMA, the utility set out a declaration of Sanitation 0 600 6,530 6,699 13,829 intent to strengthen their pro-poor policy for Hygiene 0 41,020 0 17,172 58,192 water delivery, including a funded 5-year plan, Table 5: Number of beneficiaries for each key access area per project year. and established an NRW unit.
ACF initiated a CBO-designed and -run solid-waste collection service, with around 3,000 households (15,000 people) connected up to the fee-based service
Sanitation
ACF initiated a CBO-designed and -run solid-waste collection service, with around 3,000 households (15,000 people) connected up to the fee-based service. CBOs were supported to develop and run a comprehensive strategy to persuade householders and landlords to purchase slabs to upgrade their latrines. The marketing campaign, under the brand name “Kabone Madio” (“clean toilet”), involved widespread multimedia advertising, local celebrity endorsement Solid waste management operated by the CBO “TALENTA DIMY” in and house visits. As well as marketing, all aspects of Andranonahoatra Commune area. the supply chain (including the engagement of local 2.5.2 Key Achievements artisans) were strengthened and monitored to ensure the availability of products, and a revolving fund Water established to enable potential customers to purchase toilet improvements. (Over 50% of clients used this 21 water kiosks and three wash blocks were mechanism, and the repayment rate has been an constructed under ACF, resulting in improved outstanding 100%.) services for a total of 22,170 people. The Communes were supported to secure land tenure for all 24 At the end of the ACF programme period 1,804 facilities, and, in collaboration with JIRAMA’s sanitation products had been sold, meaning around “Guichet Unique” (pro-poor unit), were connected 9,000 people have received improved sanitation. to the water network. They are managed by the Following dissemination of learning from this community Water User Associations – whose programme, the ACF sanitation marketing approach
24 WSUP - Water & Sanitation for the Urban Poor Year 5 ACF Programme Annual Report
12 institutions undertook the processes of becoming “Friends of WASH”, directly benefiting over 7,650 people
After implementation in Andranonahoatra and Bemasoandro, the sanitation programme was scaled up to six further communes, representing a population of roughly 133,000. Hygiene
12 institutions undertook the processes of becoming “Friends of WASH”, directly benefiting over 7,650 people. These schools and churches spread hygiene Diorano WASH visited school friend of WASH during Global Handwashing Day. messages and celebrate days such as the Global Handwashing Day, and World Water Day. is being replicated by other agencies in the sector Cross-Cutting including WaterAid and the Global Sanitation Fund Training was provided to community groups, female Project. social workers, traditional practitioners and service Local artisans were supported to explore different providers on equity and inclusion. The response has sanitation technologies, been positive and created a aiming to extend and general sense of heightened diversify the range of The ACF sanitation marketing awareness of inclusivity sanitation products to approach is being replicated issues. Following a conference meet the needs of the by other agencies in the sector entitled “Women leaders, target population. including WaterAid and the development and WASH” held in Andranonahoatra, • A low-cost pit made Global Sanitation Fund Project a methodology for gender of ferrocement was inclusion in the process of designed and tested and 15 local masons were establishing WUAs in the two Communes was trained in its construction and maintenance, as adopted and a women’s association is now operating well as on Ecosan, mobile pit cylinder and as a result. concrete pit options. The ACF work in Tana has resulted in a range of • ACF also supported the trial of an innovative WSUP learning documents including two Topic household/communal toilet that has the potential Briefs and 3 Practice Notes, and has contributed to to be replicated at scale on a commercial basis. two ODI papers as well as several exchange visits in “Loowatt” is a waterless community latrine with wider Madagascar. A document for wider sharing, a sludge bio-digester to pre-treat waste. The Scaling-up a sanitation marketing strategy, is being bio-digester transforms faecal sludge to methane drafted. gas and benign solids later converted to compost. The methane can be used as an energy source. The completed facility was opened to the public for monitored use in 2013.
WSUP - Water & Sanitation for the Urban Poor 25 MOZAMBIQUE
Maputo
Charmanculo sanitation blocks.
2.6 Maputo, local service providers to maintain MOZAMBIQUE and replicate the improved services Project Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Programme 2.6.1 Introduction monitoring for poor urban results results results totals data aputo, Mozambique’s populations. Water 400 222 27,340 27,962 capital city, is home In total, 36,000 Sanitation 400 273 1,185 1,858 to about one million people were Mpeople, and Greater Maputo has Hygiene 0 500 5,882 6,382 positively affected a total population of over two by ACF in Maputo. Table 6: Number of beneficiaries for each key access area per million. The districts of Maputo project year. are subdivided into bairros (small administrative districts), many of them not linked to the central Service providers in Maputo water network. Águas da Região de Maputo (AdeM) is a private utility operating the water supply system in Maputo. ACF activities contributed to WSUP’s overall Tchemulane FIPAG is responsible for the fixed assets of the water supply of Project strategy of demonstrating the main cities in Mozambique. improved services for 160,000 of CMM is the municipality responsible for water and sanitation in the urban poor in Maputo, and Maputo city. ran from 2009-2012, targeting three bairros in Maputo with a POPs are small private operators of water supply networks in combined population of 66,700. the peri-urban areas of some parts of the city. As well as increasing access to SPOs are standpipe operators who are resellers of water from water and sanitation facilities, the main water network. ACF developed the capacity of
26 WSUP - Water & Sanitation for the Urban Poor Year 5 ACF Programme Annual Report
ACF collaborated with Stanford University and the water regulator, CRA, to conduct a policy impact study looking at improving water tariff strategies for poor urban communities in Maputo
strategy for a “subsidy” to facilitate these connections. This multi-faceted approach enabled a higher uptake of connections in the bairros. ACF collaborated with Stanford University and the water regulator, CRA, to conduct a policy impact study looking at improving water tariff strategies for poor urban communities in Maputo. Advocacy for incorporating a pro-poor approach with CRA was undertaken, building the business case by monitoring levels of water consumption in the bairros. These Maputo Tertiary networks in Maxaquene C and D. ongoing negotiations are likely to have contributed to the government’s recent decision to reduce ACF completed the construction of the minimum fixed tariff structure for domestic 3 3 a water supply network extension consumption from 10m to 5m . The project continues to encourage CRA to embed a pro-poor in two bairros, Xipamanine and tariff. Mafalala, improving supply for ACF also contributed successfully to long-term approximately 28,000 people work to reduce NRW. Training sessions for staff from LSPs and the local private operator resulted in 2.6.2 Key Achievements AdeM establishing a dedicated Leakage and Losses Department, leading to a reduction in NRW (55% Water to 48%) and more available water for expansion into ACF completed the construction of a water supply low-income areas (increase from 8 to 16 hours of network extension in two bairros, Xipamanine daily distribution). and Mafalala, improving supply for approximately Sanitation 28,000 people. Nine sanitation blocks were constructed and one The support of CBOs was enlisted to work with was refurbished – serving a total of 950 people. households and the private water utility, AdeM, to Their purpose (beyond benefiting the immediate facilitate new water connections. Through CBOs, community) is to demonstrate communal sanitation information was shared with households on how to blocks in very high density, unplanned, low-income demand appropriate water improvements, and AdeM settlements, to stimulate government investment. was given assistance with invoicing and identifying illegal connections. ACF also provided support to A pilot project, supporting small-scale enterprises in the asset holder, FIPAG, with its policy for new pit emptying, was started and has continued beyond connections in Maxaquene B, including a financing the end of ACF’s support.
WSUP - Water & Sanitation for the Urban Poor 27 Year 5 ACF Programme Annual Report
ACF supported the strengthening of Water & Sanitation Commissions at the bairro level, who were trained to take on oversight, operation and maintenance of the completed facilities
Cross-cutting
ACF supported the strengthening of Water & Sanitation Commissions at the bairro level, who were trained to take on oversight, operation and maintenance of the completed facilities. In addition, ACF helped communities to manage their own shared sanitation blocks with the creation of Sanitation Block Management Committees in all three bairros, and support with developing their operational and maintenance skills. In an initiative from the regulator, CRA, support was given to set up a sanitation platform to enable key stakeholders to come together – previously the framework here had been very fragmented. (Coordination with authorities is a major part of the service improvement process in Maputo. In the first quarter of 2012, for example, ACF held approximately 80 meetings with at least eight different levels for discussions regarding planning and approval of proposed sanitation blocks and the Children practice handwashing with soap after going to the toilet. extension of the water network.) ACF conducted awareness-raising ACF conducted awareness-raising activities among key people from bairros, schools and other activities among key people institutions on issues relating to gender and WASH. from bairros, schools and other As a result the National Water Directorate is now institutions on issues relating to conducting a study on gender gaps in the water sector in wider Mozambique, to inform the development of gender and WASH a gender strategy. It is estimated that approximately Hygiene 6,200 beneficiaries have been directly reached through this work. Toward the end of the programme, ACF implemented the pilot phase of the Maputo Hygiene Promotion Strategy in the project bairros, targeting all ACF sanitation facilities and focusing on Handwashing With Soap. Sanitation and hygiene clubs were started and supported in schools, and approximately 5,000 people were exposed to the campaign.
28 WSUP - Water & Sanitation for the Urban Poor MALI
Bamako
High demand at a new standpipe in Bozola, Bamako.
With increased rural-urban migration, Project Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Programme monitoring results results results totals the number of slums in Bamako data District is growing Water 600 660 4,000 5,260 Sanitation 2,000 696 5,000 7,696 2.7 bAMAKO, MALI Hygiene 0 930 1,898 2,828 Table 7: Number of beneficiaries for each key access area per project 2.7.1 Introduction year.
amako is the capital of Mali and has a population of Service providers in Bamako roughly two million. With Commune Administrations – local authorities (Communes) Bincreased rural-urban migration, are responsible for water and sanitation services at a local the number of slums in Bamako level. District is growing. SOMAPEP is the asset-owner responsible for investments ACF began working towards in the water sector. WASH improvements in all six Communes of Bamako city in SOMAGEP is the para-statal water utility responsible for the operation and maintenance of urban water supply 2009. The project was scheduled systems in Mali. to finish in September 2012, but unfortunately was halted early in Pouse-poussiers are water vendors who transport water April 2012 following the military on push carts and donkey carts to parts of the city not coup. covered by the SOMAGEP network.
A total of over 15,700 people in Fontainiers are standpost operators who sell water at Bamako benefited directly from standposts. ACF.
WSUP - Water & Sanitation for the Urban Poor 29 Ten tap stands and two water kiosks with storage tanks were installed, improving the continuity of water supply for over 6,000 low income consumers in the Communes
Hygiene
ACF conducted studies on behaviours, attitudes and practices of hygiene in the three target Communes, then held a municipal forum bringing together the Communes’ sanitation stakeholders. The Forum The management committee of the tapstand in Bozola with the ACF Project Manager. addressed some of the key issues raised in the studies; one focus was waste management impacts on 2.7.2 Key Achievements children’s health. Water Cross-cutting Ten tap stands and two water kiosks with storage Water and sanitation Technical Units (TUs) were tanks were installed, improving the continuity of established within the three target Communes in water supply for over 6,000 low income consumers Year 1, and ACF continued to work to develop in the Communes. Each kiosk site saw an increase in capacity within them, including helping to build users from 30 to 200 people per day. To manage the a good relationship between the Communes and new facilities, Water Management Committees were SOMAGEP, the new para-statal water utility. established (12 in total across the six Communes). ACF commissioned a study to identify the challenges ACF conducted a water point mapping exercise in all faced by Small Scale Independent Providers in the six Communes, built a database for each Commune Bamako urban water market. Subsequently, ACF administration and provided training for staff in supported the development of a training manual updating it. The water point mapping exercise proved and a series of training sessions for Small Scale to be a trigger for harnessing greater support, from Independent Providers, addressing issues picked up both the Communes and the utility, in contributing by the study, including hygiene practices around to the water intervention work. water points and within the water supply chain. Sanitation A study was also commissioned on Equity and Inclusion to explore Mali’s approach to gender issues Eleven school latrine blocks were built, improving at a policy level. The findings were used to develop access to sanitation for approximately 6,500 children. a plan to support Civil Society Organisations to A sanitation marketing strategy was developed advocate for more equitable treatment of women in aimed at encouraging landlords and householders the WASH sector. to upgrade sanitation on their properties. The work A study into institutional mandates and gaps or supported the marketing and sales of affordable barriers to pro-poor service was also done, to enable latrine options, including the design and production effective planning of future interventions. of a product catalogue with cost estimates, and support to private sector suppliers.
30 WSUP - Water & Sanitation for the Urban Poor Year 5 ACF Programme Annual Report 3. Lessons Learned
Josephine Ravelojaona, Representative of the Ministry of Water (Madagascar), talks to one of the WASH block operators about her daily work.
3.1 Introduction It is crucial to keep discussing he direct, practical impacts of the ACF the issues we face, and programme have been outlined above. But doing this based on field what have we learned from five years of experience, to help all actors Tintervention across seven cities? in the WASH-intervention It is crucial to keep discussing the issues we face, community think creatively and doing this based on field experience, to help all actors in the WASH-intervention community think about the approaches we take, creatively about the approaches we take, and to and to ensure resources are ensure resources are used efficiently. So, since ACF’s used efficiently first year, there has been an emphasis on sharing approaches which have worked well – and examining
WSUP - Water & Sanitation for the Urban Poor 31 Year 5 ACF Programme Annual Report
Thinking of “providing services”rather than “building infrastructure”will make a successful outcome more likely where land/tenancy issues are a factor
those which haven’t worked so well – and analysing 2) Be aware of social/cultural influences that may the reasons why. This has been done via numerous affect the work. Land ownership and tenancy workshops, field visits, international forums and issues, and the operation of cartels, are examples of online learning exchanges and webinars – as well major complicating factors in implementing WASH as in each ACF Annual Report and through a improvements. So as not to get caught up, it’s significant number of widely disseminated Learning important to take time to understand these dynamics Documents, a synthesis of which follows below. at the planning stage. Thinking of “providing services” rather than “building infrastructure” will Much has been learnt on a day-to-day level, about make a successful outcome more likely where land/ how to proceed locally and with specific types of tenancy issues are a factor. work. Here, though, we have drawn out ten key conclusions about lessons learned which could be 3) Use hybrid management models to achieve applied more broadly across the sector. service improvements in difficult institutional contexts. Where there are challenging institutional The bottom line is that the frameworks (such as weak regulation, unclearly- consumer tariff charged by the drawn responsibilities, or lack of political will to prioritise pro-poor services), we don’t have to wait provider must be affordable for the the decades it may take for these to improve, before local community, and viable for the actual services to people can improve. The ACF business hybrid management models in Nairobi, Kumasi and Tana draw on the efficiency and commercial 3.2 Ten Key Lessons orientation of private management, and the low- income sensitivity and community buy-in of local 1) Advocate for viable consumer tariffs for water organisations, to achieve efficient and appropriate and sanitation. This is complex, but the bottom line service improvements in poor areas. In all cases, is that the consumer tariff charged by the provider clearly defined contractual agreements, under PSAs must be affordable for the local community, and or other strong contracts, are key. viable for the business. Tariffs must be affordable for
the poorest, but it is essential to ensure that overall 4) Demonstrate services in defined districts. revenues are sufficient to cover at least recurrent The design of WASH interventions in large peri- operational costs, and ideally at least some of the urban settlements ought to include the potential capital and capital maintenance costs. for replication at scale, but to achieve buy-in from This will certainly be easier for water than for utilities and other service providers – which is sanitation, because of a common lack of clear essential for sustaining any improvements – they responsibility for sanitation services. Strict ring- need to be shown to work. Rather than hoping to get fencing of sanitation funds is critical, so that they are instant agreement for grand, city-wide master plans, not used for water supply or absorbed into the city’s a focused intervention (say, on reducing NRW) in a general budget, and appropriate regulation by the defined area will help “sell” pro-poor work to utilities municipality or other authority is critical in order to because the benefits to them are quickly evident. By achieve the correct balance between service quality improving a provider’s business management systems and tariff charged. within a demonstration area, the implementer can highlight the commercial gains of expanding
32 WSUP - Water & Sanitation for the Urban Poor Year 5 ACF Programme Annual Report
“Shared learnings” on paper are valuable, but enabling policy and management staff from LSPs to see successful interventions in action and discuss their benefits with their peers in other cities can have an enormous impact this approach to other low-income districts. NB Understanding service providers’ resource limitations is also vital to realistic and persuasive pilot-project design. 5) Enable consumers to demand better services. By working to provide better relay of consumer feedback amongst agencies working in the informal settlements, ACF has greatly improved consumers’ ability to have a say in improving their WASH services provision. Where LSPs have processes in place that enable them to listen to the “poor consumer voice” and respond by offering a better service to those consumers, there are win-win benefits: it’s good for the poor, and good for business. Moving forward, WSUP is strongly committed to supporting city-wide WASH tracking processes that a) meet service providers’ needs for good data
(for short-term business management and longer- Handwashing campaign billboard, Ghana. term business and infrastructure planning) and that at the same time b) strengthen citizen voice and ACF enabled Nairobi’s NCWSC-ISD team to accountability. visit its equivalent in Uganda, who shared their experience in forming a strong, vibrant pro-poor 6) Demonstrate success through peers. ACF has seen unit and showed how such a department could significant results from these three angles on peer benefit the utility as a whole. advocacy: c) Advocate through peers to increase uptake a) Invest in exposing decision-makers to of sanitation improvements. Where landlords alternative, successful models of WASH delivery. are encouraged to upgrade sanitation facilities With sensitivity to local contexts, successful on their properties (perhaps through an initial models can be shared between cities and across subsidy), the resulting increase in social standing countries via overseas exchange trips. “Shared for those landlords and their tenants is a powerful learnings” on paper are valuable, but enabling stimulant to the market, raising rental income as policy and management staff from LSPs to see well as demand for better services in surrounding successful interventions in action and discuss plots. When marketing such programmes, their benefits with their peers in other cities can too, personal contact drastically increases the have an enormous impact. likelihood of take-up – household visits are more b) Invest in exposing decision-makers effective than “passive” marketing such as poster to alternative, progressive institutional campaigns alone. NB Sanitation marketing is a arrangements. By facilitating learning visits for very powerful tool, but targeted subsidy may still be service provider staff, significant progress can be required to reach the poorest of the poor in a given made in making the case for institutional change. community.
WSUP - Water & Sanitation for the Urban Poor 33 Year 5 ACF Programme Annual Report
Embedding pro-poor strategies into the mainstream business plans of LSPs and local authorities is enormously helpful in reducing delays in actual implementation
we doing this?” have already been answered during the strategic stages of planning. As a result, staff are less likely to feel that providing their input is extra or unnecessary work. There is a certain chicken- and- egg element to this recommendation, of course, as the management of the utility or local authority must be open to establishing and formalising pro-poor plans to begin with. However, significant progress has been made through ACF, through constructive discussions and negotiation with LSPs which emphasise the commercial and wider social benefits of such inclusive strategies. Workshop to present the JSDF Program to the local authorities, Mozambique. 9) Strengthen institutions to achieve long-term change. It’s only possible to achieve long-term change 7) Think inclusively from the very beginning. through strengthening the institutions which have Explicitly addressing women’s needs, and those the mandate for ensuring full service coverage. One of other disadvantaged groups, is essential when conduit for this is to work to promote a culture of designing effective, sustainable WASH services – and accountability – a shift from bureaucratic thinking throughout the process of to more corporate thinking. implementation. Engaging A citywide NRW reduction both men and women in It’s only possible to achieve programme, for example, more equitable participation, long-term change through will involve strengthening including awareness-raising strengthening the institutions processes across the whole of inclusion issues at all levels which have the mandate for utility: all staff can contribute from the community to to reducing NRW, not just policy-making environments, ensuring full service coverage the engineers! Further, ACF can have significant positive experience has shown that effects on women’s economic and educational the identification of individual “Champions” within opportunities. Government or utilities is an important lever for influencing institutional change. 8) Encourage LSPs to commit formally to pro-poor strategies as early as possible. Embedding pro- 10) Advocate “upstream” for policy change. As well poor strategies into the mainstream business plans as implementing services direct to consumers in of LSPs and local authorities is enormously helpful collaboration with LSPs, it is important to engage in reducing delays in actual implementation. This with senior decision makers to argue for a policy is because the institutional obstacles to progress – environment which enables service providers to questions of commercial value, prioritisation etc – operate in an effective manner and takes account of have been settled in advance; the answers to “why are poor consumers. But institutional reform takes time.
34 WSUP - Water & Sanitation for the Urban Poor Year 5 ACF Programme Annual Report
Learning Documents content is based on evidence from ACF field experiences and wider WSUP work, and they tend either to illustrate approaches and models which appear to be promising, or to challenge sector thinking
An implementer should expect to face political and Full versions of the following documents can be institutional resistance when advocating for these downloaded from the Sharing & Learning section changes – persistence is required! Again, it’s worth of the WSUP website (http://www.wsup.com/ noting that policy influence – for instance influence programme/resources/). Documents which have on the cost of household connections for low-income been published in the final ACF year have been households – is typically strengthened when backed summarised here, while earlier document summaries by visible improvements to service delivery. So are in previous years’ annual ACF reports. advocacy for a pro-poor policy environment needs to Practice Note 001: Using water kiosk revenues to be backed up with proof-of-concept data. cross-finance environmental hygiene: Tana’s RF2
model (Feb 2011) 3.3 Synthesis of Learning Documents Practice Note 002: Financing communal toilets: the Tchemulane project in Maputo (Feb 2011) A significant number of Learning Documents on key urban water and sanitation themes have come Practice Note 004: Climate-proofing urban WASH: out of ACF. Their content is based on evidence from a rapid assessment method (May 2011) ACF field experiences and wider WSUP work, and Practice Note 005: Can NRW reduction they tend either to illustrate approaches and models programmes lead to improved services for the poor? which appear to be promising, or to challenge (Jul 2011) sector thinking. They are often co-published with other key sector organisations and, on the whole, Practice Note 006: Location is everything: optimal are divided into Practice Notes (short documents placement of community water and sanitation discussing specific solutions for pro-poor urban services (Sep 2011) water and sanitation, usually based on a particular Practice Note 007: Helping people connect to water WSUP experience), Topic Briefs (longer documents networks: good for business, good for the poor? that take a more analytical look at successful and (Oct 2011) scalable models being demonstrated by WSUP and its partners in a range of countries), Discussion Papers Practice Note 010: Get to scale in urban sanitation! (aim to stimulate critical debate about the major (Jun 2013) challenges facing WASH service provision for the Practice Note 011: Get to scale in urban water! (Jun urban poor, and to propose radical new approaches 2013) for overcoming these challenges) and Perspectives (take a view of the sector as a whole, inviting Practice Note 012: Achieving sustainability: guiding discussion of broader issues among all agencies entrepreneurs to independence (Sep 2013 involved in WASH interventions). WSUP has also reported on ACF activities via two lively and useful Practice Note 14: A gender-inclusive blogs: the specific http://africancitiesforthefuture. approach in practice: communal wordpress.com/ and the more general http://www. sanitation (Mar 2014) wsup.com/programme/blog/. Women and girls suffer disproportionately from the effects of poor sanitation and lack of access to
WSUP - Water & Sanitation for the Urban Poor 35 Year 5 ACF Programme Annual Report
In Maputo the siting of proposed sanitation blocks was agreed after community consultation meetings at which over 80% of participants were women
design. In Maputo, these were women-only focus groups with the added participation of project planners and engineers. • Step Three is women-led construction. Men and women volunteers worked together in Maputo at every step from initial excavation to loading the blocks, with women the majority. (This community-contributed labour can be an important element of sustainable finance arrangements for new WASH facilities.) Monitoring usage of the sanitation facilities, Maputo. • Step Four is women-led management. By clean water. For example, sanitation facilities can encouraging women to volunteer for positions of be unsafe, especially at night, and lack privacy; leadership, the five-person Sanitation Block inadequate WASH provision can lead to infectious Management Committees which manage the diseases, affecting maternal and reproductive health; facilities in Maputo have achieved high levels of and the task of collecting water from long distances participation by women – and 47% of the 36 tends to fall to women and girls, at the expense of committees have a woman president. Women employment or education. also form the majority of water standpost operators, meaning they benefit economically and Drawing on experience of establishing communal directly from the blocks. sanitation facilities in Maputo and Naivasha, this Practice Note illustrates how WASH service provision can be approached in a way that fosters inclusion, A gender-inclusive approach is promotes equality, and places the concerns of women fundamental to the continued and girls at the centre of programme planning and usage and maintenance of WASH implementation. It outlines a four-step planning and management process, in which women take a central facilities role. The Practice Note concludes that a gender-inclusive • Step One involves getting the location right, approach is fundamental to the continued usage taking into account women’s specific needs. and maintenance of WASH facilities. Further, the In Maputo the siting of proposed sanitation planned impacts of this approach extend beyond blocks was agreed after community consultation better WASH services, aiming, through example, meetings at which over 80% of participants were towards the empowerment of women both as women. decision-makers in the community and as members • In Step Two, women-led toilet design clinics of the local workforce. meant women were at the centre of infrastructure
36 WSUP - Water & Sanitation for the Urban Poor Landlord sensitisation session on the toilet-upgrading opportunity.
items), the system was carefully designed to avoid Nairobi’s super-slum Kibera is criss- this, and public toilets are now being used effectively crossed by sewer mains. So why as sludge disposal points.) In a 2013 survey of the not simply connect latrines to the 20 public toilets newly connected to the sewer two years previously, 18 were working well despite no sewer? piped water connection. By the end of that year 60 landlords had connected to the sewer at their own Practice Note 15: Sewerage or FSM? expense and another 130 had expressed interest. Sometimes both: ‘gradual sewering’ in Nairobi Landlord abuse (restricting use of the toilets to their own family, or charging excessively) has been Nairobi’s super-slum Kibera is criss-crossed by sewer a challenge, and in the second phase of the project mains. So why not simply connect it’s being addressed through latrines to the sewer? Unfortunately Landlord abuse various strategies including pre- it’s not so simple, for various reasons negotiated agreements, and including high costs. This note (restricting use of the reduced subsidy for the upgrade. looks at ACF developing a ‘gradual toilets to their own There has also been difficulty sewering’ approach, in partnership family, or charging retaining the commitment of a with Nairobi Water, which aims to excessively) has been a pit-emptying cooperative who had bridge the gap between onsite and been supported to take on the pit sewered sanitation. challenge emptying work. Solutions including WSUP supported Nairobi Water engaging entrepreneurs with higher to introduce tertiary sewer lines in Kambi Muru capacity, and strengthening regulation, are now being and neighbouring areas of Kibera, using two main explored. strategies: a) connecting public toilets to the sewer Revenue collection, and connecting landlords whose first, then some communal toilets and b) allowing plots are more than 20m from the existing sewer, are tipping of faecal sludge to sewers. (While Nairobi other challenges associated with the gradual sewering Water were initially reluctant to allow the latter approach, but with many benefits evident from the because of the risk of blockages (due to garbage work so far WSUP believes this approach may be an
WSUP - Water & Sanitation for the Urban Poor 37 Year 5 ACF Programme Annual Report
This guide shares some of the methods we have so far found to be effective in helping service providers to better understand what services low-income consumers are willing and able to pay for
effective way of moving toward a sewered system in in designing and implementing a programme of some low-income settlements. urban WASH improvements. Topic Brief 001: When are communal or public This guide shares some of the methods we have so toilets an appropriate option? (Feb 2011) far found to be effective in helping service providers to better understand what services low-income Topic Brief 002: Business models for delegated consumers are willing and able to pay for, to find management of local water services: experience from innovative and viable ways to deliver these services, Naivasha (Kenya) (Feb 2011) and to develop the skills to take these approaches to Topic Brief 003: Responding to demand: how urban scale. It’s not intended to be encyclopaedic; rather, WASH service providers are reaching low-income it’s a rapid-reference document with the following urban consumers at scale (Aug 2011) intended uses: Topic Brief 003 (#2): Delegated management • To aid the planning, design and implementation of water and sanitation services in urban areas: of urban WASH programmes; experiences from Kumasi, Ghana (Jul 2012) • To assist with investment planning by service Topic Brief 004: Recognising and dealing with providers; informal influences in water and sanitation services • To point the reader towards further sources of delivery (Jul 2012) information and guidance. Topic Brief 006: Dealing with land tenure and The guide has six colour-coded sections: tenancy challenges in water and sanitation services delivery (Feb 2013) • Planning, Designing, Influencing Topic Brief 007: Getting communities engaged in • Developing Capacity water and sanitation projects: participatory design • Water and consumer feedback (Feb 2013) • Sanitation Topic Brief 008: Designing effective contracts for small-scale service providers in urban water and • Hygiene Behaviour Change sanitation (Feb 2013) • Cross-Cutting (examining issues relevant to all other sections, such as how to achieve genuine Topic Brief 009: Hybrid management models: inclusion, and building entrepreneurship) blending community and private management (Feb 2013) Each section features real-life case studies, rapid- reference key points to remember, and sources for The Urban Programming Guide: How further guidance. to design and implement an effective The guide finishes with ten Frequently Asked urban WASH programme (Mar 2014) Questions which address some of the broader issues This document is a major achievement of the readers may have in mind, for example “How can aggregated ACF work and other WSUP projects. In a progress be measured?” and “What exactly is a low- clear and accessible way, it lays out the steps involved income community?”
38 WSUP - Water & Sanitation for the Urban Poor Year 5 ACF Programme Annual Report 4. After ACF: Future Challenges and Opportunities
An Artisan makes blocks for a landlord who needs to upgrade their latrine facility.
hile much learning has been drawn from We felt the following would be the most useful steps to careful evaluation of ACF activities, this take in the short term: final report also specifically looks at the • Continued capacity building to utilities on futureW challenges and opportunities arising from reducing NRW. ACF has made significant steps the work. Opinion was sought from amongst ACF in this area – it has helped utilities establish and programme teams on useful next steps which could run dedicated pro-poor units for both water and be taken, both by implementing organisations still sanitation, largely via demonstrating ways to working in the ACF cities (including WSUP) and by reduce NRW for increased revenues and better the utilities and government agencies who, after all, services. However, it’s important to get this have the mandate for providing universal services. embedded further. Work can be done to bring We also discussed the perceived major challenges everyone in the utility on board with prioritising to sustaining and scaling up the work already done. NRW reduction, not just the dedicated NRW Some of these points are specific to certain city department. It’s crucial to make sure that even contexts, while others are more broadly applicable. where senior management have agreed an NRW
WSUP - Water & Sanitation for the Urban Poor 39 Year 5 ACF Programme Annual Report
To maintain the great momentum of the promotion of connections to the extended sewer line in Nairobi, it may be necessary to continue to offer landlords a subsidy to ease the process of connecting
body like Kiva (www.kiva.org) or other kinds of microfinance. The utility (Nairobi Water) would be the appropriate body to take on arrangements for this. • Engage SMEs as part of improving pit- emptying services. A next step in work to strengthen pit-emptying services, as part of improving sanitation for non-sewered households, is to find small- to medium-size enterprises which already have reasonable business capacity and engage with them to expand their services in Low-Income Areas. While important work was achieved in Nairobi with a very small business, KARA, it proved too challenging to sustain a business model due to the sheer lack of capacity in such a small enterprise. Work has been more successful in Maputo with an SME called UGSM, and this type of partnership has more potential as a way forward. Inauguration of the Communal Sanitation Block at Q24 in Chamanculo C. • Support municipal authorities to develop PPP strategy, staff further down the organisation are proposals. In Kumasi ACF built and aware of and committed to its importance, so that demonstrated compound toilets, and in the long it actually gets implemented. Continuing to term the ideal arrangement would be a toilet for reduce NRW can be done without major every compound. In the shorter term, however, infrastructure investment, and much of the the most promising option to improve sanitation work done so far could be scaled up to wider access for as many people as possible is to areas within the city with only capacity-building improve the operation and maintenance of public support to the utility. For example, in Tana, toilets (public toilets are prevalent in Kumasi and where WSUP has a very good relationship with throughout Ghana). Work is underway with the water utility JIRAMA, the work to reduce KMA on plans to attract private sector finance leakage and losses and to improve operational under PPP models. efficiency is not difficult to expand to more areas • Promote community participation. It was noted • Explore micro-financing options for landlords in Kumasi that there is a need to work on fully for sanitation upgrade. To maintain the great engaging all members of the community to momentum of the promotion of connections to build a sense of ownership. It is only through the extended sewer line in Nairobi, it may be participation that community members feel necessary to continue to offer landlords a subsidy motivated to play a full role in operating and to ease the process of connecting. However, this maintaining the improved facilities here. should be done through loans, perhaps through a Engaging the community on these issues should
40 WSUP - Water & Sanitation for the Urban Poor Year 5 ACF Programme Annual Report
Pro-poor WASH improvements need to actually be implemented, rather than just being mentioned in strategic plans, and it’s still necessary to lobby institutions to become serious about providing these services
be an important next step in maintaining their JIRAMA is at full stretch in terms of its water role in the delegated management model. treatment capacity and the size of its network. Post-ACF, WSUP is working with JIRAMA to • Reinforce health messages on fluoridated water. secure external investment for increased In Naivasha, where high levels of fluoride in infrastructure and water treatment capacity. water present specific health problems, it’s been noted that messages on fluoride have perhaps • The role of women. Gender issues must be not got through as well as we would have liked. integrated into project development from the For example, signs at water kiosks using pictures beginning, thereby reducing the challenge of to distinguish between fluoridated and balancing the roles of women and men in WASH defluoridated water are not clear. More targeted delivery as projects develop. Involving women work could be done on this, without massive and challenging cultural assumptions about their investment. involvement can have enormous implications for women’s economic potential as well as benefiting The most useful opportunities on which to focus in the projects directly. This has been shown to be longer term might include: successful in various ACF contexts, but it needs to • Prioritising institutional change. Pro-poor continue in the long term and at scale. WASH improvements need to actually be • Advocating for local government investment, implemented, rather than just being mentioned possibly through formal sanitation surcharges. In in strategic plans, and it’s still necessary to lobby Maputo, a sanitation surcharge (taxa de institutions to become serious about providing saneamento) on water bills, these services. At the to raise revenues for same time, capacity Gender issues must be integrated sanitation provision in the building is still needed into project development from the city’s low-income areas, so that institutions beginning, thereby reducing the was agreed in principle in know how to challenge of balancing the roles of 2001. Progress toward its implement in these introduction was slow, areas – it’s not always women and men in WASH due in large part to appreciated, by a large delivery as projects develop Mozambique’s fragmented and potentially distant institutional framework organisation, that they may actually have to and a lack of clearly defined responsibility for knock on doors and give householders sanitation. As part of long advocacy to get this information about how to connect, provide help implemented, WSUP provided technical support with getting and doing the paperwork, and to the regulator through a study of different explain about costs. finance models, resulting in a proper costing for • Helping utilities secure major investments for the proposed surcharge to ensure it was viable (i.e. infrastructure. In Tana’s fast growing peri-urban both high enough to recover costs and low settlements, access to improved water is perhaps enough to be affordable for households). We are the most pressing issue – and the water utility now reaching a successful conclusion to this
WSUP - Water & Sanitation for the Urban Poor 41 Year 5 ACF Programme Annual Report
ACF and its partners have done much work in schools to promote handwashing with soap and other hygiene messages
advocacy process, and it represents a huge step forward, allowing for sanitation improvements at scale: dedicated investment infrastructure will mean more transfer stations & disposal points for pit-emptiers, for example. WSUP is looking for these kinds of finance mechanisms for all cities – so the most useful longer-term next step, more broadly speaking, is to learn from Maputo and look at similar options elsewhere. • Involving different types of institutions in hygiene promotion. ACF and its partners have done much work in schools to promote handwashing with soap and other hygiene messages. In Tana, other institutions such as churches were also included under a campaign to make them “Friends of WASH”. This could be replicated elsewhere to great effect: churches have powerful social influence, and giving the right messages through them could massively Rochelle Rainey, USAID’s Senior Technical Advisor Environmental Health during a visit to WSUP supported operational water kiosks built 2 years expand the reach of hygiene work. Health centres, ago. too, have been shown to be very useful conduits for hygiene messages, for example when treating priority for LSPs) means it’s difficult for people with diarrhoea. LSPs to provide proactive maintenance to keep the existing system running. We discussed challenges to sustaining the work already • Small size of community based organisations implemented, and to scaling up improvements. These involved in service delivery. At the local level, points arose when talking about challenges to work small teams with responsibility for O&M already underway: may not have the capacity to “go it alone” on • Sustaining O&M of facilities without viable service delivery. In Tana, for example, the Water tariffs and LSP priorities. The model for User Associations involved in the delegated water managing the improved water and sanitation management model are very small. The model facilities in Kumasi demands that major binds them in to formal responsibility for O&M, maintenance of the facilities remains the and so far this structure has worked well because responsibility of statutory service providers. they (existing WUAs) are very committed, with a However, the ACF team in Ghana has strong sense of ownership. However, there isn’t noted that a combination of unrealistically much slack in the system: though they receive low tariffs and unfavourable priority-setting revenue from water kiosks and laundry blocks, (low-income communities are still not usually a management needs to be very efficient because
42 WSUP - Water & Sanitation for the Urban Poor Year 5 ACF Programme Annual Report
• Lack of political will to provide pro-poor services. In many cases poor communities in informal settlements are seen politically as “just a problem”. They may be perceived as doing nothing but losing money for the utility, rather than as potentially valuable consumers. This attitude is a major barrier to sustainability and, where it is prevalent, utilities need to be shown that poor communities represent an important market sector. ACF has demonstrated that a shift in political will is possible – and that exchange visits between peers (for example, between Uganda’s pro-poor unit and Nairobi’s NCWSC informal settlements department) can be especially effective and inspiring. • Unproven elements within new models of service delivery. Some elements of systems we have introduced under ACF are still unproven; for example, with the pre-paid water dispensers in Nakuru the best way to get them fully integrated with the water utility’s delivery and payment systems has not yet been determined, so the model remains unproven. However, this is a natural hurdle when testing new models, and it doesn’t imply that they’re unlikely to work! In many cases poor communities And the following points arose when we moved on to talking about scaling up. These were the challenges in informal settlements are seen considered most significant: politically as “just a problem” • Fragmented institutional structures make sharing success difficult. In the context of scaling the margins with which they operate are tight. up the work done in Nairobi to other Kenyan Post-ACF in Tana, WSUP is continuing to cities, the main problem is fragmented support and monitor the management of facilities. institutional structures. There is no obvious • Lack of capacity of small businesses involved conduit for sharing success – though, in Kenya, in service delivery. As noted above, it proved too the Water Services Trust Fund might be a challenging to build a sustainable business model contender – no one “champion” who could with the small sanitation business KARA, with connect the city water companies, demonstrate whom ACF engaged in Kibera (Nairobi). Without what’s worked in Nairobi and propose possibilities a base level of business capacity, e.g. literacy and for their cities. Building such a mechanism into record-keeping skills, it’s impossible to formalise a programme at the design stage would help or expand a business in the ways necessary to get ensure that learning is actually transferred. to a reliable, regular and affordable service for households.
WSUP - Water & Sanitation for the Urban Poor 43 Year 5 ACF Programme Annual Report
Workshops, exchange visits and demonstration projects are all effective ways to reach utility staff, going further than the hopeful dissemination of written documents
• Different contexts may require radically different technologies or delivery mechanisms. It’s important to remain sensitive to local context even where a model has been proven successful in one area, as the characteristics of communities in which pilots take place may differ from those communities which are proposed to receive an expanded or extended version. Similarities and common characteristics between target communities should be identified at the development stage to avoid a “one hit wonder” pilot project. • Land availability and tenure issues can cause bottlenecks. This is a pressing problem in Tana, where the main challenge to scale-up comes back to the capacity for water services. The ACF model for water delivery is strong, has sustainability built in, and the Commune is committed, but, as the city grows, JIRAMA’s water capacity – network, storage, treatment, delivery – is under Training Session for Owners and Operators of Public Latrine Blocks in Kumasi. increasing pressure, particularly due to a lack of available land. A census is underway, but the utility needs to increase primary and secondary It’s important to remain sensitive networks, and massively increase treatment to local context even where a capacity, so requires large amounts of land and model has been proven successful major investment. The Ministry of Water is very in one area aware of the bottleneck and is exploring options for external investment. • Sustainability of Community Management Workshops, exchange visits and demonstration Companies. As noted above, the community projects are all effective ways to reach utility based organisations who take hands-on staff, going further than the hopeful responsibility for managing improved facilities dissemination of written documents. Another (e.g. the CMC in Kotei, and Sanitation Block option might be to present successful models to Management Committees in Maputo) tend to be Boards of Directors at utilities and other LSPs to very small, so capacity is limited. Though it’s get senior-level endorsement; ideally, this task evident that community engagement and the should be owned nationally rather than by sense of ownership is crucial, it’s not yet clear how external agencies, and might be an appropriate to get to scale with this community management role for national Ministries. model.
44 WSUP - Water & Sanitation for the Urban Poor Year 5 ACF Programme Annual Report
A strong regulatory environment is needed to support formal service providers rather than allowing their informal competitors to undercut them, thwarting their attempts to scale up
• Improved services still come up against infrastructure limitations. Working directly with pit emptying businesses and other sanitation entrepreneurs (for example) can improve services so far, but they need functioning transfer stations and safe, accessible disposal points. Involving bigger private sector organisations, again, may help, but the main issue is the need to develop an enabling environment. In other words, getting to scale must include the involvement of statutory bodies, and in the long term this is where pressure must be creatively applied: to shift the policy environment. • Improved services still need a favourable regulatory environment. A strong regulatory environment is needed to support formal service providers rather than allowing their informal competitors to undercut them, thwarting their attempts to scale up. Staying with the example of pit emptiers: UGSM in Maputo has greater overheads than its informal competitors, because it has invested in better business processes and uses official disposal points rather than dumping waste illegally. In an unregulated environment such a business will struggle to compete. In water, unofficial vendors may charge extortionate amounts to consumers and/or provide poor quality water, whereas a regulated environment, in which water vendors operate under contracts, keeps prices affordable and maintains water quality.
WSUP - Water & Sanitation for the Urban Poor 45 Year 5 ACF Programme Annual Report 5. Fiscal Report
Actual spent Budgeted A B Spending on Cost Categories $2,000,000 A
B B $1,500,000
A
A B $1,000,000
$500,000
B A A B
A B B B $000,000 A Personnel Fringe Benefits Travel Equipment Supplies Programme Contractual Indirect Costs Implementation
Table 8: Programme spending according to cost categories, compared with budget. Programme implementation costs are primarily the costs of trainings, meetings and workshops. Contractual costs are primarily construction of infrastructure, including toilet blocks, water kiosks and sewer lines, as well as work conducted by partners such as WaterAid
The bulk of the spending was on the cost categories of contractual, personnel and direct programme implementation
he total spending across the five years of the By comparison with the budget, there was an ACF programme was $5,216,000 at the time overspend on travel and contractual and an of reporting, with some small outstanding underspend on equipment, fringe benefits and Tcommitments (such as the final audit) out of a total personnel. Supplies and direct programme awarded amount of $5,266,731. The bulk of the implementation were almost exactly in line with spending was on the cost categories of contractual the budget. All of the variations were within the (38.4%), personnel (25.3%) and direct programme maximum allowable variation of 10% of the total implementation (21.9%). More minor contributions budget. were made to travel (5.2%), supplies (5.2%), fringe benefits (3.2%) and equipment (0.8%), and no The majority of the spending occurred in Kenya indirect costs were incurred. (30.8% across Nairobi, Naivasha and Nakuru),
46 WSUP - Water & Sanitation for the Urban Poor Year 5 ACF Programme Annual Report
Deviation % of % of % of (as % Budgeted Cost Cost Category Actual Spend Budgeted Cost Share Cost Total Budget of total Share Share budget)* Personnel 1,318,631 US$ 25.3% 1,600,820 US$ 82% 5.4% 418.999 US$ 417,143 US$ 24% Fringe Benefits 165,262 US$ 3.2% 269,610 US$ 61% 2.0% 58.633 US$ 73,761 US$ 26% Travel 273,285 US$ 5.2% 168,007 US$ 163% -2.0% 18,566 US$ 4,623 US$ 6% Equipment 40,625 US$ 0.8% 87,449 US$ 46% 0.9% 4,115 US$ 15,000 US$ 9% Supplies 271,935 US$ 5.2% 283,941 US$ 96% 0.2% 61,448 US$ 112,050 US$ 18% Programme 1,143,984 US$ 21.9% 1,155,951 US$ 99% 0.2% 186,624 US$ 346,450 US$ 14% Implementation Contractual 2,002,273 US$ 38.4% 1,630,944 US$ 123% -7.1% 649,558 US$ 417,600 US$ 24% Indirect Costs 0 US$ 0.0% 70,009 US$ 0% 1.3% 0 US$ 0 US$ 0% Totals 5,215,995 US$ 100.0% 5,266,731 US$ 99% 1.0% 1.397.943 US$ 1,386,627 US$ 21%
* Must be less than 10%
Table 9: Programme cost share percentage across cost categories.
Cost Share Percentage 25% Required cost share
20%
15%
10%
5%
0% Personnel Fringe Benefits Travel Equipment Supplies Programme Contractual Total Implementation
Table 10: Programme cost share percentage across cost categories.
WSUP - Water & Sanitation for the Urban Poor 47 Year 5 ACF Programme Annual Report
Actual spent Budgeted A B B Spending in Areas A $1,000,000
A A B
B $800,000
B B A $600,000
A
$400,000 A B A B
$200,000 A B
$000,000 Programme Nairobi Naivasha Kumasi Antananarivo Maputo Bamako Nakuru
Table 11: Programme spending according to project area, compared with budget.
Ghana (20.4%) and the overall programme % of Total % of coordination, which includes both UK-based Cost Area Spent Total Budgeted Budgeted and in-country staff not assigned to a specific country project (18.3%). The remainder of Programme 954,859 US$ 18.3% 880,379 US$ 108% the spending was in Mozambique (12.7%), Nairobi 975,755 US$ 18.7% 962,526 US$ 101% Madagascar (10.9%) and Mali (6.9%). Naivasha 425,031 US$ 8.1% 382,685 US$ 111% Significant deviations from the budget were Ghana 1,062,130 US$ 20.4% 1,098,988 US$ 97% only incurred in Naivasha and Nakuru, Kenya Madagascar 566,019 US$ 10.9% 673,643 US$ 84% (overspend) and Madagascar (underspend). Mozambique 663,341 US$ 12.7% 710,908 US$ 93% After a slow start to the programme, with Mali 361,966 US$ 6.9% 369,005 US$ 98% only 8.84% of funds spent in the first year of Nakuru 206,884 US$ 4.0% 186,500 US$ 111% activities (due to difficulties in starting up the Totals 5,215,986 US$ 100.0% 5.264.634 US$ 99% projects and implementing effective systems), Table 12: Programme spending according to project area, compared with there was a very high spend across years two budget. and three, which reflected between them 60.38% of the total budget. A significant of this infrastructure, such as helping low-income proportion of this spend was on big infrastructure residents to connect to a new sewer-line, or building projects. This enabled the final two years of the capacity of water/sanitation operators, which resulted project to focus more on capitalising on the existence in a lower expenditure over these last two years
48 WSUP - Water & Sanitation for the Urban Poor Year 5 ACF Programme Annual Report
(29.81%). Hence, the cumulative expenditure chart Quarter Quarterly Spend Cumulative Spend forms something of an ‘S’-shape. Oct-Dec 2009 42,299 US$ 42,299 US$ The total cost share amount was $1,397,943, Jan-Mar 2010 43,359 US$ 85,658 US$ contributed by a number of WSUP’s donors – Apr-Jun 2010 155,966 US$ 241,624 US$ including Australian Agency for International Jul-Sep 2010 223,997 US$ 465,621 US$ Development, the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, Oct-Dec 2010 307,852 US$ 773,473 US$ the Coca-Cola Foundation, the Department for International Development, UN-Habitat, Vitol and Jan-Mar 2011 231,506 US$ 1,004,979 US$ Vitens-Evides International. As with the USAID Apr-Jun 2011 686,581 US$ 1,691,560 US$ spending, the cost share contributed across all cost Jul-Sep 2011 774,105 US$ 2,465,665 US$ categories; spending was primarily in contractual, Oct-Dec 2012 356,339 US$ 2,822,004 US$ personnel and direct programme implementation Jan-Mar 2012 514,958 US$ 3,336,962 US$ (90% of total cost share). The cost share amount was Apr-Jun 2012 72,011 US$ 3,408,973 US$ 21% of the total (USAID plus cost share) programme spending, meeting the programme’s requirement. Jul-Sep 2012 236,748 US$ 3,645,721 US$ Oct-Dec 2012 366,796 US$ 4,012,517 US$ Jan-Mar 2013 98,775 US$ 4,111, 292 US$ Apr-Jun 2013 127,480 US$ 4,238,772 US$ Jul-Sep 2013 131,110 US$ 4,369,882 US$ Oct-Dec 2013 189,239 US$ 4,559,121 US$ Jan-Mar 2014 46,283 US$ 4,605,404 US$ Apr-Jun 2014 305,007 US$ 4,910,411 US$ Jul-Sep 2014 305,584 US$ 5,215,995 US$
Table 13: Programme spending – both quarterly and cumulative – over time.
WSUP - Water & Sanitation for the Urban Poor 49 $800,000
$5,000,000
$600,000 $4,000,000
$3,000,000 $400,000
$2,000,000 Spending in Quarter Cumulative Spending Cumulative $200,000
$1,000,000
$ 000,000 $ 000,000
Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Year 4 Year 5
Table 14: Programme spending – both quarterly and cumulative – over time.
Photo credit: sylvie Ramanantsoa. Image caption: community members collecting water from kiosk in Ambanilalana Andranonahoatra, Antananarivo, Madagascar.
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