Speciation and Macroevolution a Brief Review Why Study Evolution?
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Sympatric Speciation: Models and Empirical Evidence
ANRV328-ES38-19 ARI 24 September 2007 7:20 Sympatric Speciation: Models and Empirical Evidence Daniel I. Bolnick1 and Benjamin M. Fitzpatrick2 1Section of Integrative Biology, University of Texas, Austin, Texas 78712; email: [email protected] 2Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee 37996; email: benfi[email protected] Annu. Rev. Ecol. Evol. Syst. 2007. 38:459–87 Key Words First published online as a Review in Advance on assortative mating, disruptive selection, reinforcement August 8, 2007 reproductive isolation The Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics is online at Abstract http://ecolsys.annualreviews.org Sympatric speciation, the evolution of reproductive isolation with- This article’s doi: 10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.38.091206.095804 out geographic barriers, remains highly contentious. As a result of new empirical examples and theory, it is now generally accepted that Copyright c 2007 by Annual Reviews. All rights reserved sympatric speciation has occurred in at least a few instances, and is theoretically plausible. Instead, debate has shifted to whether sym- by Rutgers University Libraries on 09/21/09. For personal use only. 1543-592X/07/1201-0459$20.00 patric speciation is common, and whether models’ assumptions are generally met in nature. The relative frequency of sympatric spe- ciation will be difficult to resolve, because biogeographic changes have obscured geographical patterns underlying many past specia- Annu. Rev. Ecol. Evol. Syst. 2007.38:459-487. Downloaded from arjournals.annualreviews.org tion events. In contrast, progress is being made on evaluating the empirical validity of key theoretical conditions for sympatric spe- ciation. Disruptive selection and direct selection on mating traits, which should facilitate sympatric speciation, are biologically well supported. -
Introduction to Macroevolution
Spring, 2012 Phylogenetics 200A Modes of Macroevolution Macroevolution is used to refer to any evolutionary change at or above the level of species. Darwin illustrated the combined action of descent with modification, the principle of divergence, and extinction in the only figure in On the Origin of Species (Fig. 1), showing the link between microevolution and macroevolution. The New Synthesis sought to distance itself from the ‘origin of species’ (= macroevolution) and concentrated instead on microevolution - variation within populations and reproductive isolation. “Darwin’s principle of divergence derives from what he thought to be one of the most potent components of the struggle for existence. He argued that the strongest interactions would be among individuals within a population or among closely related populations or species, because these organisms have the most similar requirements. Darwin’s principle of divergence predicts that the individuals, populations or species most likely to succeed in the struggle are those that differ most from their close relatives in the way they achieve their needs for survival and reproduction.” (Reznick & Ricklefs 2009. Nature 457) Macroevolution also fell into disfavor with its invocation for hopeful monsters in development as well as its implication in some Neo-Lamarckian theories. Interest in macroevolution revived by several paleontologists including Steven Stanley, Stephen Jay Gould and Niles Eldredge, the latter two in the context of punctuated equilibrium. They proposed that what happens in evolution beyond the species level is due to processes that operate beyond the level of populations – including species selection. Niles Eldredge, in particular, has written extensively on the macroevolutionary hierarchy. -
Comparative Evolution: Latent Potentials for Anagenetic Advance (Adaptive Shifts/Constraints/Anagenesis) G
Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA Vol. 85, pp. 5141-5145, July 1988 Evolution Comparative evolution: Latent potentials for anagenetic advance (adaptive shifts/constraints/anagenesis) G. LEDYARD STEBBINS* AND DANIEL L. HARTLtt *Department of Genetics, University of California, Davis, CA 95616; and tDepartment of Genetics, Washington University School of Medicine, Box 8031, 660 South Euclid Avenue, Saint Louis, MO 63110 Contributed by G. Ledyard Stebbins, April 4, 1988 ABSTRACT One of the principles that has emerged from genetic variation available for evolutionary changes (2), a experimental evolutionary studies of microorganisms is that major concern of modem evolutionists is explaining how the polymorphic alleles or new mutations can sometimes possess a vast amount of genetic variation that actually exists can be latent potential to respond to selection in different environ- maintained. Given the fact that in complex higher organisms ments, although the alleles may be functionally equivalent or most new mutations with visible effects on phenotype are disfavored under typical conditions. We suggest that such deleterious, many biologists, particularly Kimura (3), have responses to selection in microorganisms serve as experimental sought to solve the problem by proposing that much genetic models of evolutionary advances that occur over much longer variation is selectively neutral or nearly so, at least at the periods of time in higher organisms. We propose as a general molecular level. Amidst a background of what may be largely evolutionary principle that anagenic advances often come from neutral or nearly neutral genetic variation, adaptive evolution capitalizing on preexisting latent selection potentials in the nevertheless occurs. While much of natural selection at the presence of novel ecological opportunity. -
Microevolution and the Genetics of Populations Microevolution Refers to Varieties Within a Given Type
Chapter 8: Evolution Lesson 8.3: Microevolution and the Genetics of Populations Microevolution refers to varieties within a given type. Change happens within a group, but the descendant is clearly of the same type as the ancestor. This might better be called variation, or adaptation, but the changes are "horizontal" in effect, not "vertical." Such changes might be accomplished by "natural selection," in which a trait within the present variety is selected as the best for a given set of conditions, or accomplished by "artificial selection," such as when dog breeders produce a new breed of dog. Lesson Objectives ● Distinguish what is microevolution and how it affects changes in populations. ● Define gene pool, and explain how to calculate allele frequencies. ● State the Hardy-Weinberg theorem ● Identify the five forces of evolution. Vocabulary ● adaptive radiation ● gene pool ● migration ● allele frequency ● genetic drift ● mutation ● artificial selection ● Hardy-Weinberg theorem ● natural selection ● directional selection ● macroevolution ● population genetics ● disruptive selection ● microevolution ● stabilizing selection ● gene flow Introduction Darwin knew that heritable variations are needed for evolution to occur. However, he knew nothing about Mendel’s laws of genetics. Mendel’s laws were rediscovered in the early 1900s. Only then could scientists fully understand the process of evolution. Microevolution is how individual traits within a population change over time. In order for a population to change, some things must be assumed to be true. In other words, there must be some sort of process happening that causes microevolution. The five ways alleles within a population change over time are natural selection, migration (gene flow), mating, mutations, or genetic drift. -
What Is Macroevolution?
[Palaeontology, 2020, pp. 1–11] FRONTIERS IN PALAEONTOLOGY WHAT IS MACROEVOLUTION? by MICHAEL HAUTMANN Pal€aontologisches Institut und Museum, Universit€at Zurich,€ Karl-Schmid Strasse 4, 8006 Zurich,€ Switzerland; [email protected] Typescript received 14 June 2019; accepted in revised form 15 October 2019 Abstract: Definitions of macroevolution fall into three cat- intraspecific competition as a mediator between selective egories: (1) evolution of taxa of supraspecific rank; (2) evolu- agents and evolutionary responses. This mediating role of tion on the grand time-scale; and (3) evolution that is guided intraspecific competition occurs in the presence of sexual by sorting of interspecific variation (as opposed to sorting of reproduction and has therefore no analogue at the macroevo- intraspecific variation in microevolution). Here, it is argued lutionary level where species are the evolutionary units. Com- that only definition 3 allows for a consistent separation of petition between species manifests both on the macroevolution and microevolution. Using this definition, spe- microevolutionary and macroevolutionary level, but with dif- ciation has both microevolutionary and macroevolutionary ferent effects. In microevolution, interspecific competition aspects: the process of morphological transformation is spurs evolutionary divergence, whereas it is a potential driver microevolutionary, but the variation among species that it pro- of extinction at the macroevolutionary level. Recasting the Red duces is macroevolutionary, as is the rate at which speciation Queen hypothesis in a macroevolutionary framework suggests occurs. Selective agents may have differential effects on that the effects of interspecific competition result in a positive intraspecific and interspecific variation, with three possible sit- correlation between origination and extinction rates, confirm- uations: effect at one level only, effect at both levels with the ing empirical observations herein referred to as Stanley’s rule. -
Uniting Micro- with Macroevolution Into an Extended Synthesis: Reintegrating Life’S Natural History Into Evolution Studies
Uniting Micro- with Macroevolution into an Extended Synthesis: Reintegrating Life’s Natural History into Evolution Studies Nathalie Gontier Abstract The Modern Synthesis explains the evolution of life at a mesolevel by identifying phenotype–environmental interactions as the locus of evolution and by identifying natural selection as the means by which evolution occurs. Both micro- and macroevolutionary schools of thought are post-synthetic attempts to evolution- ize phenomena above and below organisms that have traditionally been conceived as non-living. Microevolutionary thought associates with the study of how genetic selection explains higher-order phenomena such as speciation and extinction, while macroevolutionary research fields understand species and higher taxa as biological individuals and they attribute evolutionary causation to biotic and abiotic factors that transcend genetic selection. The microreductionist and macroholistic research schools are characterized as two distinct epistemic cultures where the former favor mechanical explanations, while the latter favor historical explanations of the evolu- tionary process by identifying recurring patterns and trends in the evolution of life. I demonstrate that both cultures endorse radically different notions on time and explain how both perspectives can be unified by endorsing epistemic pluralism. Keywords Microevolution · Macroevolution · Origin of life · Evolutionary biology · Sociocultural evolution · Natural history · Organicism · Biorealities · Units, levels and mechanisms of evolution · Major transitions · Hierarchy theory But how … shall we describe a process which nobody has seen performed, and of which no written history gives any account? This is only to be investigated, first, in examining the nature of those solid bodies, the history of which we want to know; and 2dly, in exam- ining the natural operations of the globe, in order to see if there now actually exist such operations, as, from the nature of the solid bodies, appear to have been necessary to their formation. -
Genetic Structure and Eco-Geographical Differentiation of Lancea Tibetica in the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau
G C A T T A C G G C A T genes Article Genetic Structure and Eco-Geographical Differentiation of Lancea tibetica in the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau Xiaofeng Chi 1,2 , Faqi Zhang 1,2,* , Qingbo Gao 1,2, Rui Xing 1,2 and Shilong Chen 1,2,* 1 Key Laboratory of Adaptation and Evolution of Plateau Biota, Northwest Institute of Plateau Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xining 810001, China; [email protected] (X.C.); [email protected] (Q.G.); [email protected] (R.X.) 2 Qinghai Provincial Key Laboratory of Crop Molecular Breeding, Xining 810001, China * Correspondence: [email protected] (F.Z.); [email protected] (S.C.) Received: 14 December 2018; Accepted: 24 January 2019; Published: 29 January 2019 Abstract: The uplift of the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau (QTP) had a profound impact on the plant speciation rate and genetic diversity. High genetic diversity ensures that species can survive and adapt in the face of geographical and environmental changes. The Tanggula Mountains, located in the central of the QTP, have unique geographical significance. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of the Tanggula Mountains as a geographical barrier on plant genetic diversity and structure by using Lancea tibetica. A total of 456 individuals from 31 populations were analyzed using eight pairs of microsatellite makers. The total number of alleles was 55 and the number per locus ranged from 3 to 11 with an average of 6.875. The polymorphism information content (PIC) values ranged from 0.2693 to 0.7761 with an average of 0.4378 indicating that the eight microsatellite makers were efficient for distinguishing genotypes. -
•How Does Microevolution Add up to Macroevolution? •What Are Species
Microevolution and Macroevolution • How does Microevolution add up to macroevolution? • What are species? • How are species created? • What are anagenesis and cladogenesis? 1 Sunday, March 6, 2011 Species Concepts • Biological species concept: Defines species as interbreeding populations reproductively isolated from other such populations. • Evolutionary species concept: Defines species as evolutionary lineages with their own unique identity. • Ecological species concept: Defines species based on the uniqueness of their ecological niche. • Recognition species concept: Defines species based on unique traits or behaviors that allow members of one species to identify each other for mating. 2 Sunday, March 6, 2011 Reproductive Isolating Mechanisms • Premating RIMs Habitat isolation Temporal isolation Behavioral isolation Mechanical incompatibility • Postmating RIMs Sperm-egg incompatibility Zygote inviability Embryonic or fetal inviability 3 Sunday, March 6, 2011 Modes of Evolutionary Change 4 Sunday, March 6, 2011 Cladogenesis 5 Sunday, March 6, 2011 6 Sunday, March 6, 2011 7 Sunday, March 6, 2011 Evolution is “the simple way by which species (populations) become exquisitely adapted to various ends” 8 Sunday, March 6, 2011 All characteristics are due to the four forces • Mutation creates new alleles - new variation • Genetic drift moves these around by chance • Gene flow moves these from one population to the next creating clines • Natural selection increases and decreases them in frequency through adaptation 9 Sunday, March 6, 2011 Clines -
Allopatric Speciation with Little Niche Divergence Is Common Among
Journal of Biogeography (J. Biogeogr.) (2016) 43, 591–602 ORIGINAL Allopatric speciation with little niche ARTICLE divergence is common among alpine Primulaceae Florian C. Boucher1*, Niklaus E. Zimmermann2,3 and Elena Conti1 1Institute of Systematic Botany, University of ABSTRACT Zurich,€ 8008 Zurich,€ Switzerland, 2Dynamic Aim Despite the accumulation of cases describing fast radiations of alpine Macroecology, Swiss Federal Research plants, we still have limited understanding of the drivers of speciation in alpine Institute WSL, 8903 Birmensdorf, Switzerland, 3Department of Environmental floras and of the precise the timing of their diversification. Here, we investi- Systems Science, Swiss Federal Institute of gated spatial and temporal patterns of speciation in three groups of alpine Technology ETH, CH-8092 Zurich,€ Primulaceae. Switzerland Location Mountains of the European Alpine System. Methods We built a new phylogeny of Primulaceae including all species in three focal groups: Androsace sect. Aretia, Primula sect. Auricula and Soldanella. Combining phylogenetic information with a detailed climatic data set, we investigated patterns of range and ecological overlap between sister-species using an approach that takes phylogenetic uncertainty into account. Finally, we investigated temporal trajectories of diversification in the three focal groups. Results We found that a large majority of sister-species pairs in the three groups are strictly allopatric and show little differences in substrate and cli- matic preferences, a result that was robust to phylogenetic uncertainty. While rates of diversification have remained constant in Soldanella, both Androsace sect. Aretia and Primula sect. Auricula showed decreased diversification rates in the Pleistocene compared to previous geological epochs. Main conclusions Allopatric speciation with little niche divergence appears to have been by far the most common mode of speciation across the three groups studied. -
Species Change Over Time
KEY CONCEPT Species change over time. BEFORE, you learned NOW, you will learn • Fossils are evidence of earlier • About early ideas and observa- life tions on evolution • More complex organisms have • How Darwin developed his developed over time theory of natural selection • Mass extinctions contributed to • How new species arise from the development of Earth’s older species history VOCABULARY THINK ABOUT evolution p. 797 How have telephones changed over time? natural selection p. 801 adaptation p. 802 Today people across the world can speciation p. 804 communicate in many different ways. One of the most common ways is over the telephone. Looking at the two pictures, can you describe how this form of communication has changed over time? Scientists explore the concept of evolution. MAIN IDEA AND DETAILS In a general sense, evolution involves a change over time. You could Make a chart for the main say that the way humans communicate has evolved. Certainly idea scientists explore the concept of evolution. telephones have changed over time. The first telephones were the size Include details about scien- of a shoebox. Today a telephone can fit in the palm of your hand and tists’ observations. can send images as well as sound. In biology,evolution refers to the process though which species change over time. The change results from a change in the genetic material of an organism and is passed from one generation to the next. Check Your Reading What is evolution? Chapter 23: History of Life 797 Early Ideas reading tip In the early 1800s, a French scientist named Jean Baptiste de Lamarck The word acquire comes was the first scientist to propose a model of how life evolves. -
Speciation in Geographical Setting
Speciation Speciation 2019 2019 The degree of reproductive isolation Substantial variation exists in among geographical sets of species - anagenesis populations within an actively 1859 1859 evolving species complex is often Achillea - yarrow tested by crossing experiments — as in the tidy tips of California 100K bp 100K bp back in time back in time back Rubus parviforus K = 4 mean population assignment 2 mya 2 mya ID CO WI_Door 5 mya BC_Hixton BC_MtRob WI_BruleS 5 mya BC_McLeod CA_Klamath MI_Windigo WA_Cascade WA_BridgeCr SD_BlackHills OR_Willamette MI_Drummond Speciation Speciation 2019 Reproductive isolation will ultimately stop all Although simple in concept, the recognition of species and thus the definition genetic connections among sets of populations of what are species have been controversial — more than likely due to the – cladogenesis or speciation continuum nature of the pattern resulting from the process of speciation 1859 Example: mechanical isolation via floral shape changes and pollinators between two parapatric species of California Salvia (sage) 100K bp back in time back 2 mya S. mellifera 5 mya Salvia apiana 1 Speciation Speciation Although simple in concept, the recognition of species and thus the definition Animal examples of speciation often show of what are species have been controversial — more than likely due to the clear reproductive barriers - hence zoologists continuum nature of the pattern resulting from the process of speciation preference (as opposed to botanists) for the Reproductive isolating Biological -
Sympatric Speciation in Ants
When houseguests become parasites: Sympatric speciation in ants Stewart H. Berlocher* Department of Entomology, University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign, 320 Morrill Hall, 505 South Goodwin Avenue, Urbana, IL 61801 pecies are part of the common related species, and we are finally, if still argue that sympatric speciation was not coinage of biology. Taxonomists dimly, seeing some of the specific genes limited to a handful of special cases, but name them, developmental biolo- that underlie reproductive isolation (3). was quite common. Bush was driven to gists deconstruct them, physiolo- But fundamental questions remain his stance by the observation that one S unanswered. A critical question is how gists compare them, ecologists count could find many groups of closely re- them, conservation biologists conserve reproductive isolation could evolve in lated, sympatric species that use differ- them, and evolutionary biologists study the face of gene flow; random mating ent ecological niches. Conspicuous their multiplication and extinction. It within a population and gene flow be- among these groups are parasites of ani- may be that only the individual is a tween neighboring populations are enor- mals and plants, which are often highly more important biological unit than the mously powerful homogenizing forces. specialized ecologically and frequently species. It is thus no surprise that Dar- How could selection tear a single popu- mate on the host, a factor that poten- win named his great work On the Origin lation into two reproductively isolated tially links any adaptation to a new host of Species, nor is it a surprise that many with a reduction in gene flow between evolutionary biologists today concen- the new and ancestral populations.