Introduction to Macroevolution
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Comparative Evolution: Latent Potentials for Anagenetic Advance (Adaptive Shifts/Constraints/Anagenesis) G
Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA Vol. 85, pp. 5141-5145, July 1988 Evolution Comparative evolution: Latent potentials for anagenetic advance (adaptive shifts/constraints/anagenesis) G. LEDYARD STEBBINS* AND DANIEL L. HARTLtt *Department of Genetics, University of California, Davis, CA 95616; and tDepartment of Genetics, Washington University School of Medicine, Box 8031, 660 South Euclid Avenue, Saint Louis, MO 63110 Contributed by G. Ledyard Stebbins, April 4, 1988 ABSTRACT One of the principles that has emerged from genetic variation available for evolutionary changes (2), a experimental evolutionary studies of microorganisms is that major concern of modem evolutionists is explaining how the polymorphic alleles or new mutations can sometimes possess a vast amount of genetic variation that actually exists can be latent potential to respond to selection in different environ- maintained. Given the fact that in complex higher organisms ments, although the alleles may be functionally equivalent or most new mutations with visible effects on phenotype are disfavored under typical conditions. We suggest that such deleterious, many biologists, particularly Kimura (3), have responses to selection in microorganisms serve as experimental sought to solve the problem by proposing that much genetic models of evolutionary advances that occur over much longer variation is selectively neutral or nearly so, at least at the periods of time in higher organisms. We propose as a general molecular level. Amidst a background of what may be largely evolutionary principle that anagenic advances often come from neutral or nearly neutral genetic variation, adaptive evolution capitalizing on preexisting latent selection potentials in the nevertheless occurs. While much of natural selection at the presence of novel ecological opportunity. -
Microevolution and the Genetics of Populations Microevolution Refers to Varieties Within a Given Type
Chapter 8: Evolution Lesson 8.3: Microevolution and the Genetics of Populations Microevolution refers to varieties within a given type. Change happens within a group, but the descendant is clearly of the same type as the ancestor. This might better be called variation, or adaptation, but the changes are "horizontal" in effect, not "vertical." Such changes might be accomplished by "natural selection," in which a trait within the present variety is selected as the best for a given set of conditions, or accomplished by "artificial selection," such as when dog breeders produce a new breed of dog. Lesson Objectives ● Distinguish what is microevolution and how it affects changes in populations. ● Define gene pool, and explain how to calculate allele frequencies. ● State the Hardy-Weinberg theorem ● Identify the five forces of evolution. Vocabulary ● adaptive radiation ● gene pool ● migration ● allele frequency ● genetic drift ● mutation ● artificial selection ● Hardy-Weinberg theorem ● natural selection ● directional selection ● macroevolution ● population genetics ● disruptive selection ● microevolution ● stabilizing selection ● gene flow Introduction Darwin knew that heritable variations are needed for evolution to occur. However, he knew nothing about Mendel’s laws of genetics. Mendel’s laws were rediscovered in the early 1900s. Only then could scientists fully understand the process of evolution. Microevolution is how individual traits within a population change over time. In order for a population to change, some things must be assumed to be true. In other words, there must be some sort of process happening that causes microevolution. The five ways alleles within a population change over time are natural selection, migration (gene flow), mating, mutations, or genetic drift. -
What Is Macroevolution?
[Palaeontology, 2020, pp. 1–11] FRONTIERS IN PALAEONTOLOGY WHAT IS MACROEVOLUTION? by MICHAEL HAUTMANN Pal€aontologisches Institut und Museum, Universit€at Zurich,€ Karl-Schmid Strasse 4, 8006 Zurich,€ Switzerland; [email protected] Typescript received 14 June 2019; accepted in revised form 15 October 2019 Abstract: Definitions of macroevolution fall into three cat- intraspecific competition as a mediator between selective egories: (1) evolution of taxa of supraspecific rank; (2) evolu- agents and evolutionary responses. This mediating role of tion on the grand time-scale; and (3) evolution that is guided intraspecific competition occurs in the presence of sexual by sorting of interspecific variation (as opposed to sorting of reproduction and has therefore no analogue at the macroevo- intraspecific variation in microevolution). Here, it is argued lutionary level where species are the evolutionary units. Com- that only definition 3 allows for a consistent separation of petition between species manifests both on the macroevolution and microevolution. Using this definition, spe- microevolutionary and macroevolutionary level, but with dif- ciation has both microevolutionary and macroevolutionary ferent effects. In microevolution, interspecific competition aspects: the process of morphological transformation is spurs evolutionary divergence, whereas it is a potential driver microevolutionary, but the variation among species that it pro- of extinction at the macroevolutionary level. Recasting the Red duces is macroevolutionary, as is the rate at which speciation Queen hypothesis in a macroevolutionary framework suggests occurs. Selective agents may have differential effects on that the effects of interspecific competition result in a positive intraspecific and interspecific variation, with three possible sit- correlation between origination and extinction rates, confirm- uations: effect at one level only, effect at both levels with the ing empirical observations herein referred to as Stanley’s rule. -
Uniting Micro- with Macroevolution Into an Extended Synthesis: Reintegrating Life’S Natural History Into Evolution Studies
Uniting Micro- with Macroevolution into an Extended Synthesis: Reintegrating Life’s Natural History into Evolution Studies Nathalie Gontier Abstract The Modern Synthesis explains the evolution of life at a mesolevel by identifying phenotype–environmental interactions as the locus of evolution and by identifying natural selection as the means by which evolution occurs. Both micro- and macroevolutionary schools of thought are post-synthetic attempts to evolution- ize phenomena above and below organisms that have traditionally been conceived as non-living. Microevolutionary thought associates with the study of how genetic selection explains higher-order phenomena such as speciation and extinction, while macroevolutionary research fields understand species and higher taxa as biological individuals and they attribute evolutionary causation to biotic and abiotic factors that transcend genetic selection. The microreductionist and macroholistic research schools are characterized as two distinct epistemic cultures where the former favor mechanical explanations, while the latter favor historical explanations of the evolu- tionary process by identifying recurring patterns and trends in the evolution of life. I demonstrate that both cultures endorse radically different notions on time and explain how both perspectives can be unified by endorsing epistemic pluralism. Keywords Microevolution · Macroevolution · Origin of life · Evolutionary biology · Sociocultural evolution · Natural history · Organicism · Biorealities · Units, levels and mechanisms of evolution · Major transitions · Hierarchy theory But how … shall we describe a process which nobody has seen performed, and of which no written history gives any account? This is only to be investigated, first, in examining the nature of those solid bodies, the history of which we want to know; and 2dly, in exam- ining the natural operations of the globe, in order to see if there now actually exist such operations, as, from the nature of the solid bodies, appear to have been necessary to their formation. -
Patterns and Power of Phenotypic Selection in Nature
Articles Patterns and Power of Phenotypic Selection in Nature JOEL G. KINGSOLVER AND DAVID W. PFENNIG Phenotypic selection occurs when individuals with certain characteristics produce more surviving offspring than individuals with other characteristics. Although selection is regarded as the chief engine of evolutionary change, scientists have only recently begun to measure its action in the wild. These studies raise numerous questions: How strong is selection, and do different types of traits experience different patterns of selection? Is selection on traits that affect mating success as strong as selection on traits that affect survival? Does selection tend to favor larger body size, and, if so, what are its consequences? We explore these questions and discuss the pitfalls and future prospects of measuring selection in natural populations. Keywords: adaptive landscape, Cope’s rule, natural selection, rapid evolution, sexual selection henotypic selection occurs when individuals with selection on traits that affect survival stronger than on those Pdifferent characteristics (i.e., different phenotypes) that affect only mating success? In this article, we explore these differ in their survival, fecundity, or mating success. The idea and other questions about the patterns and power of phe- of phenotypic selection traces back to Darwin and Wallace notypic selection in nature. (1858), and selection is widely accepted as the primary cause of adaptive evolution within natural populations.Yet Darwin What is selection, and how does it work? never attempted to measure selection in nature, and in the Selection is the nonrandom differential survival or repro- century following the publication of On the Origin of Species duction of phenotypically different individuals. -
•How Does Microevolution Add up to Macroevolution? •What Are Species
Microevolution and Macroevolution • How does Microevolution add up to macroevolution? • What are species? • How are species created? • What are anagenesis and cladogenesis? 1 Sunday, March 6, 2011 Species Concepts • Biological species concept: Defines species as interbreeding populations reproductively isolated from other such populations. • Evolutionary species concept: Defines species as evolutionary lineages with their own unique identity. • Ecological species concept: Defines species based on the uniqueness of their ecological niche. • Recognition species concept: Defines species based on unique traits or behaviors that allow members of one species to identify each other for mating. 2 Sunday, March 6, 2011 Reproductive Isolating Mechanisms • Premating RIMs Habitat isolation Temporal isolation Behavioral isolation Mechanical incompatibility • Postmating RIMs Sperm-egg incompatibility Zygote inviability Embryonic or fetal inviability 3 Sunday, March 6, 2011 Modes of Evolutionary Change 4 Sunday, March 6, 2011 Cladogenesis 5 Sunday, March 6, 2011 6 Sunday, March 6, 2011 7 Sunday, March 6, 2011 Evolution is “the simple way by which species (populations) become exquisitely adapted to various ends” 8 Sunday, March 6, 2011 All characteristics are due to the four forces • Mutation creates new alleles - new variation • Genetic drift moves these around by chance • Gene flow moves these from one population to the next creating clines • Natural selection increases and decreases them in frequency through adaptation 9 Sunday, March 6, 2011 Clines -
Tempo and Mode in the Macroevolutionary Reconstruction of Darwinism STEPHEN JAY GOULD Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138
Proc. Nadl. Acad. Sci. USA Vol. 91, pp. 6764-6771, July 1994 Colloquium Paper This paper was presented at a coloquium ented "Tempo and Mode in Evolution" organized by Walter M. Fitch and Francisco J. Ayala, held January 27-29, 1994, by the National Academy of Sciences, in Irvine, CA. Tempo and mode in the macroevolutionary reconstruction of Darwinism STEPHEN JAY GOULD Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138 ABSTRACT Among the several central nings of Dar- But conceptual complexity is not reducible to a formula or winism, his version ofLyellian uniformitranism-the extrap- epigram (as we taxonomists of life's diversity should know olationist commitment to viewing causes ofsmall-scale, observ- better than most). Too much ink has been wasted in vain able change in modern populations as the complete source, by attempts to define the essence ofDarwin's ideas, or Darwin- smooth extension through geological time, of all magnitudes ism itself. Mayr (1) has correctly emphasized that many and sequences in evolution-has most contributed to the causal different, if related, Darwinisms exist, both in the thought of hegemony of microevolutlon and the assumption that paleon- the eponym himself, and in the subsequent history of evo- tology can document the contingent history of life but cannot lutionary biology-ranging from natural selection, to genea- act as a domain of novel evolutionary theory. G. G. Simpson logical connection of all living beings, to gradualism of tried to combat this view of paleontology as theoretically inert change. in his classic work, Tempo and Mode in Evolution (1944), with It would therefore be fatuous to claim that any one legit- a brilliant argument that the two subjects of his tide fall into a imate "essence" can be more basic or important than an- unue paleontological domain and that modes (processes and other. -
Macroevolution Spring 2002 Reading List and Syllabus I. Introduction
Biology 4182 - Macroevolution Spring 2002 Reading List and Syllabus I. Introduction - Darwinism and Macroevolution 1. Mayr, E. 1982. The Growth of Biological Thought. Harvard Univ. Press. (Pp. 21-78) 2. Mayr, E. 1985. Darwin's five theories of evolution. Pp. 755- 772 in D. Kohn (ed.) The Darwinian Heritage. Princeton Univ. Press, Princeton. 3. Gould, S. J. 1995. Tempo and mode in the macroevolutionary reconstruction of Darwinism. Pp. 125-144 in W. M. Fitch and F. J. Ayala (eds.) Tempo and Mode in Evolution: Genetics and Paleontology 50 Years after Simpson. National Academy Press, Washington. (Pp. 125-134) 4. Simpson, G. G. 1944. Tempo and Mode in Evolution. Columbia Univ. Press, New York. (Pp. 197-217) II. Systematics I - Concepts of the Higher Taxa A. Evolutionary Taxonomy 5. Simpson, G. G. 1953. The Major Features of Evolution. Columbia Univ. Press, New York. (Pp. 199-212; 338-359) 6. Mayr, E. 1982. The Growth of Biological Thought. Harvard Univ. Press, Cambridge. (Pp. 614-616; 233-235) 7. Miller, A. H. 1949. Some ecologic and morphologic considerations in the evolution of higher taxonomic categories. Pp. 84-88 in E. Mayr and E. Schuz (eds.) Ornithologie als Biologische Wissenschaft. Carl Winter/Universitätsverlag, Heidelberg. B. Phenetic Taxonomy 8. Sneath, P. H. A. and R. R. Sokal. 1973. Numerical Taxonomy. W. H. Freeman and Co., San Francisco. (Pp. 5, 9-10, 27-30, 37- 40, 55-67). C. Cladistic Taxonomy 9. de Queiroz, K. 1988. Systematics and the Darwinian Revolution. Philosophy of Science 55:238-259. 10. Eldredge, N. and J. Cracraft. 1980. Phylogenetic Patterns and the Evolutionary Process. -
Connecting Micro and Macroevolution Using Genetic Incompatibilities and Natural Selection On
bioRxiv preprint doi: https://doi.org/10.1101/520809; this version posted January 16, 2019. The copyright holder for this preprint (which was not certified by peer review) is the author/funder. All rights reserved. No reuse allowed without permission. 1 Connecting micro and macroevolution using genetic incompatibilities and natural selection on 2 additive genetic variance 3 Greg M. Walter1*, J. David Aguirre2, Melanie J Wilkinson1, Mark W. Blows1, Thomas J. Richards3 and 4 Daniel Ortiz-Barrientos1 5 1University of Queensland, School of Biological Sciences, St. Lucia QLD 4072, Australia 6 2Massey University, Institute of Natural and Mathematical Sciences, Auckland 0745, New Zealand 7 3Swedish University of Agricultural Science, Department of plant Biology, Uppsala, 75007, Sweden 8 * Corresponding Author: Greg M. Walter 9 Email: [email protected] 10 Address: School of Biological Sciences, Life Sciences Building 11 University of Bristol, Bristol, UK BS8 1TQ 12 Phone: +44 7377 074 175 13 Running head: Divergent natural selection on additive genetic variance 14 Data archiving: Data will be deposited in Dryad on acceptance. 15 Keywords: natural selection, trade-offs, additive genetic variance, selection gradient, response to 16 selection, adaptive divergence, adaptive radiation, genetic incompatibilities, reproductive isolation, 17 macroevolution 18 1 bioRxiv preprint doi: https://doi.org/10.1101/520809; this version posted January 16, 2019. The copyright holder for this preprint (which was not certified by peer review) is the author/funder. All rights reserved. No reuse allowed without permission. 19 Abstract 20 Evolutionary biologists have long sought to identify the links between micro and macroevolution to better 21 understand how biodiversity is created. -
Speciation in Parasites: a Population Genetics Approach
Review TRENDS in Parasitology Vol.21 No.10 October 2005 Speciation in parasites: a population genetics approach Tine Huyse1, Robert Poulin2 and Andre´ The´ ron3 1Parasitic Worms Division, Department of Zoology, The Natural History Museum, Cromwell Road, London, UK, SW7 5BD 2Department of Zoology, University of Otago, PO Box 56, Dunedin, New Zealand 3Parasitologie Fonctionnelle et Evolutive, UMR 5555 CNRS-UP, CBETM, Universite´ de Perpignan, 52 Avenue Paul Alduy, 66860 Perpignan Cedex, France Parasite speciation and host–parasite coevolution dynamics and their influence on population genetics. The should be studied at both macroevolutionary and first step toward identifying the evolutionary processes microevolutionary levels. Studies on a macroevolutionary that promote parasite speciation is to compare existing scale provide an essential framework for understanding studies on parasite populations. Crucial, and novel, to this the origins of parasite lineages and the patterns of approach is consideration of the various processes that diversification. However, because coevolutionary inter- function on each parasite population level separately actions can be highly divergent across time and space, (from infrapopulation to metapopulation). Patterns of it is important to quantify and compare the phylogeo- genetic differentiation over small spatial scales provide graphic variation in both the host and the parasite information about the mode of parasite dispersal and their throughout their geographical range. Furthermore, to evolutionary dynamics. Parasite population parameters evaluate demographic parameters that are relevant to inform us about the evolutionary potential of parasites, population genetics structure, such as effective popu- which affects macroevolutionary events. For example, lation size and parasite transmission, parasite popu- small effective population size (Ne) and vertical trans- lations must be studied using neutral genetic markers. -
Darwin's Theory of Evolution Charles Darwin the Old World View
9/11/14 Darwin’s Theory of Evolution Charles Darwin “Nothing in biology makes sense except in the light of evolution” • Synthesized these areas to establish -Theodosius Dobzhansky modern evolutionary biology. • Most important theory in biology. • Provides loose framework for this course. The History of Evolutionary The Old World View Thought • What led Darwin to conclude that • Plato & the Essence organisms evolve and are related by • Philosophical view descent? that all things have an essence, or type. • Old World View • Individuals are a • The enlightenment deviation from this • The lead-up to Darwin type. • Darwin 1 9/11/14 Ptolemy & geocentrism Aristotle & the Scala Naturae Coincided nicely with humans as the center of the universe • Life arranged in a scale from simple to complex with humans on top. • Developed the idea of a ‘final cause’ to explain everything. • Everything served a purpose to strive toward perfecon. The Renaissance & Revolutions The Judeo-Christian tradition • Increased wealth allowed for increased freedom to stray from the dictates of authority (especially in Italy). • Formalized/instuonalized all of this. • The world was geng smaller! – Discovery of the New World. • Final purpose was to glorify – People began to realize that the world was not exactly the way they were God. told that it was. • Humans (and the universe) – Again, a challenge to authority. were created perfectly, • Followed closely by the Reformaon. therefore any suggeson of – Again, a fundamental challenge to The Authority. evolu.on was heresy. – All of these caused certain people to begin thinking outside of dogma. • World was young (origins – Including challenges of dogma in observaons of the physical world. -
Macroevolution Macroevolution - Patterns in the History of Life
macroevolution Macroevolution - patterns in the history of life There are several patterns we see when we look at the fossil record over geologic time 1. STASIS A species’ morphology does not change over time. The classic example of this is the “living fossil” the Coelocanth…a fish taxa (genus) that evolved in the Mesozoic, but is still alive today. 2. Characteristics change over time morphologies change over time, for example, increases in shell thickness or number of ribs on a shell or length/width ratios. Constructing phylogenies shows how different species alive at different 3. Speciation time intervals are related to one another. These 3 phylogenies show 3 different patterns. Clade A shows that speciation happened at several times in the past. Clade B shows stability in species over long periods of time, and Clade C shows two periods of time when speciation was focused. One mode of speciation is termed “phyletic gradualism” which is shown in the red line of gradual morphologic change over long periods of time in small, incremental steps. This is the pattern that Darwin was thinking of when he described the ‘transmutation” or change in species over time. Another form of speciation is termed “punctuated equilibrium” which is exhibited in all species in this diagram. For example, in species B (green) we see stasis in morphology over long periods of time, with a short interval of time in which morphologic change occurs. What is happening in this interval of time is “invasion” from a geographically isolated population whose gene pool has diverged. How phyletic gradualism happens: Incremental morphologic change over time.