perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
A. Review on English Pronunciation
1. The Definition of Pronunciation
There are various definitions of pronunciation from the experts. Hornby (1995) defines pronunciation as the way in which a language is spoken; the way a person speaks the words of a language. Kreidler argues that when we talk about pronunciation, it deals with phonology and phonetic. Phonology is concerned with the way speech sounds are organized into a system, the sound system of a specific language. Phonology relates the physical facts of speech to other linguistic knowledge which speakers possess knowledge of vocabulary and grammar while phonetic deals with speech in its purely physical aspects, the way sounds are articulated by the speaker, the acoustic properties of sound waves, and the effects that these have on the ear of the hearer (1989). Avery and Ehrlich define phonetics as, “The study of how sounds are produced and how the position of the mouth can be changed to produce different sounds” (1992: 11).
The definition about phonetics is closely related to Yates‟s definition
about pronunciation. She says, “Pronunciation refers to the production of sounds
that we use to make meaning” (2002: 01). She says that pronunciation includes
attention to the particular sounds of a language, it calls segmental and aspects of
speech beyond the level of the individual sound, such as intonation, phrasing,
stress, timing, rhythm (supra segmental aspects), how the voice is projected (voice
quality). Ur defines the concept of pronunciation including (1) the sounds of the
language; (2) stress and rhythm; and (3) intonation (1996).
From the definitions above, it can be seen that there are two aspects of
pronunciation. They are segmental and supra segmental features. According to
Dobrovolsky and Katamba, segmental is defined as “an individual speech sound”
(1996: 20). The sound system of English is made up of phonemes, or individual commit to user
7 perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id8
sounds to construct words, sentence and phrase to make meaning. These may be
vowels, diphthongs (combinations of two vowel sounds), trip thongs
(combinations of three vowel sounds) or consonants (Lynda, 2002). These sounds
are made using our tongue in different parts of the mouth. Segmental features deal
with vowels which include complex vowel (diphthong) and consonant of 26
letters in the English alphabet and 44 sounds in the English language, while supra
segmental defined as those features of speech which extend over more than one segment, such as intonation and stress. Lynda says that supra segmental is also called prosodic features. Supra segmental features consist of stress, intonation, featured of connected speech, and voice quality (2002). The writer concludes that pronunciation is the way in which a language is spoken related to how sound are produced based on segmental includes vowel which includes complex vowel (diphthong), consonant of 26 letters in the English alphabet and 44 sounds of English and supra segmental aspects includes stress, rhythm, and intonation.
2. Organs of Speech Most individuals who speak a non-native language fluently speak it with
an accent of their native tongue. Because every language has different sound
system and it will affect the pronunciation when they speak other languages. But,
“all languages use the same channel for receiving and sending: sound waves, the
vibration of the atmosphere” (Bolinger, 1981:03). All set the vibrations moving
by the activity of the speech organs. And all organize the vibration in essentially
the same way, into small units of sound that can be combined and recombined in
distinctive ways. Bolinger says “if we learn a language we must learn to produce
sounds” (1981: 03). The organs used by English or Indonesian to produce sound
the same although they have different sound system. Based on the theory of sound
production, Indriani says that there are three areas of human body that are used for
produce sound They are the chest, the throat and the head (2001). Each of them
will be described in details below: commit to user perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id9
a. The organs of speech in the chest are lungs, the windpipe (trachea), and the
organ of breathing. The lungs are really important for speaking because the
sounds are produced with air flowing from the lungs. When air is expelled
from the lungs, it is passes from the windpipe into the larynx, which is
forms the upper part of it.
b. The organ of speech in the throat is larynx. Larynx is a soft membrane
which is located inside the adam‟s apple in a man and corresponding area in a woman. The larynx consists of the ring cartilage, the shield cartilage, the arytenoids, and the vocal cords. The vocal cords can be in three positions. They are : 1) Wide open as for voiceless sounds and for breathing. 2) Slightly open as for voiced sounds. 3) Tightly closed as for glottal stop. Larynx has an opening called the glottis, the space between the vocal cords and between the arytenoids. The space between the vocal cords is called the cord glottis or glottis proper, the part between arytenoids is called whisper glottis. c. The organs of speech in the head are organ articulation and cavities. There are two cavities, oral cavity (mouth) and nasal cavity (nose). There are six
organs of articulation in the upper part of the mouth. They are the uvula,
soft palate, the hard palate, the alveolar ridge (the gums behind the upper
front teeth), the upper teeth and the upper lip. The roof of the mouth is
divided into three parts. The first is alveolar or teeth ridge which is defined
as the part of the roof of the mouth just behind the teeth; The second is the
bony arch which forms hard palate and which varies in size and arching
from one individual to another; The third is the back part, the soft palate or
velum which is capable of being raised or lowered, and the extremity of
which is the uvula
Others organ of speech beside three above, there are lips and tongue that
help in speech production. The lips are significant in the formation of vowel
quality. Based on Indriani, she said that if the lips are held apart, the position they assume may be summarized undercommit six heading to user (2001) . They are: perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id10
1). Held sufficiently close together over all their length that friction
occurs between them.
2).Held sufficiently far apart for no friction to be heard, yet remaining
fairly closed together and energetically spread. This shape is taken up
for a tense variety of the vowel in see and it is known as spread lips
position.
3).Held in relaxed position with a medium lowering of the lower jaw. This is the position taken up for the vowel of get and is known as the neutral position. 4).Held relatively wide apart, without any marked rounding, as for the vowel in card. This is the open position. 5).Tightly pursed, so that the aperture is small and rounded, as in the vowel of do. This is the close rounded position. 6).Held wide apart, but with slight projection and rounding, as in the vowel of got. This is the open rounded position. The figure of organ of speech can be described in figure 2.1.
Figure 2.1. Organ of Speech
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3. English Sound Production
Claude Levis – Strauss said that when we learn a language it means that
we have to be the speaker of the language (In Herusatoto, 2008). It means that we
must to know the culture, the social live and follow the rules of the phonetic, and
the syntactic rules. In learning English as a foreign language it is essential to have
understanding of how the speech sounds of English are produced. Most speech is produced by an air stream that starts in the lungs and is pushed upwards trough the windpipe and the oral and nasal cavities. This statement is supported by Avery and Ehrlich. They say, “Speech sounds are made by air moving outward from the lungs through the mouth or nose” (1992: 11). During the process, the air stream is modified by various organs of speech that is mentioned above. Each modification has different effects, which are used for the differentiation of sounds. The production of speech sound divided into four separate but interrelates processes. They are the initiation process, take place in the lungs; phonation process, take place in the larynx through the operation of the vocal folds; oro-nasal process, its direction by the velum into either the oral cavity or nasal cavity; and articulation, mainly by the tongue, in the oral cavity (Giegerich, 1992:1-6). The processes will be described in detail below:
1. The Initiation process
The operation of the lungs is the primary function in the breathing process:
the contraction of inter costal muscles and lowering the diaphragm causes the
chest volume to increase and air is sucked into the lungs through the trachea.
When the process is reversed, air will escape again through trachea. Apart from
recurring at regular intervals as breath, this air stream provides the source of
energy for speech.
In English, all speech sounds require a pulmonic (lung) air stream for
their production. The air stream used for speech in English is always egressive,
that is, moving out of the lungs and up the trachea. In English, speech sounds are
initiated by a pulmonic egressive air stream.
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2. The phonation process
At the upper end of the trachea, the air stream passes through the larynx, a
cartilage casing whose forward part can be felt just below the chin. Phonation
process takes place in glottis. The vocal folds can be manipulated by the speaker
and brought into a variety of different positions, thus altering shape of glottis.
There are three positions of vocal folds. They are:
1). Open Glottis (Wide Open) Glottis will open in normal breathing as well as in the production of voiceless sounds. In this situation, the vocal folds are spread and do not vibrate, the glottis is sufficiently wide open so as to allow the air stream to pass through without obstruction. Voiceless sounds are [p], [t], [ʧ], [k], [f], [s], [θ], [∫]. 2). Narrow Glottis (Slightly Open) The vocal folds are brought together in such a way that only a narrow gap is left for the air stream to pass through, the passage of air makes them vibrate. This vibration of the vocal folds in urn causes vibration on the part of the air column above the glottis. The resulting sound waves characterize voiced sounds of speech.
3). Closed Glottis (Tightly Closed)
The vocal folds are brought close together so that no air can pass between
them. The speech sound resulting from this closure of the glottis and
subsequent release is called glottal stop. Voiced sounds are [b], [d], [g],
[v], [z], [m], [n], [h], [l], [r], [w], [j], [ʤ], [ð], [ʒ], [ŋ].
3. The oro-nasal process
Having passed through the larynx and the back of the throat (the pharynx),
the air stream can go either into the nasal cavity or into the oral cavity. In normal
breathing, it will usually pass through the nasal cavity and emerge at the nostrils,
the nasal cavity is blocked off in the back of the throat and the air stream is
directed into the oral cavity. This is done by the velum, a soft flap of muscle and
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tissue in the back of the roof of the mouth. The velum can be manipulated by the
speaker. It has two significant positions.
1) Raised Velum
Raised and pressed against the back of the pharynx, the velum prevents
the entry of air into the nasal cavity. Speech sounds produced with raised
velum are therefore called oral sounds. Examples are English vowels as well as sounds such as [v], [f], [ l ]. In addition to this blockage of the nasal cavity, the oral cavity must also be blocked off somewhere further forward in the mouth, so that the air stream can proceed neither through the nose nor through the mouth. Examples are [p], [t], [k]. 2) Lowered velum When the velum is not raised against the back of the pharynx the air stream has access to the nasal cavity. If at the same time the oral cavity is blocked somewhere further forward in the mouth – the entire air stream therefore passing through the nose - the result will be a nasal sound. Examples are [m] and [n] (as in might and night), where slow pronunciation demonstrates how the air stream passes entirely through
the speaker‟s nose.
4. The Articulation process.
Most of the differentiation of the various speech sounds of a language takes
place in the mouth, in a process called articulation. Due to the mobility of the lips
and the tongue, the size and shape of the oral cavity as well as of the exit passage
of the air stream can be greatly modified. The oral cavity acts as a resonator in
speech production; any modification of its shape will produce different acoustic
properties on the part of the speech sounds produced.
The parts of the mouth that are used to produce such narrowing or closure of
the oral cavity are called articulators. The active articulator is the one that moves.
It is always lip or the tongue. The parts of the mouth are used for articulation are
upper and lower lip and the upper and lower teeth (called incisors). The tongue is divided into three parts. They arecommit tip, blade to user and back. The passive articulator is perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id14
some part of the roof of the mouth. They are alveolar ridge (a hard ridge that can
be felt behind the upper incisors), the palate (a hard bony structure in the front
part of the roof) and the velum (the soft continuation of the palate in the back of
the mouth).
There are two basic distinction, in terms of how sounds are formed, is
made between consonants and vowels. Consonants involve a narrowing in the
mouth which in turn causes some obstruction of the airstream. While vowels, air passes rather freely through the mouth because there is very little narrowing. English has 24 consonants. They are [p], [t], [ʧ], [k], [f], [s], [b], [d], [g], [v], [z], [m], [n], [h], [l], [r], [w], [j], [ʤ], [θ], [ð], [∫], [ʒ], [ŋ]. And has 20 vowels. They are [i:], [ɪ], [ʊ], [u:], [ɪə], [æ], [ə], [e], [ʌ], [ɑː], [ɒ], [ɜː], [ɔː], [ʊə], [ɔɪ], [əʊ], [eɪ], [eə], [aɪ], [aʊ], [ɪə]. a. Consonants. Fitzpatrick says, “Consonant are produced by positioning the tongue, lips and teeth in order to nodify the passage of air throgh the mouth ( 1995: 10). From that definition, it can be seen that in the consonants production, there are obstructions of the airstream. There are three basic characteristics in discussing of consonants based on the Avery and Ehrlich (1992). They
are;
1) Place articulation, is about where in the mouth the airstream is
obstructed.
2) Manner of articulation is about the way in which the airstream is
obstructed.
3) Voicing, is about whether there is vibration of the vocal cords.
Related with places of articulation in English, there are six places in the
mouth where the airstream is obstructed in the formation of consonants (Avery
and Ehrlich, 1992). First is sounds made with the lips.
(a) Bilabial. The articulation is placed both lips, upper and lower. When pronouncingcommit, the lipsto user are brought together and touching perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id15
momentarily, as „my‟, „pie‟, „bat‟. The obstruction of the airstream
thus occurs at the lips. The sounds [m], [p], [b] are referred to as
bilabial sounds because the two lips are involved in their
production.
(b) Labiodental. The articulation placed is placed between lower lip
and upper teeth. When we pronounce sounds fat and vat, the initial sounds,‟f‟ anf „v‟, are made with the top teeth touching the bottom lip. The obstruction of the airstream occurs not because the two lips come together but because the bottom lip and the top teeth come together. The sounds [f] and [v] are labiodental sounds because the lips (labio) and the teeth (dental) are involved in their production.
Second is sounds made with the tip of the tongue. They are:
(c) Interdental. The articulation is placed between tip of the tongue and the upper teeth. In pronounce the words thigh and thy, paying attention to the way the first consonant sounds of these words are formed. With these two sounds the obstruction of the airstream
occurs because the tip of the tongue is between the teeth. The
sounds [θ] and [ð] are referred to as interdental sounds because the
tongue is placed between (inter) the teeth (dental).
(d) Alveolar. The articulation is placed in tip of the tongue and the
tooth ridge (alveolar). When pronounce „tip‟, „dip‟, „nip‟, „lip‟, the
initial sounds of these words, the tip of the tongue touching the roof
of the roof of the mouth just behind the upper teeth. The sounds [t],
[d], [n], [l], [s], [z], and [r] are referred to as alveolar sounds
because the tongue either touches or approaches the alveolar ridge
in the production. The sound production of those sounds presents in
the figure 2.2 and 2.3
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Figure 2. 2. Sound production of [l], [t], [d].
Figure2.3 The position of the tongue in the production of [s], and [z]
The third is sounds made with the blade of the tongue. That is alveo- palatal. The articulation is placed on the blade of the tongue and the hard palate.
Pronounce the words „wish‟ and „beige‟, concerning with the position of the
tongue in the production of the final sounds. These sounds are made with the
blade of the tongue approaching the hard palate just behind the tooth ridge. The
phonetic symbols that are used in these words are not same with English letters;
they are [∫], [ʒ]. In the process of producing these sounds, the incoming air will
cool the blade of the tongue and the roof of the mouth just behind the tooth ridge.
The sounds [ʤ], [∫], [ʒ], and [ʧ] are referred to as alveo palatal sounds because the
tongue is just behind the alveolar ridge at the hard palate in the production of
these sounds. The sound production presents in the figure 2.4.
commit to user perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id17
Figure2. 4. The position of the tongue in the production of [ʤ], [∫], [ʒ], and [ʧ]
The forth is sounds are made with the back of the tongue. The articulation process is placed in the back of the tongue and soft palate. It is called velar sound. In producing the initial sounds of the words „coat‟ and „goat‟, the back part of the tongue will touches the back part of the mouth momentarily, and causing an obstruction of the airstream. The phonetic symbols that is used in the words „coat‟ and „goat‟ are [k] and [g]. Beside coat and goat, pronouncing the words „sing‟ also has the same place of articulation as [k] and [g]. The phonetic symbol that is used in the words „sing‟ is [ŋ]. These sound, [k], [g], [ŋ] are referred to as velar sounds because they are made with the back of the tongue rising to touch the soft palate or velum. The sound production of these sounds
presents in the figure 2.5.
Figure2.5 The position of the tongue in production of [k], [g]
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Figure2.6. The position of the tongue in the production of [ŋ]
Based on Avery and Ehrlich, the second matter that should be concern in discussing consonants is manner of articulation (1992). Manner of articulation is the way in which the obstruction of the airstream, which characterizes all consonants, is happened. The different places of articulation in the mouth, there are several basic ways that the airstream can be obstructed. a. Stops The air that passes from the lungs into the mouth can be completely stopped because the lips or the tongue actually touch some part of the upper mouth. Consonants that involve this complete blockage of the airstream are called stops. The initial sounds of „pill‟, „kill‟, „bill‟, and „till‟ are all stops consonants.
b. Fricatives
Some consonants in English do not involve a complete stoppage of the
airstream but rather a partial obstruction. This partial obstruction results
from the lips or the tongue coming close to some part of the upper mouth.
The initial sounds of „fat‟, „vat‟, „tight‟, „thy‟, „zip‟, „sip‟, and final
sounds of „wish‟ and „beige‟ are all fricatives.
c. Affricates
There are two complex consonants sounds in English, [ʧ] as in „chug‟
and [ʤ] as in „jug‟. Each is a combination of a stop followed
immediately by a fricative and they are referred to as affricates. When
pronounce these two sounds, the tip of the tongue making contact with
the top of the mouth and the separating slightly. commit to user perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id19
d. Nasal
Sounds made with the air escaping through the nose are called nasal. Air
is blocked in the mouth in the same way as it is for stop consonants. The
soft palate is lowered and allowing air to escape through the nose. There
are three nasal consonants in English: [m], [n], and [ŋ].
e. Liquids
In the pronunciation of sounds [l] and [r], the air passes through the mouth in a somewhat fluid manner. There are two kind consonants in liquids: Lateral and retroflex. The consonant [l] is made with the tip of the tongue touching the tooth ridge and air passing through the mouth over the sides of the tongue. Because the air passes out the side of the mouth, the [l] sound is referred to as a lateral consonant. The [r] sounds is made with the tip of the tongue slightly curled back in the mouth. During the pronunciation of [r] sound, the tongue is curled back and it is called retroflex. The sound production of [r] sound is presented in the figure 2.7.
Figure2. 7. The position of the tongue in the production of [r]
f. Semi-vowels
Other consonant sounds of English produced with little turbulence in
the airstream are [w] and [y] sounds. These two sounds are often called
semi-vowels because they are made with a relatively wide opening in
the mouth.
The third basic characteristic in the discussion of consonants is voicing. commit to user It is related with whether there is vibration of the vocal cords in the pronunciation. perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id20
The vibration that is heard with the voiced [z] sound is caused by the vocal cords.
Sounds that are made with the vocal cords vibrating are voiced and sounds made
with no vibration of the vocal cords are voiceless. The vocal cords are band of
muscle attached to the walls of the larynx. When they are held close together, the
air passing from the lungs into the mouth causes them to vibrate. They are apart,
the air passing through causes no vibration. “The nasals, liquids, semi-vowels, and
vowels of English are all voiced” (Avery and Ehrlich, 1992:25)
Table2. 1. Classification of English consonants
b. Vowels
“Vowels are vocalic sounds, which means that they are produced with
the voice” (Fitzpatrick, 1995: 08). English vowels are [i:], [ɪ], [ʊ], [u:], [æ], [ə],
[e], [ɜː], [ɔː], [ʌ], [ɑː], [ɒ], and complex vowels called diphthongs, they are: [ʊə],
[ɔɪ], [əʊ], [eɪ], [eə], [aɪ], [aʊ], [ɪə].
“Vowels are differentiated from consonants by the relatively wide
opening in the mouth as air passes from the lungs out of the body” ( Avery and
Ehrlich, 1992: 28). It means that there is little obstruction of the airstream in
comparison to consonants. Different vowel sounds result from different positions
of the tongue and lips. In describing vowels, it is important to discuss four
characteristics (Avery and Ehrlich, 1992). They are: commit to user perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id21
1) Tongue height. It is about whether the tongue is high or low in the
mouth. There are three classifications of English vowels by tongue
height. They are high, mid, and low.
2). Frontness or Backness of tongue. It is about whether the front or the
back of the tongue is involved. There are three classification of
English vowels b frontness of the tongue. They are front, central, and
back. 3). Tenseness or Laxness. This is about the muscle of the mouth. whether the muscles are tense or lax. Vowels produced with extra muscle tension are tens and vowels produced without tension are lax. An effective way of detecting the difference in tenseness is to sing both vowels at high pitch. The tense vowel will feel as if it being produced with much more effort than the lax. 4). Lip rounding. It is about the shape of the mouth, whether the lips are rounded.
Figure2.8. Sound Production of English Vowels
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Figure2. 9. Vowel Symbol from IPA (International Phonetic Alphabet)
B. Review on Banyumas Dialect of Javanese
1. The Definition of Dialect Language has a system and sub-system that can be understood by the speaker. But, the speaker of the language is a group of people that is vary and the
form of language becomes vary. The variation of language is called as dialect.
“Dialect refers to varieties which are grammatically (and perhaps lexically) as
well as phonologically different from other varieties” (Chambers, 1980: 5). The
varieties in Chamber‟s definition mean other language. From Chamber‟s
definition it can be known that dialect is distinguishing. This statement is
supported by Zulaeha. In her book, she says that dialect is used to explain the
differentiation of linguistics system from one language to others (2010).
Herusatoto says that dialect is variation of a language that become basic of the
development from new different form of vocabulary, accent and idiom (2008)
Zulaeha says that the word dialect comes from Greek which has a same
meaning of accent (2010). Language will develop and make variation. It is called dialect. In dialect there will be newcommit vocabularies to user that pronounced with special perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id23
accent that can differentiate one dialect from others. When people talk about
dialect, surely it will relate with accent. Accent usually related with pronunciation
of the speaker. The statement is supported by Wolfram and Christian. They say,
“The term „accent‟ refers primarily to pronunciation” (In Widiarti, 2002). Accent
refers to the way in which a speaker pronounces, and therefore refers to a variety
which is phonetically and phonologically different from other varieties (1993).
In common usage, people using dialect and accent together. They think that dialect and accent is the same. Actually they are different, but dialects and accent is van not be separate. Dialects and accents frequently merge into one another. Crystal says “An accent is “the cumulative auditory effect of those features of pronunciation that identify where a person is from, regionally or socially” (In Gilakjani, 2011). From the experts‟ definition above about dialect the writer construct a definition of dialect as variation of language that closely related to accent and pronunciation that differentiate one language community from others in the form of accent, vocabulary, and idiom. An Accent may identify the locality in which its speakers live, the ethnicity of the speaker, their socio-economic status, their social class or caste.
An accent also can reflect the personality of the speaker. Banyumas dialect is one
of the dialects. It has a special and strong accent. When Banyumas people speak,
we can know the characteristic of Banyumas people because language is the
reflection of the speaker.
2. Javanese dialect
Javanese that we used for make communication in our daily live has been
developed. Javanese has been developed because some factors. They are
geographic, historical, political and cultural factor. In Indonesia the number of
Javanese is excessively. The speaker of Javanese spread almost in the entire
region in Indonesia. The speakers of Javanese reach until 75,7 million in 2001
(Wedhawati,2006). Wide range of the speaker number of Javanese language make this language developed in everycommit region to proper user with the geographic condition. perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id24
Soedjito says, “Javanese language has some geographic dialects. They are
Banyumas, Tegal, Solo, Surabaya, Samin and Osing dialect (In Paryono, 2011).
Zulaeha says that thre are subdialects of Javanese based on the language
usage. They are Banyumas dialect, Pesisir dialect, Surakarta dialect and East
Javanese dialect.
a. Banyumas dialect consists of: 1) Purwokerto dialect 2) Kebumen dialect
b. Pesisir dialect consists of: 1). Pemalang dialect 2). Tegal dialect 3). Semarang dialect 4). Semarang regency dialect 5). Rembang dialect
c. Surakarta dialect consists of: 1). Karanganyar dialect
d. East Javanese dialect consists of:
1). Madiun dialect
2). Surabaya dialect
3). Banyuwangi dialect
3. Banyumas Dialect of Javanese
Banyumas Dialect of Javanese (BDJ) is a language that is used by people
in Banyumas region. The application of BDJ includes Banyumas regency,
Pekalongan regency and west side of Kedu regency (Wedhawati, 2006).
Banyumas region consist of Cilacap, Purwokerto, Banyumas, Banjarnegara and
Purbalingga. There are three maincommit dialects to ofuser Banyumasan language and each of perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id25
them has some sub-dialect: North area (Tegalan), South area (Banyumasan), and
Banten. The Tegalan dialect is spoken in northern areas of Banyumasan: Tanjung,
Ketanggungan, Larangan, Brebes, Slawi, Moga, Pemalang, Surodadi and Tegal.
The Banyumasan dialect is spoken in southern areas: Bumiayu, Karang Pucung,
Cilacap, Nusakambangan Island, Kroya, Ajibarang, Wangon, Purwokerto,
Purbalingga, Bobotsari, Banjarnegara, Purwareja, Kebumen and Gombong. The
Banten dialect is spoken in north Banten (Wedhawati, 2006). Geographically, the range of Banyumas is started from southwest of Central Java province. On the west side, Banyumas is bordered by West Java Province with Citanduy river as teritory border. On the south side Banyumas is bordered by Hindia ocean. Bagelen region ( Kebumen regency ) is the border on the south east side and Wonosobo regency is the border on the east side. While on the north side, Banyumas is bordered by Pekalongan, Pemalang, Tegal and Brebes regency (Herusatoto, 2008) Language is the reflection of the nation culture. It is shows the identity of the speaker. Herusatoto said that Banyumas is Adoh ratu cedhek watu (2008). It means that Banyumas is far away from the Javanese kingdom affection and close with the nature. Based on the historical feature, there is no one kingdom that
placed in Banyumas. The language is used by Banyumas people is ancient
Javanese and it becomes second language in Banyumas. Nowadays, the language
is called Basa Ngapak. From the language that is used, it is a marker that
Banyumas culture has not contact with kingdom culture (kraton). The application
of BDJ is different with standard Javanese. The strong accent that people
Banyumas spoke is very strong. This situation makes some people judge that BDJ
is funny.
The dialect shows about the characteristics of Banyumas people. The
characteristic of Javanese language is simple. It is appropriate with Banyumas
people with simple characteristic. BDJ is the most simple dialect than others
Javanese dialect. Because there is no variation in the BDJ sounds and the
pronunciation of the sounds is very strong and thick. In BDJ, it is called cowag. Banyumas people always speak commit with loud to user and clear sound. They speak loudly perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id26
with clear meaning and simple sentence. Besides, Banyumas people have another
characteristic called egaliter and blaka suta. Blaka suta has others variations
called blak-blakan and thok melong. It means that Banyumas people always say
what they want to say immediately. They are speaking a matter based on the
reality with aloud sound and speak the word appropriate with the written form.
Madiwarsito in his opinion about definition of blaka suta says:
“kata blaka berasal dari bahasa Jawa kuno, yakni „balaka‟ dan juga bahasa Sansekerta „walaka‟ yang bermakna terus terang, jujur, lurus, tanpa ditutup-tutupi. Kata suta berarti anak, sehingga istilah blaka suta mengandung makna berbicara secara terus terang, seperti anak yang masih murni, lugu dan APA ADANYA.” (1979:106).
4. Sound Production of Banyumas Dialect of Javanese Banyumas people always speak clearly, explicitly and steadily. Banyumas dialect of Javanese (BDJ) has an unique accent and it makes different with other Javanese dialects. BDJ is also called Ngapak. Ngapak language is a mother tongue of Banyumas people ( Budiono, 2008). It is called ngapak because the spelling of some consonants and vowels „a‟ and „o‟ is very significant and clear. This statement is supported by Herusatoto. In his book, he says: “ Orang Banyumas mengucapkan huruf-huruf „a – b – d - g – h – y – k
– l – o – w „ dengan mantap, tegas, lugas, tidak mengambang atau setengah-
setengah “ (2008:122).
Actually, Ngapak language is the origin of ancient Javanese language.
Budiono in his book, Banyumas, says “ Perkembangan kebahasaan Jawa itu
dimulai dari tahap pertama adalah bahasa lisan Jawa asli (Jawadwipa – Ngoko
Lugu) yang sampai sekarang lebih populer disebut bahasa Jawa dialek
Banyumasan “. From Herusatoto‟s statement, it can be known that the origin
Javanese language is still stand in BDJ
Javanese language is divided into three; vowel, consonants and semi-
vowel. BDJ has six phoneme vowels 23 consonants and two semi-vowels.
commit to user perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id27
a. Vowels
BDJ has six vowels. They are: /a/, /o/, /u/, /i/, /e/ and /ə/. Actually, phoneme
is an abstract, what we hear and we say is allophone or the variation in the
form of sounds (Wedhawati, 2006). Based on the position of the tongue, the
allophone phoneme of vowels can be divided into three big groups
(Wedhawati, 2006). They are high vowel, mid vowel, and low vowel.
1) High Vowels There are two kinds of phoneme vowels in high vowels. They are /i/ and /u/. a). Phoneme /i/ has two allophones. They are [ i: ] and [ ɪ ]. Allophone [i:] appears if /i/ distributes in the open-ended syllable. For example in the words of kursi [kʊrsi:] means chair in English and mari [mari:] means heal in English. Allophone [i:] is produced by make the tip of the tongue higher, the lip is unrounded and the space between the tongue and palate is close. Allophone [ɪ] appears if /i/ distributes in closed-ended syllable. To produce this sound, the tip of the tongue is lower than pronounce [i:] sound, the lip is unrounded and the space between tongue and palate is close. For example in the words of wit
[wɪt] means tree in English and sing [s ɪ ŋ] means nominal particle in
English.
b). Phoneme /u/ has two allophones. They are [u:] and [ʊ]. Allophone
[u:] emerges if /u:/ distributes in open-ended syllable. When we
pronounce the words adu means fight in English and kuru means thin
in English, the sounds that will pronounce is /u:/ sound. To produce
this sound, the back of the tongue is high, the lip is rounded and space
between tongue and palate is close.
Sound of [ʊ] appears if / ʊ / distributes in closed-ended syllable. For
example in the words of mung, [m ʊ ŋ] means just in English and
thukul, [tukʊl] means grow in English. When we pronounce this
sound, the position of the tongue is lower than producing sound [u], he lip is rounded and thecommit space tobetween user the tongue and palate is close. perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id28
The height of the back tongue in producing sound [ʊ] is almost same
as with producing of sound [o].
2). Mid Vowels
Medium vowels has three phonemes; /e/, /ə/, and / ɒ /.
a). Phoneme /e/
This phoneme has two allophones. They are [e] and []. These allophone appear if they are distributes in open-ended and closed- ended syllable. The difference of this allophone is the position of the tongue. In the pronunciation of sound [], the position of the tongue is lower than pronouncing [e] sound. The sound [e] appears in the words sat ́, [sate] means roasted meat in small pieces in English and ́lok [elok] means beautiful in English. While sound [] appears in the words amb ̀ n [ambn] means bed in English and pak ̀ [pakl] means mango in English. The shape of the lip in producing these sounds is unrounded.
b). Phoneme /ə/.
Phoneme /ə/ just has one allophone that is [ə] sound. The sound /ə/
can we hear in the word emoh [əmoh] means unwilling, geger [g ə gə
r] means back and pelem [pələm] means mango in English. Allophone
[ə] distributes in the open-ended and closed-ended syllable. In
producing this sound, the center of the tongue is in the medium
position, the lip is unrounded and the space between tongue and palate
is far.
c). Phoneme / ɒ /
This phoneme has two allophones. They are [ɔ] and [ɒ. Allophone [ɔ]
and [ɒ] distribute in the open – ended and closed-ended syllable. The
difference of these allophones is in the position of the tongue when we commit to user pronounce the sounds. The position of the tongue when we pronounce perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id29
[ɒ] sound is lower than pronounce [ɔ:] sound. When producing this
sound the position of the back tongue is in medium position, the lip is
rounded and the space between back tongue and palate is close.
Allophone [ɔ:] appears in the words kono [ kɒnɔ:] means there in
English, loro [l ɒ r ɔ:] means two means move in English.
When we placed our back tongue in the medium position, but lower
than we producing sound [ɒ], the lip are rounded, the space between back tongue and palate is far, and the sound that will we hear is [ɒ] sound. This sound appears in the words obor [ɒ b ɒ r] means torchlight and sorot [s ɒ r ɒ t] means light in English. 3). Low Vowels. There is just one phoneme in the low vowels. That is /a/ phoneme. This phoneme just has one allophone, [a] sound. In standard Java, usually people say [a] sound in [ɒ] sound. While in Banyumas people, sound [a] will pronounce [a] and [ɒ] will pronounce [ɒ]. For example, people in Surakarta pronounce word apa with [ɒ p ɔ:], but Banyumas people pronounce it with /apa/. To produce this sound, the position of the tip tongue is in low position, the lip is unrounded and the space
between the tip of the tongue is far.
Picture2. 10. Classification of BDJ Vowel based on the position of the tongue
b. Consonants
Banyumas dialect has 23 consonants in its sound production. They are p,
b, m, f, w, t, d, n, l, r, t , d , s, z, c, ʝ, j, ̃ k, g, ŋ, h, ʔ.
There are ten kinds consonants based on the place of articulation and six commit to user kinds consonants based on the manner of articulation. (Wedhawati, 2006). perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id30
1) Bilabial consonants
There are three bilabial consonants in BDJ, /p, b, m/. These phonemes
are called as bilabial consonant because there is an obstruction
between upper lip and lower lip when pronounced these phonemes.
2) Labio-Dental Consonants.
Labio-dental consonant has two consonants, f and w. These
consonants are called labio-dental because the lower lip and the upper teeth are involved in their production. a). Labio-dental /f/ This sound is pronounced by makes the track of the airstream from the lung narrow so there is an obstruction when the airstream is flow. The vocal cord does not vibrate in this process. The sound that we will hear is [f]. This sound appears in the words foto [fɒt ɔː] means photo and pasif [pasɪf] means passive in English.
b). Labio-Dental /w/
There is one allophone in the /w/ phoneme. Allophone [w]
is pronounced by the obstruction between the lower lip and
upper teeth. In production this sound, the vocal cord is
vibrate. This sound appears in the first word or in the first
syllable. In BDJ, [w] sound cannot place in the last word.
For example, wani [wani:] means brave and wong [ wɒŋ]
means people.
3). Apiko- Dental Consonants
In BDJ sound system, there are two consonants in apiko-dental
consonant, /t/ and /d/. These consonants are called apiko-dental because
the tip of the tongue and upper teeth are involved in the production.
Sound /t/ is pronounced by obstruct closely the airstream flow from the commit to user perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id31
lung the released it. The vocal cord does not vibrate in produce this
sound. Sound /d/ is pronounced by explosion and non aspirated.
4). Apiko-Alveolar Consonant
There are three phonemes in apiko-alveolar consonant. They are /n/, /l/,
and /r/. These phonemes are called apiko-alveolar because is involving
the tip of the tongue and teeth gums.
Sound /n/ is produced by obstruct the airstream from the lung through the mouth closely. Together with that process, the soft palate and the uvula in the low position, so the airstream is come out through the nose and the vocal cord is vibrate. This sound can we hear in the words kapan [kapan] means when, naga [naga] means dragon, and papan [papan] means place. Sound [l] is made by closing the airstream in the center of the mouth so the airstream comes out pass through one side. We can hear [l] sound in the word of gula [g ʊ la] means sugar and tugel [ t ʊ g əl] means broke in English. The production of /r/ sound is by obstructing the airstream from the lung repeatedly and fast. When we pronounce [r] sound, the vocal cord is vibrates, the tip of the tongue touches the hard palate and make a trill.
Banyumas people will pronounced [r] sound clearly in the words sabar [
sabar]. Sabar means patient in English.
5). Apiko-palatal Consonants
There are two consonants in apiko-palatal consonant, / t /, and / d /.
These consonants are called apiko-palatal because the tip of the
tongue and hard palate are involved in the sound production.
a). Apiko-palatal / t /
The phoneme of apiko-palatal continuant is pronounced by make
complete obstruction the airstream from the lung, then released
suddenly, but the vocal cords does not vibrate. We can hear this
sound in the words of thukul [t ʊk ʊl], puthu [pʊt u:]. In English,
they mean grow and kind of Javanese food commit to user perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id32
b). Apiko-palatal non continuant / d /
The production of this sound is by made the complete obstruction
of the airstream from the lung then released it followed by
aspirated. In this process the vocal cord does not vibrate.
6). Lamino-Alveolar Consonant
Lamino-alveolar has two consonant. They are /s/ and /z/. In the
production of these sounds are involving the tongue and upper teeth gums. a). Lamino-alveolar /s/ The track of the airstream flow from the lung is narrow so the airstream is obstruct and comes out with make hiss sound. The vocal cord does not vibrate when this process takes place. The [s] sound can we hear in the words of beras [bəras] means rice, and panas [panas] means hot. b). Lamino-Alveolar /z/ The production of this sound is same as with [s] sound. The difference is the vocal cord in [z] sound production is vibrates while in [s] sound does not vibrate. In Javanese language this
phoneme takes from Arabian language. For example, zakat [zakat]
means tithe in English.
7). Medio-Palatal Consonant
There are four consonants in medio-palatal consonant. They are /c/, /ʝ/,
/ ̃/, and /j/. These phonemes are called medio-palatal consonant
because the allophones are pronounced with the obstruction in the
center of the tongue and hard palate.
a). Medio-palatal /c/
The phoneme is pronounced with obstruct the airstream flow from
the lung the released it. The vocal cord does not vibrate when
pronouncing this sound. The [c] sound can distributes only in the
first word or first syllable. It cannot place in the last word or last commit to user perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id33
syllable. For example, calon [calɒn] means candidate and kaca
[kaca] means mirror.
b). Medio-Palatal / ʝ /
This sound is made by obstruct completely the airflow from lung
then released without aspiration. The vocal cords vibrate.
c). Medio-palatal / ̃/
The production of this phoneme is by obstructing closely the airstream from the lung through the mouth. Together with that process, the soft palate and the uvula in low position so the airstream comes out through the nose. The vocal cord vibrates when this process takes place. For example, banyu [ ba ̃u:] means water, nyawa [ ̃ata] means live. d). Medio-palatal /j/ The sound is pronounced by make an obstruction in the center of the tongue. The height of the tongue is close with hard palate. The vocal cord vibrates when we pronounce this sound. This sound is also called as semi-vowel because the position of the tongue when we pronounce this sound is higher than pronounce [i] sound and
lower than pronounce [j] sound.
8). Dorso-Velar Consonant.
There are three consonants in dorso-velar /k/, /g/, and /ŋ/. It is called
dorso-velar because the obstruction takes place in the base of the tongue
and soft palate.
a) Dorso-velar /k/
This sound is pronounced by obstruct the airstream from the lung
then released it. The vocal cord does not vibrate when this process
takes place. We can hear this sound in the words of aku [aku:]
means I am, kilo [kɪlɔː] means kilograms. This sound appears in the
first syllable, first word, middle word or the last word but not in the
last sentence. For example utek pinter [utək pɪnter] means clever in English. commit to user perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id34
b). Dorso – velar /g/
This sound is made by obstruct the airflow closely then released it
without aspiration. This sound appears in the first, middle, and last
word. In the first syllable, this sound is followed by /l/ and /r/. This
structure forms consonant cluster, /gr/ and /gl/. We can hear this
sound in the words grusu [grʊsu:] means hurry, logro [lɒgrɔː]
means loose and gliyer [glɪjer] means sleepy. c). Dorso-Velas /ŋ/ The sound is pronounced by obstruct the airstream from the lung through the mouth. During that process the soft palate and uvula are in the low position, so the air comes out through the nose. In this process, the vocal cord vibrates. The sound that we will hear is [ŋ]. For example, mangan [maŋan] means eat, ngono [ŋɒnɔː] means just like that, and palang [palaŋ] means crossbar. 9). Laringal Consonant /h/ This sound is called laringal consonant because there is an obstruction in the larynx, especially in the vocal cords. To produce this sound, the glottis is in narrow position, so the airstream from the lung obstruct.
Phoneme /h/ appears in the words hawa [hawa] means wheather, and
tahu [tahu:] means kind of Javanese food.
10). Glottal-Stop Consonant /ʔ/
It is called glottal-stop because there is a complete obstruction
throughout the vocal cord. This sound is produced by closing the vocal
cord, so glottis is closed. The sound that we will hear is /ʔ/ sound.
There are some characteristics of Banyumas sound system (Wedhawati,
2002). They are:
1. Vowel /i:/
Vowel /i: / placed in the closed-ended syllable is pronounced as /ɪ/ sound in
Banyumas dialect. commit to user perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id35
2. Vowel /u: /
In Banyumas dialect words with vowel /u: / placed in the closed-ended
syllable is pronounced as /ʊ/ sound.
3. Vowel/ ʌ/
The characteristic of Banyumas people when he says words with / ʌ / sound
in the closed or open syllable is pronounced clearly as / ʌ / sound. 4. Consonant /b/ Consonant /p/ placed in final position will be pronounced as /b/ sound in Banyumas dialect. 5. Consonant /g/ Consonant /k/ placed in final position will be pronounced as /g/ sound in Banyumas dialect. 6. Consonant /k/ Sound /?/ placed in final position will be pronounced as /k/ sound in Banyumas dialect. 7. Consonant /d/ Consonant /t/ placed in final position will be pronounced as /d/ sound in
Banyumas people.
C. Review on Contrastive Analysis
Contrastive analysis, originally developed by Charles C. Fries (1945) and
expanded and clarified by Robert Lado (1957), systematically compares the
similarities and differences between the native languages and the target languages
systems and predicts the difficulties that learners might encounter when learning a
new language. In Tarigan‟s theory CA is described as “a procedure that tries to
compare first language (L1) structure and second language (L2) structure in order
to identify the differences of second language” (1989:05). This analysis can be
used as a basic to predict the problem that will emerge in learning second
commit to user perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id36
language. Tarigan also gives assumptions and hypothesis of CA. There are three
assumptions given by Tarigan (1989: 05)
1. The major problems in learning a new language is caused by the
interference of the first language.
2. Those problems can be predicted by CA
3. Use CA to choose teaching materials and decrease the interference effect.
There are five hypothesis gives by Tarigan (1989). They are: 1. The only caused of leaning difficulties and the wrong in teaching a foreign language is the interference of the mother tongue. 2. These difficulties in learning are caused by the differences on first language with second language. 3. The differences between first language and second language make the learning of second language more difficult. 4. The result of first language and second language comparison is needed to predict the difficulties and the mistake that will happen in learning second language. 5. By comparing the first language and second language, teacher can make a
plan of teaching materials.
Mother tongue interference can contribute to a large number of
pronunciation errors made by students. Inteference means “ added dificulty in
learning a sounds, word, or construction in a second language as the result of
differences with the habit of the native language” (Lado 1964: 217).
D. Review on Second Language Learning
Dulay, Burt and Krashen says “Second language learning is the process
of learning another language after the basic of the first is acquired” (1982:74). In
the context of term “second” can refer to any language that is learned subsequent commit to user perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id37
to the mother tongue. It can refer to the learning of a third or fourth language. But
second is not intended to contrast with foreign. (Rod Ellis, 1997)
Second language is language that becomes another tool to make
communication beside first language. Rod Ellis said that second language
acquisition can be defined as the way in which people learn a language other than
their mother tongue (1997;3). “Whereas foreign language is a language acquired
in mileu where it is normally not in use and which , when acquired is not used by learner in routine situation” (Klein, 1986:19). For example is senior high school student that learned English because English is their subject in school. When we learn another language, English for example, we cannot free from accent. This statement is supported by Derwing and Munro. They said that accent is a normal consequence of second language learning (In Gilakjani, 2011). Dialect and accent that close with pronunciation is important factor in second language learning. Avery and Ehrlich (1992) claim that the sound pattern of the learner‟s first language is transferred into the second language and is likely to cause foreign accents. Based on Avery and Ehrlich, there are biological, socio-cultural, personality and linguistic factors which are known to affect the acquisition of the
sound system of second language.
a. Biological factors.
In biological factor related with age of the learner. The most important
factor in predicting the degree to which the accent will be noticeable (or
strong) is the age at which the non-native language was learned. This
statement is supported by Dulay, Burt and Krashen. They said that learners‟
second language acquisition is influenced by learners‟ age and personalities
(1982 ; 74 ). A common observation made by people involved in the field of
second language learning is that adult second language learners almost
always have a foreign accent while child second language learners almost
always attain native-like pronunciation. The hypothesis that explains this
difference between adults and children is the „critical period hypotheses. (Avery and Ehrlich, 1992:commit xiii). Theto user hypothesis holds that language is perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id38
learned differently by children and adults. The children not learn but they
acquire the language. Get some from the language unconsciously. Beside
adult learn language formally, consciously and purposely.
b. Socio-cultural factors.
Another factor that influence with second language learning is socio-cultural
factors. The great variability in pronunciation accuracy of adult learners has
led other researcher to conclude that it is socio-cultural factors that largely determine the success or lack the success in achieving native-like pronunciation. Such speakers rarely lose their accent primarily because their accent serves a strong marker of their social identity. Avery and Ehrlich said that it is important to ESL student to be aware of the way in which these socio-cultural factors may influence their students (1992; xiv). c. Personality Factors. Beside Avery and Ehrlich, Dulay, Burt and Krashen also said that personality is affecting the learners‟ acquisition of the sound system of a second language. Learners who are confident, out-going, and willing to take risks probably have more opportunities to practice their pronunciation of the second language simply because they are more often involved in
interactions with native speakers.
d. The role of the native language.
The nature of a foreign accent is determined to a large extent by a learner‟s
native language. For student who learned English as a second language, of
course their dialect influence will affect their learning English
pronunciation. Sometimes it causes error in learning. The sound system of
native language can influence the learners‟ pronunciation in English at least
three ways. First, difficulties arise when a learners encounters sounds in
English that are not part of the sound inventory of the learner native
language. The pronunciation of sounds depends on the proper use of the
musculature in the mouth. Thus adult learners may be unable to produce
new sounds because they have never exercised their mouth in the particular way required to pronouncecommit certain to user English sound. For example is the perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id39
production of /r/ sounds. Actually /r/ sounds is exist both in English or
Banyumas sounds system, but the sounds production of /r/ sounds between
this two language is very different. This sound in English is made by curling
the tip of the tongue and the back of the alveolar ridge” (Dobrovosky and
Katamba, 1996: 33). While the production of /r/ sound in Banyumas is made
by tip of tongue touches the tooth ridge and vibrate. This R sound produces
as a trill: that is, the tip of the tongue touches the tooth ridge repeatedly (Avery and Ehrlich , 1992). Banyumas people say r sounds clearly and steady. Beside r sound, there is another sounds that people in Banyumas does not pronounce. They are diphthongs. In Banyumas dialect there are no diphthongs while English the diphthongs is exist. This will cause difficulties for the learner and it can causes errors when they pronounce words which have diphthongs. Second, difficulties may arise because the rules of combining sounds into words are different in the learner‟s native language. For example /θ/ sound in the words breath that Ngapak dialect has not have. The / θ/ sounds is difficult for second language learners because it is not common sounds in many of the world‟s languages (1992). There is no / θ/ sound in Banyumas
sounds system and the learners will face difficulty when they say / θ/ sound.
Banyumas learner will say th sound with t sound. Unfortunatelly, / θ/ sound
is among the most frequently used words in the English language. For
example, the words „the‟, „this‟, „that‟, these‟, „think‟, though‟, „their‟,
„than‟, „they‟, „them‟, „mother‟, „father‟, brother‟. All of these words are
begin with /θ/ sound and show the importance of this sound in English
language learning.
Third, the patterns of stress and intonation, which determine the overall
the rhythm and melody of a language, can be transferred from the native
language into second language. Ngapak dialect has no intention in the word
stress. For example when Banyumas people say “ Kerja “ whether they say
word kerja with stress in the first syllable, “KERja”, or second syllable, “kerJA”, the meaning of wordcommit kerja to useris w orking. But in English if word perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id40
“employ” say with stress in the first syllable , “EMploy”, has meaning
worker (noun) while it says with stress in the second syllable , “employ”,
has meaning working (verb).
commit to user