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(Yellow Oleander) Seed Oil and Sus Domesticus (Pig) Lard

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(Yellow Oleander) Seed Oil and Sus Domesticus (Pig) Lard PREPARATION AND STUDIES OF BIODIESELS FROM THEVETIA PERUVIANA (YELLOW OLEANDER) SEED OIL AND SUS DOMESTICUS (PIG) LARD BY YAKUBU ALI DALLATU DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY AHMADU BELLO UNIVERSITY, ZARIA, NIGERIA. DECEMBER, 2015 PREPARATION AND STUDIES OF BIODIESELS FROM THEVETIA PERUVIANA (YELLOW OLEANDER) SEED OIL AND SUS DOMESTICUS (PIG) LARD BY Yakubu Ali DALLATU, B.Sc (Hons) CHEMISTRY(BUK) 1984; POSTGRADUATE DIPLOMA IN EDUCATION (ABU) 1988 ; M.Sc ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY (ABU) 2000 Ph.D/SCIE/05687/2009-2010 A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE SCHOOL OF POSTGRADUATE STUDIES, AHMADU BELLO UNIVERSITY, ZARIA IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY FACULTY OF SCIENCE AHMADU BELLO UNIVERSITY, ZARIA, NIGERIA. DECEMBER, 2015 ii Declaration I declare that the work in this Thesis entitled “Preparation and Studies of Biodiesels from Thevetia peruviana (Yellow Oleander) Seed Oil and Sus domesticus (Pig) Lard”, has been carried out by me in the Department of Chemistry. The information derived from the literature has been duly acknowledged in the text and a list of references provided. No part of this thesis was previously presented for another degree or diploma at this or any other Institution. Yakubu Ali DALLATU _____________________ _______________________ __________________ Name of Student Signature Date iii Dedication This research work is dedicated to my wife, Mrs. Rhoda Y. Dallatu and our children, Unomliyi, Alionom and Apemu for their patience, support and encouragement. iv Certification This thesis, entitled ―PREPARATION AND STUDIES OF BIODIESELS FROM THEVETIA PERUVIANA (YELLOW OLEANDER) SEED OIL AND SUS DOMESTICUS (PIG) LARD‖ by Yakubu Ali DALLATU meets the regulations governing the award of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.) Analytical Chemistry of the Ahmadu Bello University, and is approved for its contribution to knowledge and literary presentation. _____________________________________________ ___________________ Prof E.B. Agbaji Date Chairperson, Supervisory Committee _____________________________________________ __________________ Prof. V.O. Ajibola Date Member, Supervisory Committee _____________________________________________ __________________ Prof. J.A. Kagbu Date Member, Supervisory Committee ______________________________________________ __________________ Prof. V.O. Ajibola Date Head of Department ______________________________________________ __________________ Prof. K. Bala Dean, School of Post Graduate Studies Date v Acknowledgement First of all my praise goes to God Almighty, on whom ultimately we depend for sustainance and guidance. With all reverence I take the opportunity to express my deep sense of gratitude and wholehearted indebtedness to my respected guides and supervisors Prof. E.B. Agbaji and Prof V.O. Ajibola of the Department of Chemistry, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria, for their unreserved advice and contribution to this thesis and the valuable comments which I received throughout this work. Their technical help, stimulating suggestions and encouragement helped me in the course of this work. They all expressed faith in me and made this work a cherishing treatise with science. I would also like to record my deep sense of gratitude to Late Prof. J. A. Kagbu of blessed memory, for his inspiration and encouragement as well as his professional guidance. His active involvement and motivating guidance was of great help. I would like to express a deep sense of gratitude to my respected and able Head of Department, Prof. V.O. Ajibola, who went all the way out to help me in all genuine cases during the course of doing my project. My deepest appreciation also goes to all non-teaching and technical staff of the Department of Chemistry, with whose support I was able to finish this work. I am strongly indebted to the laboratory technical staff of the National Research Institute of Chemical Technology (NARICT), Zaria for their generous cooperation, especially, for their technical guidance and assistance. I would also like to express my best acknowledgment to The Nigerian National Petroleum cooperation (NNPC). I am especially grateful to the Director in-charge of NNPC laboratory and his members of staff for their professional guidance and constant encouragement up to the end of the laboratory work. I owe special thanks to my friends and colleagues as they have spared their valuable time to share part of their skills and understanding with me and for their encouragement. Finally, I would like to express my deep sense of gratitude to my family members whose encouragement and moral support throughout the study period and in supporting my efforts throughout my life, made me mentally free to concentrate on this work. All my family members deserve special thanks. vi Abstract Studies of biodiesels from Thevetia peruviana (yellow oleander) seeds oil (YO) and Sus domesticus (pig lard) (PL) were carried out. Oil was extracted from YO and PL rendered from pig fat, which yielded 64.7% and 85.4% oil respectively. Some physicochemical parameters: flash points of 192oC and 165oC, calorific values of 13.79MJ/Kg and 12.02MJ/kg were obtained for YO and PL respectively. The FTIR analyses of the YO, PL and biodiesel showed the carbonyl functional group at 1739 cm-1 to 1745cm-1 as the most intense and prominent bands. The carbonyl (-C=O vibration) group of esters showed strong absorption bands at 1740cm-1 in the IR spectra of the biodiesels, indicating the presence of fatty acid methyl esters. The GC-MS analysis of the oils and biodiesels showed about 80% saturated/ monounsaturated fatty acids in both YO and PL, signifying high potential for biodiesel production. Biodiesels were prepared from the YO and PL using the base- catalyzed transesterification method. Biodiesel yields increased with increase in temperature and reaction time with minimal effect of catalyst concentration. The condition adjudged to be optimal for transeterification of YO and PL was at a temperature of 60oC, reaction time of 60 min and catalyst concentration of 1% w/w. Under this condition biodiesel yields were found to be 97.41% for yellow oleander methyl ester (YOME) and 95.12% for pig lard methyl ester (PLME) respectively. There was similarity in fatty acid composition in both YOME and PLME, with high oleic acid (57.84%), palmitic acid (15.56% to18.07%), stearic acid was in the range of 15.98% to 15. 65%, which placed them as better substitutes for fossil diesel. Fuel properties of blends (B10 to B50) of YOME and PLME with fossil diesel (FD) agreed with the ASTM specifications for biodiesels. The Kinematic viscosities of PLME-blends (from 3.76mm2/s in B10 to 4.84 mm2/s in B90) fall within the allowable limits of 3.5 - 5.0 mm2/s specified by ASTM D6751. The kinematic viscosities of YOME blends B60 vii (5.04 mm2/s) and B90 (6.53 mm2/s) were above the ASTM limit. The specific gravity of the blended fuels of PLME-FD was not affected by the increasing biodiesel portion in the blend. All the blends show low cloud points above the ASTM limit of 4oC (except for B10 and B20 blends of YOME which are 3oC and 4oC respectively). At elevated temperatures of 100oC - 250oC specific gravities of all blends decreased while kinematic viscosity decreased with increase in treatment temperature. Long time storage of biodiesel fuels showed a steady increase in flash point, density, kinematic viscosity and acid value, with a decrease in peroxide and calorific value over the storage period of 120 days. As fraction of B100 increase in blends, the calorific value decreased by 1.10% in B20, 2.43% in B40 and 2.63% in B80 in YOME blends. Rate of decrease in calorific values also gets higher with storage time. Biodiesels from mixtures of YO and PL (ratio of 1:1, 1:2, and 2:1) gave high cloud point and low cetane numbers, however, their flash points, specific gravity and viscosity were all within the ASTM limits for biodiesel. Flash points of PL:YO (1:1) FAME and PL:YO (1:2) FAME were higher than that of FD (88oC). Biodiesel from yellow oleander seed oil was found to be a better substitute for conventional diesel than biodiesel from pig lard. viii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Title Page i Declaration ii Dedication iii Certification iv Acknowledgement v Abstract vi Table of Content viii List of Figures xvi List of Tables xix List of Plates xxi List of Appendices xxii Abbreviations xxiv 1.0 INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 Renewable Energy 2 1.2 Statement of the Problem 3 1.3 Justification of the Research 5 1.4 Research Aim and Objectives 6 1.4.1 Aim 6 1.4.2 Objectives 7 ix 2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW 8 2.1 Triglycerides 8 2.2 Fatty Acid Composition of Some Oils 10 2.3 Biodiesel 11 2.4 Historical Development of Biodiesel 12 2.5 Biodiesel Feedstocks 13 2.5.1 Jatropha curcas 14 2.5.2 Yellow oleander 14 2.5.3 Lard 17 2.6 Methods of Oil Extraction 18 2.6.1 Traditional methods 19 2.6.2 Manual methods 19 2.6.3 Mechanised extraction 19 2.6.4 Solvent extraction method 20 2.6.5 Soxhlet extraction method 21 2.6.6 Ultrasonic-assisted extraction 21 2.7 Production of Biodiesel 22 2.7.1 Transesterification process 22 2.7.2 Base- catalysed transesterification 24 2.7.3 Acid- catalysed transesterification 26 x 2.7.4 Two-step acid-base catalyzed transesterification 28 2.7.5 Transesterification using lipase- catalyst 29 2.7.6 Transesterification using heterogeneous catalyst 29 2.7.7 Non-catalytic conversion techniques 30 2.7.8 Non-ionic base- catalyzed processes 32 2.8 Factors Affecting Transesterification Process 33 2.8.1 Effects of
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