CEU eTD Collection The Curtain of Dreams: Early Cinema in Submitted toCentral European University In partial Fulfillment oftheRequirements for theDegree ofMaster of Arts ÖZDE ÇEL ÖZDE Supervisor: Dr. Marsha Siefert Second Reader: Dr.Karl Hall Budapest, Hungary History Department 1896-1923 ø KTEMEL-THOMEN 2009 by ø stanbul CEU eTD Collection without thewritten permission of the Author. Further copies made accordancewith such in instructions maymade notbe obtainedfrom the librarian. This pagemust form a partofanysuch copies made. by theAuthor andlodged the Centralin European Library. Details may be either in full orpart may bemade in accordance only withthe instructions given Copyright thetextofthisin thesis restswith the Author.Copies byanyprocess, ii CEU eTD Collection proclamationof Republic ofTurkey. nationalist sentiments thatreflect themood ofthetime, directly before the Westernism. vein, Inthis the very first films ofthe eraalso represent patriotic and ø assumptions made throughtheexamination of sources reveal thatforthe élite turmoil, the cinema-going experience in social struggles were taking place. This thesis proposesthat despite the ongoing population exchanges. New classes were appearingas catastrophic political and emergence ofnewnation-states. Itwas timewars, the of occupationsand Ottoman era.Thisperiod was witness tothe endof the Empire andthe introduction ofcinema, cinema-goingand filmmakingin The Curtain ofDreams:Early Cinema in ABSTRACT stanbullian audience cinemawasmuch inaccordwith very theideology of , especially inthecontext ofmodernization andnationalism. Thepreliminary iii ø stanbul hada significant rolefor the ø stanbul, 1896-1923 ø stanbul during the late traces the CEU eTD Collection this work greatly. each chapter and insightful thoughts. His patience, interest and faith nurtured me and Finally, I am especially grateful to Mr.Martin Thomen K for his detailed comments for horizon. Mr. Rekin Teksoy, my mentor, has also inspired me along the way. As invaluable contribution and support throughout my academic life: Dr. Bülent Bilmez, Dr. I furthermore would like to express my gratitude to my former professors for their at CEU. Mr. Gezim Krasniqi, Mr. Erdem Ceydilek and Ms. Nil Birol for their friendship and support Special thanks also go to Ms. Gülen Göktürk, Ms. Seda Saluk, Ms. Ljubica Spaskovska, providing valuable sources, which Iwould not have been able to obtain otherwise. Karahasano translating the Ottoman Turkish archival materials. I am also grateful to Dr. Songül I am appreciative to Ms. Nuran Kekeç and Ms. Ba Library in Ankara. Sevgi Topuz at Institut Français d’Etudes Anatoliennes and Mr. Mustafa Iren at Milli Berk and Mr. Kamber Y I would like to thank Mrs. Saadet Denk at Istanbul Belediyesi Atatürk Library, Mr. Seyfi institutions helped me to obtain the primary and secondary sources for this thesis. During my three-week research period in Nevertheless, I shall acknowledge CEU’s research grant that made this work possible. Mrs. AnikoMolnar and Mrs. Zsuzsanna Somodi were helpful to me. Daskalov and Dr. Judit Bodnar. Additionally, the History Department’s staff members European University: Dr. Karl Hall, Dr. Laszlo Kontler, Dr. Miklos Lojko, Dr. Roumen made invaluable contributions tomy development during my graduate studies at Central I am also grateful to a number ofthe History Department’s faculty members who had discussions and exchanging ideas. indebted toDr. Siefert not only for her guidance but also foroffering her precious time for academic knowledge, strong guidance and intellectual competence. I am deeply unforgettable. During the departmental workshops, once again I realized her broad my four-week writing process. For instance, her motto of“writing is rewriting” is inspiring suggestions and professionalism. I learned much from her, especially during Dr. Marsha Siefert, my supervisor, has been very helpful with her insightful thoughts, a number of people. more manageable due tothe support, assistance, advice and encouragement of Working onthis thesis was achallenging, pleasing and intriguing process which was ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Õ m Karaömerlio ÷ lu, Ms. Dilan Y ÷ lu and Dr. Cemal Kafadar helped me to broaden my intellectual Õ lmaz atBo Õ ld ÕUÕ m, Ms.m, Nurçin ÷ aziçi University Abdullah Kuran Library, Mrs. Ümit ø stanbul and Ankara, individuals at a number of iv ø leri and Mr. Mehmet Evren Dinçer for ú ak Çeliktemel for giving me a hand CEU eTD Collection ILORPY...... 77 BIBLIOGRAPHY FILMOGRAPHY...... 76 TIMELINE OFRELATED EVENTS...... 74 CONCLUSION...... 72 3.8 Depiction ofCinema NovelsofthePeriod...... 68 in 3.7 Cinema-houses cinema-going and in 3.6 MuhsinErtu ...... 60 3.5 TheGoverness: AnExample of“Nationalist Sentiments” ...... 56 3.4 Thefeature-length narrative films ...... 54 3.3 Film InstitutionsProduction andNewsreels ...... 51 3.2 TheFirst Domestic Films ...... 50 3.1 Competing Ideologies ...... 49 PERIOD CHAPTER DURINGTHEARMISTICE 3.FILMMAKING ANDCINEMA-GOING 2.6 From Turcatoà Franca...... 41 la à la ...... 38 2.5 LocalForms ofPerformance Culture ...... 36 2.4 APlethora ofPleasures: Other Forms ofPerformance Arts 2.3 “LifelessSmiles, Soundless Laughter”...... 35 2.2 TheCurtain of Dreams: ArrivaloftheSeventh Art...... 27 2.1 Pera:SoMuch Like Paris...... 25 CHAPTER 2.CINEMA IN 1.5 Cinema andModernity...... 20 ...... 16 forModernization:1.4 ATest Westernization ...... 11 1.3 TheArmistice Period(1918-1923) ...... 9 1.2 Reforming the Empire 1.1 AnOverview of thelate Ottoman Empire...... 5 CHAPTER 1.TRACING THEHISTORY...... 4 ...... 1 INTRODUCTION vi ...... ABBREVIATIONS vi LIST OFTABLES...... vi ...... LIST OFFIGURES iv ...... ACKNOWLEDGMENTS iii ABSTRACT...... CONTENTS OF TABLE ÷ u:TeMkn fDmsi iea...... 62 rul: TheMaking ofDomestic Cinema ø TNU NTEEEO RITC EID.24 STANBUL ONTHEEVE OF ARMISTICE PERIOD v ø tnu ...... 64 stanbul CEU eTD Collection The Society Disabledof Veterans ( The Society Nationalof Defense ( Central Military Office ofCinema ( The Committee ofUnion and Progress ( ABBREVIATIONS ( Table 3.2 - A List of number of cinema-houses in 1924 in the selected countries. Table 3.1- A List of 26 cinema-houses in May 1921. (Johnson, Clarence R. 1922) Table 2.1- A sample leisureof activities of Said Bey. (Dumont, P., 1993) TABLES OF LIST Figure 3.4- Hale Cinema-house in Kad Figure 3.3- Saray Cinema-house [Ciné Palace] (Atatürk Library Archives) Figure 3.2- Muhsin Ertu Figure 3.1- Public protest at Sultanahmet, 1919, ( Figure 2.4- Asample of Figure 2.3- Announcement of Ottoman Turkish, French Greek and Armenian. (Gökmen, Mustafa. 1997) Figure 2.2-Handbill promoting the film screening in Salle Sponeck Pub in Pera, written in (Collection of Maggie Land Blanck) Figure 2.1- Shops and people on narrow up-hill street of steps in Pera, 1900s. Figure 1.3- Military Units in Taksim, 1909, (Atatürk Library Archives) Figure 1.2- British soldiers in Figure 1.1- Galata Bridge and Golden Horn, 1908, (Collection ofMaggie Land Blanck) FIGURES LIST OF Sinema <Õ ld Õ]Õ , 1924 [1340]) ÷ Karagöz rul Bey, from “Samson” ( ø stanbul, 1919, ( cinématographe characters, Zenne and Celebi. (And, Metin. 2005) Müdafaa-i MilliyeCemiyeti Müdafaa-i Merkez Dairesi) Ordu Film Merkez Malul Gaziler Cemiyeti Õ köy, ( Ittihad ve Terakki Cemiyeti vi Le Courrier du Cinéma Tempo screenings. (Ferah, 1914) Cumhuriyet Tema , 2007) ú a ) , 1920) ) , 1997) ) , 1922) MGC MMC MOFD CUP CEU eTD Collection ideology of modernization. for certain audiences and how the novelty ofcinema was understoodvis-à-vis the was reflectedincinema theyears during ofturmoiland change; what films represented be found the cinema.in Additionally, thesis this seekstoexplore how this transformation Armistice Period alsooffers afocus on proto-nationalist and patriotic concerns thatcan transformations formed anewfabric of social norms andpractices within this era. The gradually subject tochanges, most likely towards aEuropean-styled one.These everything from manners and fashion tothe public sphere activities ofpeople were and modernization, yet canit not be reduced to thesetheoretical frameworks entirely. theory. Inotherwords, asa medium,maywithin cinema thebounds fall ofnationalism complex phenomenonsurely and cannot be deduced to interpretation byonlyoneset of social scientists and intellectuals ofthetimeperiod. Cinemamulti-faceted a is and the framework inwhichcinema evolvedandhas beenunderstood, bothbycontemporary ideologies ofmodernization and nationalism in this thesis,so the reader may understand domesticfilms.to I from propaganda state the region, filmmakingin the introduce period. Thisincludes theinterplaybetween local performancethe artsand early introduction of cinema, cinema-going and filmmaking in During the late Ottoman erainwhich themodernization movement accelerated, The Curtain ofDreams:Early Cinema in INTRODUCTION 1 ø stanbul ø stanbul during thetransition , 1896-1923 tracesthe CEU eTD Collection Postas periodicals of film, literature,arts and spectacles, such as cinema. Anotherimportant feature ofthis thesis is thatitextensively reliesthe on of Refik Halid andPeyami Safaare particularly outstanding forfollowing the journey of values andevaluating the author’s perspectives about the novelty ofcinema. The novels Additionally, the novels wereusefulfor transferring factual knowledge, comprehending such asthoseof Ay traditions attheperiod. Inordertodothis, Ireferredtovarious memoirs ofindividuals audiences andtocapturethe descriptions ofcapital theimperialand itscustoms and Turkish and Ottoman Turkish languages. through examining thefilm journals, memoirs and novelsof the timewritten in theFrench, played atthat time in data on the audiences’ experience of film, how film affected them and what role cinema the evolution ofcinemausage and ofstate propaganda infilmmaking,there islimited film Myhistory. focus on thelate Ottomanthis thesis erafor isanattempt todothat. a descriptive setofknowledge.Yet, none have focusedexclusivelyon the Ottoman late such as the distribution of Hollywood films,interrelation of modernity and cinema and 1930 tothe1970s.This period focusallows them to showcase theissuesoncinema history unfortunately focusonthe Republican eraextensively, which rangesfrom the Memoirs ofthetimewere tounderstand helpful thefirst impressions ofthefilms by Many of the leading film scholars and social scientists in this growing field of film Even thoughtheexisting secondary literature provideswide a range ofsources on Õ ) , Tema ú a, Yar ø Õ stanbul. Here,Iattempted to seekanswers forthesequestions n ú e Osmano , Dergah , Sinema ÷ lu, MuhsinErtulu, 2 <Õ ld Õ]Õ , Ferah ÷ rul and Sermet MuhtarAlus. Le Courier du Cinema (Sinema , Sinema and Stamboul that CEU eTD Collection Chapter Three. changingface oftheaudience andtherepresentationof cinema briefly arediscussed in length films areexamined thetext in inrelation tothehistorical developments. Lastly,the institutions along with the first films thatwere produced. Also some relevant feature- Three covers the years ofArmistice Period andthedevelopment ofstate-owned film screenings, theopening ofthecinema-houses andtheprofile oftheaudience. Chapter arts, such asdrama andcinema. Furthermore, it gives information about the first film overview ontheinterplay between local performancenewlyarrived artsandthe Western linked tothe evolution ofcinema andcinema-going in historical perspective and the larger component of transformations which weregreatly specifically theArmistice Period. In this way, Chapter Oneis designed to provide the by focusingon the political andsocio-culturalchanges thein Ottoman late Empire and relevant years and subject matters ofeach issue were examinedthoroughly. covered the eventsofthe dayasthey were happening. Among these periodicals, the This thesis consists of three chapters: Chapter Onesets the historical background 3 ø stanbul.Chapter Two offersan CEU eTD Collection distinct milieu of economic forcesconditioned the way inwhich cinemawas introducedandreceived inthe perspective isthe centralemphasis ofthis thesis. Of course, political, socio-cultural and makingand state-owned film production institutions the late Ottomanin Empire. show the natureandevolution ofthecinema audienceand illustrate thedomestic film mainthis workaimsin aretoscrutinize the introductionof cinema theimperialcapital, in "modernization" and"Westernization" weremotivated by the situation ontheground. The the long-lived and intense period particularly a wasPowers, Allied about debates filmsthemselves. (1918-1923),ArmisticePeriod whenThe Turkey were abackdrop notonly forthe cinema-going public butalso asasubject forthe andthe Balkan I the World War Wars, NationalStruggle that usheredthe Republicof in both entertainment andstate propaganda. Obviously, the tumultuous events of the time - including both foreign imports anddomestic film productions were primary instruments of with ethnic its andreligious diversity. By the foundationof Republic ofTurkey 1923,in Empire, cinemawas aninfluential medium,especially fortheOttoman Introduction The socio-cultural aspect and impact ofcinema in From its introduction intheearlytwentieth-century to theendof theOttoman ø stanbul. Thus, acompelling analysisofthedevelopment ofthefilm TRACING THE HISTORY CHAPTER 1. CHAPTER 4 ø ø stanbul was occupied by wasoccupied stanbul stanbulfrom a historical élite inthe capital, CEU eTD Collection information see information detailed For Empire. the of theboundaries in spoken widely were tongues Caucasian and numerous Rumanian, Kurdish, Albanian, these Apart from andSyriac. Serbian Ladino, Greek, Bulgarian, Armenian, Arabic, Turkish, were Those Ottoman twentieth-century. ofthe turn the at Empire the by employed languages common nine were there correspondence official other and communications administrative of purpose the For well. oneas a multilingualistic was also population religious heterogeneous groups. The Christian different andnumerous Assyrians churches, Catholics andRoman Christian Eastern of members included Christians Ottoman Nusayris. and Druzes such as sects andother and Alevis, as Shi’ites as well primarily Sunnis of consisted communities Muslim Ottoman Empire. wasto the given andtribute allegiance as as long rights and religious legal autonomous own their were granted and non-Muslims Muslims Islamic imperial powerstructure ofthe Empire. city in1453 by Ottoman forces, seat ofthe Roman andEastern Roman Empires for centuries. After the conquest of the important. Prior totheOttomans thiscity,then called Constantinople, hadserved asthe Anatolian land bridge between Europe and Asia hadbeen recognized asstrategically maritime tradein the area. Since ancient times itspositionon the bottleneck of the position onthe Bosphorus Strait, where those who ruled it were easily able to control according to the principles ofthe principles the to according 2 209. p. Press,2008, University evident thantheimperialcapital, 1.1 An Overviewlate ofthe Ottoman Empire context thejourney ofcinema the in imperialcapital. 1 nationalism.” ultimately failedto address thecontradictions ofapoly-ethnic empire the agein of ø as wellas thefilms themselves -requires an understanding ofthehistorical context of industry in thiscontext -including theinfrastructure ofimport, productionand distribution, stanbul inthisperiod. At the turn of the century “like theAustrians, the Ottomans Throughout its history the vast Ottoman Empire had a very heterogeneous population andwasruled population heterogeneous hada Empire very Ottoman vast the history its Throughout ù  ükrü M.Hanio ükrü In noplace were theheterogeneous characteristics of this vast Empire felt and 1 Thestruggle to this endaffected thelife of ù ükrü M. Hanio M. ükrü ÷ lu, A Brief History of ÷ lu, millet A Brief History of system. The system. ø stanbulwas above all acenter of government ofthe ø stanbul. Thecityoccupied astrategically important the Late Ottoman Empire Ottoman Late the 5 millet the Late Ottoman Empire Ottoman Late the 2 TheOttoman Empire grew and ruled a system was one in which communities ofboth was whichcommunities systemone in ø stanbullians and in anarrower , Princeton and Oxford: Princeton andOxford: , Princeton , Princeton and Oxford: Princeton , CEU eTD Collection 5 p.110. 1994, Vakfi, 4 Yurt Yay Yurt 3 Century Nineteenth the between EuropeandtheOttomanworld that vividly represented the interaction withthe data. 850,290 for thepopulation of Muslims and289,856 non-Muslims. Princeton University Press,2008.; University Princeton shows thatthe religious division ofthe overall population of 1914 in 1912,in 855,515 in 1913 and977,662 1914.in Another source published byBab-iAli, Estimates foundin EuropeanWestern andOttoman sourcesgiveapopulation of857,069 renowned hubof non-Muslim settlement, doubledtowards theend of the century. increased thein city.Thepopulation ofthenewlyquarters opened ofthePera district, a Crimean (1853-1856). War Thegrowth and number ofnon-Ottoman settlements population came aboutinthe second half of the nineteenth-century, especially after the (508,815 males and364,750 females). ofbirth outsideplace of 430,000 to over 1 million. In1885, about 60 percent of the inhabitants of until theendof century. The population ofthecity increased more thantwo fold,from centuries. vast territory, stretching from Central Europe toNorthAfrica andtheMiddle Eastfor No Name, in: Name, No Kemal H. Ibid, p. 110. Ibid, As itwascapital, theimperial The demography ofthe imperial capital changed significantly from mid-1850sthe Õ nlar Karpat, Osmanl Karpat, Õ , 2003, p.141-143. , Dunden Bugune , Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1986. Press, of Washington University , Seattle: Õ Nüfusu (1830-1914): Demografik ve Sosyal Özellikleri, Sosyal ve Demografik (1830-1914): Nüfusu ø stanbul. ø stanbul Ansiklopedisi stanbul Zeynep Celik, Zeynep ø stanbul in1914,when compared totheabove-mentioned 3 Theoverall population ofthecity in1885was 873,565 5 Nevertheless, this datagives aquestionable total of ø stanbulalso played aprivileged roleas an interface The of The Remaking 4 Itisknown thatamajor the increase in 6 , v. 6, v. , ø stanbul: Türkiye Ekonomik ve Toplumsal Tarih Toplumsal ve Ekonomik Türkiye stanbul: ø stanbul: Portrait of an Ottoman City in City an Ottoman of Portrait stanbul: ø stanbulwas 560,434 ø  stanbul: Tarih Vakf Tarih stanbul: ø stanbulhad a Õ CEU eTD Collection willbe examined inChapter Two thoroughly. 8 commercialcultural and interaction between Europeand Panorama ofShores ofBosphorus 7 138. p. Press,1999, University footages are known as audience. He recorded the views of Bosphorus and Golden Horn and today these and West: Aleppo, Aleppo, and West: ø Lumière Frères. inside and outside theEmpire toalsoimportmake film and was films, asit thecasefor Frères. Nevertheless, permanent cinema-house thein city was founded withthe collaboration of French Pathé interface inthe realms ofpolitics, culture and allpower forms.” in its material world oftrade and exchange, embracing themuch widerconcept ofcontact, of 6 film werescreenings firstly organized byFrenchorigin obtainpower through their connections inEurope. Hence it isnotsurprising thatthe first the hands of non-Muslim members ofsociety who were to able exercise leadership or West. stanbul in1896 for the purpose of filming sceneries of Rekin Teksoy, Rekin Eldem, “ Eldem, Edhem Eldem, “ Eldem, Edhem 6 Atthe turn of the century ø stanbul: From Imperial”, p.137. Imperial”, From stanbul: Turkish Cinema Turkish ø ø stanbul: From Imperial to Peripheralized Capital”, in: Capital”, Peripheralized to Imperial From stanbul: zmir and It is knownIt is that ø Panorama oftheGolden Horn stanbulmight have been anatural locationfor entrepreneurs ø stanbul , M. Thomen & O. Celiktemel (tran.), (tran.), &O.Celiktemel M. Thomen , , E.Eldem, D. Goffman and B. Masters (eds.), Cambridge: Cambridge Eugène Promio,a technician ofLumière Frères, came to ø stanbul was asignificant port city that“transcended the (Panorama desRives duBosphore 7 ( Panaroma delaCorned”Or ø ø stanbulthe context in ofcinema stanbul: Oglak, 2008, p. 1. 2008, Oglak, stanbul: The Ottoman City between East between City Ottoman The ø ø stanbullians andthefirst stanbulfor the European 7 Tradewas mostly in ). 8 Thismatter of ) and CEU eTD Collection the Ottoman societyatthis time. intellectuals andprofessional classes with the cultureWestern gradually marked ashift in European-style “Westernization”. Thegrowing fascination ofthebureaucratic also pavedaway fornew educational institutions, emergence ofnew ideologies and reforms of1839,modernization not onlybrought achange in theadministrative rule but number ofchangesandmodernization invarious areas. Indeed, before with the including those inthe upper echelons ofthe imperial power structure, was callingfor a Beginning inthenineteenth-century political movements throughouttheEmpire, Figure 1.1- Galata Bridge and Golden Horn, 1908. (Collection Maggieof Land Blanck) 8 Tanzimat élite , CEU eTD Collection 12 earn credibilityand support from statesthe liberal of Europe. Western Chief. Gradually, theCUP established theconstitutional regime theEmpire in a bid to in extensive power during I,while servingas World MinisterWar Commander-in-War and 11 Progress (CUP). SeeErich J. Zürcher, and ofUnion Committee name traditional the CPUwas Then 1908.reverted ofsummer 1905until late 10 Cemal Pa (Macedonian) andSecond (Thracian) Army, inparticular, two officers but EnverPa VI (r.1918-1922).Decisions were takencollectively bytheCUP’sofficers oftheThird Mehmed V(r.1909-1918) came tothesceneand was followed laterbySultan Mehmed AbdülhamidII April in 1909, he was overthrown bytheCUP and his successor, Sultan administrative, judicialand constitutional areas. After the counter revolution ofSultan monarchy under a parliamentary regime andpush through modernization reforms in movement underaninstitution called theCommittee andProgress(CUP, ofUnion 9 ve Terakki Cemiyeti Egypt. Royal Medical Academy,members andother ofsecretcommittees, basedinEuropeand organization was theUnionofOttomans, foundedbyagroupofmedical studentsatthe modernization andchanges in many areas ofthe Empire. The major YoungTurk Turk movementwas made upofmilitary officers who advocated for sweeping AbdülhamidII (r.1876-1909) with theRevolution ofYoung Turks Julyin 1908.The Young 1.2 Reforming the Empire Hanio Zürcher, Hanio from (CPU) Progress ofandUnion as Committee organization the renamed movement Turk Young The ÷ ÷ 9 Much ofthese transformations came toaheadduring the reign ofSultan lu, Themembers ofYoungTurks from lu, Turkey History a Modern Turkey The Late Ottoman Empire Late Ottoman The The Late Ottoman Empire Ottoman Late The ú a stoodoutandbecamemilitary the leadersofCUP. ). 10 The revolutionaries’ goalwas toimplement aconstitutional , p.103. , , p.145. Turkey a History Modern Turkey p. 159. 9 ø stanbul andParis branches started their , London: I. B. Tauris, 2001, pp. 89-90. pp. 2001, London: I.B.Tauris, , 11 Enver Pa 12 ú a hadgained ú a and ø ttihat CEU eTD Collection 15 315, 338,389. 100, 95, pp. 16 has taken in different occasions. See Inan Ari(ed.), See Inan occasions. different has takenin he that andphotos hiscamera thatheneededfor films aboutdifferent he mentions Sultan Naciye and wife Progress. Enver Pa Enver Progress. founded by Enver Pa byEnver founded 14 assisted intheconsolidation of power. military ethic and second national sovereignty. Thethird toolwas the press which Office ofCinema (MOFD, due tothe nationalist sentiments. Macedonian origin. Surprisingly, many sources onthe issue avoid includingthis detail more ChapterThree, in thefirst films oftheregionwere shotbytheManakis Brothers of contemporary film historians approach the first films oftheera.As it will bediscussed Admittedly, thedrastic changeinthe Ottoman population alsoaffected theway inwhich time inOttoman history,ethnic Turksbecamemajoritya ofpopulation” after 1913. 13 for thecoastalplainbetween Edirneandthecapital.” Quataert points out, “[t]he Ottomans lost the last of their European possessions except Bulgaria and Serbia, dramatically altered the Empire’s situation. As historian Donald certain way. justify theconsolidation ofpower andsolidify thenationalsovereignty movement a in willbe explained ingreater detail inChapter Three.Propaganda films helpedto likely interpreted asasea-change forthe historyof early film in this region andthis proposal at assisting themilitary through production ofpropaganda films. initiative This canbe Donald Quataert, Donald Zürcher, One theof first film institutions, Central Hanio As noted by The Balkan The (1912-1913), with theOttomanWars Greece, successorstatesof ÷ lu, Turkey History a Modern Turkey The Late Ottoman Empire Late Ottoman The 14 ú The Ottoman Empire 1700-1922 Empire The Ottoman a is also known his personal interest in photography. In his letters to his brother Kamil brother his to letters his In photography. in interest personal knownhis also a is ú a (1881-1922) as noted he was an influential member of the Committee of Union and of Committee of the member was aninfluential he noted as a (1881-1922) ù ükrü M. Hanio Merkez Ordu Film Dairesi) , p.109. , p.165. Military Office Cinemaof (MOFD, ÷ lu, the legitimizing devices oftheCUP was firstthe 13 Interestingly, theopening ofCentralMilitary 10 , Cambridge: Cambridge University p.59. Press,2000, University Cambridge Cambridge: , EnverPa ú a’nin OzelMektuplari in1915byEnverPa 15 Interestingly enough, “forthefirst Merkez Ordu Film Dairesi , ø stanbul: Imge, 1997, Imge, stanbul: ú a was aimed ) was 16 CEU eTD Collection 20 19 18 pp. 480-483. 1989, Yayinlari, Siyasal Partiler, Ittihat ve Terakki, Bir Cagin, Bir Kusagin, Bir Partinin Tarihi Partinin Bir Kusagin, Bir Cagin, Bir ve Terakki, Ittihat Partiler, Siyasal which thedeputies ofthe CUP had beenthe majority. The movement againsttheCUP security threat.” clause VII,which allowed the Allies tooccupy anyarea iftheythought there was a occupation ofthe Bosphorus and Dardanelles forts; and most importantly, theambiguous required “the demobilization of the Ottoman army andsurrender of all arms tothe Allies; Mudros Armistice between theBritish and Ottoman governments onOctober30,1918 I,thePeaceWar Conference inParis marked theendofEmpire. Following the this, September 29,1918,the Ottomans’ forceswere inbad shape. In the aftermath of World during theoccupation ofthecitybyAllied Powers. After theceasefire inBulgaria on ø political instability andexchange ofpopulation was therealityformany. somehow permeated until1945. As historian Zafer Toprakexplains, thedevastating effects ofthis warstarting in1914 one termsin military of capabilities, economic resources and internalcommunications. important tonote that the Ottomans’ condition for a serious military fight was a limited Devletcilik 1914-1918 Devletcilik 17 to Ithat solidifiedWorld War the secret Ottoman-German ofAugust alliance 1914. stanbul’un Sosyal Durumu Sosyal stanbul’un 1.3 The Armistice1.3 The Period (1918-1923) Nur Bilge Criss, Toprak, Zürcher, See for detailed information: Zafer Toprak, Zafer information: detailed See for The end of IdeterminedThe World War As thework ofmany historianshasshown theBalkan wereWars anessential link Ittihad Terakki Ittihad Turkey a Modern History ø 20 stanbul under Allied Occupation 1918-1923 Occupation underAllied stanbul OnNovember 4, 1918 Sultan Mehmed VIdissolved the Parliament in , , p. 4. ø stanbul: Homer Kitabevi, 2003, pp. 1-42.; Mehmet Temel, Mehmet 1-42.; 2003,pp. Kitabevi, Homer stanbul: , Ankara: Kultur Bakanligi, 1998, pp. 60-72.; Tarik Zafer Tunaya, Zafer Tarik 60-72.; pp. 1998, Bakanligi, Kultur Ankara: , , p. 112. , 19 Duringthewar years,disease, poverty, economic and Ittihad Terakki ve Cihan Harbi Savas Ekonomisi ve Turkiye’de ve Ekonomisi Savas veCihanHarbi Terakki Ittihad 11 ø stanbul’s futureextensively, particularly , Leiden: Brill, 1999, p.1. Brill, Leiden: , , ø stanbul: Hurriyet Vakfi Hurriyet stanbul: ø sgal Yillarinda Turkiye’de 17 Itis 18 CEU eTD Collection 23 22 retaking until October 1923 when thearmyNational ofthe Struggle movement succeeded in Mustafa KemalAtatürk against the occupying powers. Independence or the National Struggle was a resistance movement (1919-1922) lead by movement 1919. in hascomeWhat known tobe Turkishhistory in as the Turkish of War occupation1919. The bytheseforcessolidified theTurkish nationalist resistance of fifty-five battleships, andthe second, the city, which started on 13 November 1918when thenavy of the Allied Powers, comprised ø 1920. Following theoccupation of 21 Talat Pa continued with the arrest ofsixty-nine party members, the while leaders of the party- stanbul: Türkiye Ekonomik ve Toplumsal Tarih Vakf Tarih Toplumsal ve Ekonomik Türkiye stanbul: Criss, A.L. Macfie, Zafer Toprak, “Mütareke Döneminde Döneminde “Mütareke Toprak, Zafer The occupation of ø stanbul underAllied stanbul ú ø stanbul. a, CemalPa The End of the Ottoman Empire1908-1923 ofthe Ottoman End The 23 Figure 1.2- British soldiers in ú a andEnver Pa , p. 2. p. ø stanbul took place twoin stages:the ø ø stanbul, theGreekarmy alsooccupied stanbul”, in: stanbul”, ú a- leftthe country. Õ 12 Yay de jure ø Õ Dünden Bugüne Dünden stanbul, 1919. ( nlar , London: Longman, 1998, p.173. Longman, London: , Õ , 1994, pp. 19-20. 1994, , occupation of 22 Theoccupation of 21 Tempo ø de facto stanbul Ansiklopedisi stanbul ø stanbul, on20March , 2007) occupation ofthe ø stanbul lasted ø zmirin May , vol. 6, vol. , CEU eTD Collection indecent carousing which usually accompanied Eastercelebrations in thecity. “foreigners” celebrated theirvictory onthe streetsofPera remindedhim or herofthe smartly uniformed British soldiers occupied the imperial capital. The way in which the The author complains that first the Germans invadedbearing colorful flags and then the describe theoccupation of throughout thecountry. Theanonymous authorofthearticle usesafrustrated toneto “foreigners” murdered Armenians, robbed Greeks and executed Turks andArabs 24 30, 1918the theater journal of arts published articles concerning thepolitical andwar eventsofperiod. OnNovember current issuesofArmistice Period.Infact,evenjournals concerned withtheperformance criticalandpolitical the on focused occupationwerethe during of life aspects Many No Name, “Tema NoName, Figure 1.3- Military Units in Taksim, 1909. (Atatürk Library Archives) ú a Siyasetde”, in: a Siyasetde”, ø stanbul andthenegative effectsofforeign troops in Tema ú Tema a , no: 12, (30 November, 1918 [1334]), p.1. 1918 [1334]), no: 12,(30 November, , ú a 13 published anarticle describing how the 24 ø stanbul. CEU eTD Collection new class ofpeople,“war profiteers”, who tooktheadvantage of economic instability, moraldegeneration as well. While theextreme povertyandexcessive wealth coexisted, a historians, thesocial, economic andpolitical instability in remaining population consisted mainly ofwomen andelderlypeople. Muslim population were calledtofight greatin numbers. Atthe endofthewar, the cause forconcern formany the constantly changing faceofthecity caused bythepresence offoreign troopswere movements changedthesocial faceof 28 27 22. p. Press,1981, University Cambridge [Cambridgeshire]: 200,000 RussiansWhite moved to Moreover, especially after the Bolshevik Revolution 1917in Russia, in approximately 400,000 Moslems wereexchanged between thecountries from 1923 to1926. after the agreement ofbothcountries onexchange of populations, 1,200,000 Greeks and million Greeks emigrated from Turkey toGreece between 1912and1923.Following this, fled tothecoast and onto theislands ofto Greece and asaresult approximately one the Turkish armymoved toward theAegean coast 1922.in Then, the Greek population 1,200,000 in1920. 26 Life Social inOriental Study refugees in 25 in Ibid, Temel, Clarence Richard Johnson (ed.), Johnson Richard Clarence ø Ca stanbul. Asurvey conducted bythe American Red Cross reports thatthe number of ÷ p. 5. lar Keyder, lar The war broughtdisintegration into thesociety; many from the Muslim and non- During the Armistice Period there were many refugees from different ethnic origins ø sgal Yillarinda ø stanbulwas 65,000 while the entire population ofthe city wasapproximately 25 The Definition of a Peripheral Economy: Turkey, 1923-1929 Turkey, Economy: a Peripheral of Definition The Additionally, in1919theGreek army occupied AnatoliaWestern and ø stanbul , New York: Macmillan, 1922, pp. 16, 205-206. 1922,pp. New Macmillan, , York: , pp. 114-116. pp. , ø stanbulians. Constantinople Today: or the Pathfinder Survey of Constantinople: A Constantinople: of Survey Pathfinder or the Today: Constantinople ø stanbul ingreat numbers. ø stanbul. Indeed the killings ofpeople, poverty and 14 ø stanbulcreated corruption and 27 Allthese population 28 Forsome , Cambridge , 26 CEU eTD Collection 30 (ed.), Cuneyt Akalin (tran.) (tran.) Cuneyt Akalin (ed.), 29 May 19,1919.TheTreaty ofSèvres, prepared bytheBritish, was signedbytheOttoman by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk andotherformermembers oftheOttoman ArmyinSamsun on many,women’swhile suffragewas takingplace inthe social realm of thetime. society. Women’s engagement the areaof in film makingmight have been supported by situation would only change later when cinemamore became widely introduced into performed byeitherArmenianor RussianWhite ladies, butnone of Turkishorigin. This acting onthestageor thefilms.in Mostof thevaudeville were shows inthecity this time, accordingto the religious authorities there were limitswomen for working in segregated for many years,becamemore in thestreets visible of femaleemployment. theoccupation While was takingplace, women,who hadbeen been employed outside oftheirhomes eventhoughthepolicy oftheCUP supported state offices orinservicesector. According totheOttoman women traditions havenever instability and decrease in the maleworking population. Most of the women served in and asaresultthis ledtothe enrichment wealthy ofanative class. families ofboth Armenians andGreekswere obliged to leave thecountry in the1920s, commodities, the embezzlement ofpublic funds and speculation. these peoplewas made in the black market and included the hoarding of basic the prominentlived in districts of bureaucrats and smallmerchants were from the Committee ofUnion andProgress who emerged gradually. Manyofthese “war profiteers” such asthe former partymembers, Keyder, François Georgeon, “Gülüsün ve Gözyaslar “Gülüsün Georgeon, ve François During theArmistice Period, theresistance movementAnatolia in was organized This eraalso ledmany womento searchfor employment duetotheeconomical The Definition of a of Peripheral Definition The ø stanbul: stanbul: ø letisim Yay letisim , p. 20. ø stanbul.Especially during the livelihood of I World War ÕQÕ Õ nlar n K Õ 15 Õ\ÕVÕ , 1997, pp. 81-82. 1997,pp. , nda”, in: nda”, ø stanbul 1914-1923, stanbul ø 29 stanbul.Interestingly at 30 Many ofthe wealthy Stefanos Yerasimos Stefanos CEU eTD Collection way torevivethe collapsing Empire. The post-revolutionary period of the CUP witnessed 1.4 A Test for Modernization: Westernization early cinema. state-owned film production institutions and showna limited to audience in therealms of these eventswere playing out ontheground, some ofthem were beingfilmed also bythe 2, 1923, and the entry of the Nationalist troops tothe city onOctober 6,1923. 32 the Treaty, theoccupationof the ratificationof the Lausanne PeaceTreaty on July24,1923.According totheterms of NationalPact were attained andRepublic ofTurkey emerged asasovereignstate with Ankara were signedattheLausanne Conference, atwhich most ofthe ofthegoals strengthened its politicalpower byending the duality ofthe political centers. government abolished theOttoman Empire onNovember 1,1922andinthis way it forces and theMudanya Armistice was signedon October 11,1922. The Ankara Sèvres. Accordingly, the Allied states mediated between the Greek and the Turkish 20, 1921altered theBritish policiesAnatolia in previously shapedThe Treaty in of NationalAssembly Ankara in by the Russians onMarch 16, 1921 and French on October nationalist movement ofIndependencethe andtherecognition in War oftheGreat 31 government legitimacy him andincluded future their plans.in the national movementAnatolia in andto thisendthey supported the Sultan’s grand vizier Damad onAugust Ferid, 10, 1920. FortheBritish, it wasimportant tostop Criss, Feroz Throughout the late Ottoman eraanumber ofideologiescompeted tobethebest Finally, theterms ofpeacebetween theAlliesand the GreatNational Assembly of ø Ahmad, stanbul underAllied stanbul The Making ofModernTurkey Making The , pp. 18-19. pp. ø stanbulended after theevacuationof theAllies onOctober , London: Routledge, 1993, p.8. London: Routledge, , 16 31 The victory fortheTurkish Thevictory 32 While CEU eTD Collection vol. 3, vol. Mesrutiyet’in Birikimi detailed information see Mehmet Alkan (ed.), Alkan see Mehmet information detailed For approach. secular and its thought of school Westernist opposedtothe was diametrically ideology Islamist movements. nationalist communities’ Muslim the against shield aunifying was as used ideology this on, Later II. Abdülhamid Sultan of thereign during subjugated strongly were Islamists The community. theMuslim within ethnicity of was arejection and ground religious basedon Muslims, all among solidarity was basedonthe This power. to came CUP after also flourished activity intellectual Islamist background. religious or ethnic their no matter subjects, Muslim Empire’s the of solidarity the for called It reign. II’s Abdülhamid ofSultan ideology official andwasthe period this during ideology influential was another Ottomanism ideology. this under flourished movements andresistance Struggle National the organizations, Turkist of emergence The aspirations. national own their seeking also were groups otherethnic while 33 present a dynamic, if problematic theoretical framework forunderstanding the Europe viamodernization reforms. advocated by those who wishedto move theOttoman Empire inthe direction of Western scientists whenused bysocial thelateOttoman concepts discussing were era.These the time. integration and influence were being debated bythe intellectuals andadministrators of controversialdebates going onatthattime; theconceptsofprogressandbackwardness, mademodernization. towards Most of the sources of the period show that there were intellectuals anddecision-makers were also discussing the innovations and decisions that duringthe time thatmany drasticchangeswere takingplace in the frameworkmodernization and of Westernization. However, is important it topointout relationto modernism. Yet,the aim is nottoanswer toallquestions thatare raised within Westernism as thebestform which in to move into thefuture. several intellectual debates ranging from Ottomanism to Turkism, from Islamism to One of the dominant ideologies of the Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) was Turkish nationalism was Turkish (CUP) Union andProgress of Committee the of ideologies dominant the of One ø stanbul: stanbul: For contemporary theconceptsof scholars, andmodernizationWesternization of In fact,theideology Westernism conceptshas two interchangeable ashasbeen This part ofthe chapter moreis concerned withthe Westernism due to closeits ø letisim, 2007. letisim, , vol. 1, , vol. ø stanbul: stanbul: ø letisim, 1996.; Uygur Kocabasoglu (ed.), Kocabasoglu 1996.; Uygur letisim, Cumhuriyet'e Devreden Dü Devreden Cumhuriyet'e 17 33 ú ünce Miras Modernlesme ve Baticilik Õ ø : stanbul, the Tanzimat ve , CEU eTD Collection 37 24. p. Devreden Dü Devreden 36 35 12-26. 1993, pp. Yayinlari, Yurt Vakfi Tarih but also gradually introduced a new socio-culturalenvironment within the society. The system and of taxation equal rightsfor allof the subjects oftheEmpire before thelaw, Gülhane constitutional reforms. Thesewere put in place bythe proclamationof TheRescriptof between 1839and1871 implemented someadministrative, military, economical and ø 34 situated within aneconomical approach. suggests awiderperspective within “theprocess ofintegration with thewest” thatis Eldem acknowledges the transformationthat was takingplace in the society, yet he historian Edhem Eldem,who remarks thatthese two concepts are used “imprecisely”. developments inthelateOttoman Empire. Onecritique ofthis situation comes from the (r.1808-1839). policy linked toextensive bureaucratic reform the reignduring of Sultan Mahmud II civilizations. answered away in thatapplies thetheories ofthe“uniqueness” and “otherness” of or backward cultures”. Kafadar shows that these “primitive questions” are being to create boundaries between cultures or produce the concepts of belonging, “developed the theories on“civilization” since these ideas and mindset allow any nation’s apologists “uniquecivilization” or“the best of all thecivilizations”. Hecriticizes thegeneralizations of against the ideological modelof thenineteenth-century ofEurope asbeingeither the stanbul”, in: stanbul”, Hanio Cemal Kafadar, “Osmanl Kafadar, Cemal Eldem, “ Eldem, Edhem Eldem, “Batililasma, Modernlesme ve Kozmopolitizm: 19. Yuzyil Sonu ve 20. Yuzyil Basinda Yuzyil 20. Sonu ve Yuzyil 19. Kozmopolitizm: ve Modernlesme “Batililasma, Eldem, Edhem The Ottomanwitnessed Empire Westernization, forthefirsttime,formal asa ÷ lu, ø ( stanbul: From Imperial”, pp. 138-139. Imperial”, From stanbul: Gülhane Hatt- The Late Ottoman Empire Late Ottoman The Osman Hamdi Bey ve Donemi ve HamdiBey Osman ú ünce Miras ünce 36 37 Theperiodofthe Õ : Tanzimat ve Mesrutiyet’in Birikimi Õ Õ Hümayunu Siyasal Dü Siyasal , p.63. ú , 1839). TheRescript not only offeredarelatively fair , Sempozyum 17-18 Aralik 1992, Zeynep Rona (ed.), Rona(ed.), Zeynep 1992, 17-18 Aralik Sempozyum , üncesinin Kaynaklar üncesinin Tanzimat- 35 Additionally, historian Cemal Kafadar argues 18 Õ Hayriyye , Mehmet Alkan (ed.), (ed.), Alkan Mehmet , Õ Üzerine Gözlemler”, in: Gözlemler”, Üzerine (Beneficial Reforms), lasted ø stanbul: ø letisim, 2006, letisim, Cumhuriyet'e ø stanbul: 34 CEU eTD Collection 39 38 thein following lines: the time, out points some surrounding oftheissues modernization within Ottoman society society so astobuild anew state onthese foundations.” abandoned and replaced with theconviction that true westernization meant restructuring claims thatit“was merely the import ofluxury goodsfor the upper classes and was Ahmad’s interpretationof Westernization in is accord with theabove-mentionedview. He a copying the andintroductionWest of somereforms withoutsubstance. Historian Feroz negativeera has connotations for beingprogressiveand elitist orisinterpreted asmerely transformationand incorporating technology into administration”. coping with urbanization, responding topublicopinion, digesting massive cultural “reconciling religion with scientific progress, confronting traditional basesofsociety, intellectuals ofthetime had to dealwith different aspects ofmodernity suchas counterparts, and thustook EuropeWestern asa model.The administrators and Ottoman Empire beganits journey tomodernization later than most of its European challenges brought bymodernity as wasit the case in other countries of the time. The was imported from Europe. context. Formany, thenew technology offilm was aprime example ofmodernity that concepts of Westernizationand modernization are important when studying film thisin Western European cultural perspective was broughttotheOttoman The society. Tanzimat Ahmad, p. 203. Ibid, Accordingsome to the scholars, notion of Westernization during the lateOttoman Reformsthe in late Ottoman periodwere theattempts torespond to the The Making ofModernTurkey Making The introduced Westernization in aformal,administrative and level along withthisa , p. 24. 19 39 Ziya Gökalp, a sociologist of 38 CEU eTD Collection University ofCalifornia Press, 1995, p. 1. and characters presented notasfactbut as thematerialfor make-believe, inotherwords innovations thatreflects different perspectives ofmodernity. Incinema events,objects photograph orcinema. itself through atangible innovationsuch as thetelegraph, telephone, railroad, car, framedwithin abroader social, economic andcultural transformation, where it reflects 1.5 Cinema and Modernity duringthis transition period uniqueis a way to view themodernization question. theoriticians for a long time. Thestudy of cinema in the late Ottoman era, especially ‘‘model’’ and‘‘copy’’ discussions, which hasbeenexamined bytheintellectuals and modernization. Atthis point,Gökalp touches uponthemost debatedtheme ofthe a way toperceive Europeans as “others”. One ofhis concerns was onhow to start “modern”. doing this While he acknowledges thesuperiority of theEuropeans, yet thisis 41 1959,pp.31-32. McGill University, Studies, ofIslamic Institute 40 Leo Charney and Vanessa R. Vanessa and LeoCharney Niyazi Berkes Niyazi (ed.), Modernity canbeseen as a way of expressing asubjective experience or can be Here Gökalp, like othermembers of every aspect of life will be more up-to-date.” science and philosophy in oursearch anewfor life, the methods we shall follow in social living. Because we are going tobenefit from the achievements ofmodern [Europeans] are in more favorable position only with regard toeconomics and the national civilization theof Ottomans inspire the praise of Europeans…They new political organization. Only through the knowledge of these national values will standards, anew philosophy, anew morality, a new understanding oflaw and a Ottomans themselves have to work out a new form of family life, new aesthetic values born out of the soul of the Ottomans. To create their own civilization, the values will beeconomic, domestic, aesthetic, philosophic, moral, legal and political standardized ways ofliving… The New Life will be created, not copied. Our new “[W]e Muslims could not imitate the ready-made norms of Europe and its Turkish Nationalism and Western Civilization Selected Essays of Ziya of Essays Selected Civilization Western and Nationalism Turkish 41 Theintroductionof cinema anexample is of one these Schwartz (eds.), 20 Cinema and the Invention of Modern Life Modern of Invention andthe Cinema élite 40 inthesociety,shows thedesire tobe , Berkeley: Gökalp, CEU eTD Collection people couldread. European stylementality, read “oldbooks printed onyellow papers” that only some madeOttoman about the stems society fromitsIslamist ideology and reflect the 43 Wealth ofSciences were largely borrowed from Paris. Most ofthese people followed the literary journal of borrow European attitudes and embraced urban living, European fashion and tastes that educated Hanio set ofvalues and attitudes. its certain effects on socio-cultural life such asurban living and the introduction of new transformations thatresult from the idea oftechnology and progress, and particularlyto audience in theearly yearsof cinema. Here,modernization isinreference to the technology and progressofthe andwasWest modelof modernity a forWestern the as diorama, cosmorama andmagic lantern shows startingfrom the mid-1850s. other art Western forms, suchasphotography, andalso preceding forms ofcinema such Birahanesindeki Ilk Sinema Gosterisinin Oncesi ve Sonrasi", Oncesive Gosterisinin Sinema Ilk Birahanesindeki 42 gets the sense that the cinema-going experience in This was relatively inline with whathad been experienced in probably arealityfor amodel; thesymbol oftechnology andprogress for theaudience. Through this, cinema was established indirectly asarepresentation of culture, Western Northern America atthe turn of the century spread into the other parts of theworld. representations ofanother kind.Admittedly, early filmsmade Europe inWestern andthe Hanio For detailed information about the screenings of earlier spectacles seeMetin spectacles earlier of screenings the about information detailed For ÷ The relation between science and Ottoman society complexis a oneas ÷ lu explains thatduring thenineteenth-century thetastes and mentality ofthe lu, élite The Late Ottoman Empire Late Ottoman The hadchanged drastically. Thiscultured group ofpeople gradually began to 43 ( Aswas notedby BrummettPalmira mostof the generalizations Servet-i Funun , p.96. ) while the) while eldersofsociety, being opposed tothe 21 in: Milliyet Sanat Milliyet ø stanbulwas identified with , no. 10, (1974), pp. 8-12. pp. no.10, (1974), , ø stanbulbefore through And, "Turkiye'de Sponek "Turkiye'de And, ù ükrü M. 42 One CEU eTD Collection 46 ø varied, wasit an art form that was appealingfor many educatedand cultured cinema asequal to that of committing a sin. belonged to God. In this sense, Islamist ideology ofelders might haveseengoing to was giventocinema atthattime. Intheireyes, theability of creation of living objects only elderly people ofthe time avoidedseeing films duetothe name of“living picture” that Pina Menikelliwho borrowed herflirtatious andlook low-cut fashion.He recalls that Pina Menikelli. Henotes thatamong youngfemale audience therewere many of imitators was fascinated by seeing actresses on the screen, such LidaBorelli, Gabriel Robin and avoided having contact with it.Ananecdote of an of cinema accepted, enjoyed withthefilms were otherswho there also rejected and have been asign ofa European attitude and the symbolof progress. thefollowersWhile Westernized ideology or person. In this sense, for most cinema-goers, cinemamight European supremacy -anobject, apiece offurniture andfashion- wouldalso denotea within theconcept of“á Franca”la forthe many. Anything which symbolized Europeand 45 314. New Press,p. of2000, York University State 44 reductionist point ofview. was highlighted also thein poetryofthe time,the suchas in lines ofSadullah Pa late Ottoman period. The promise ofprogress, asseen by the intellectuals ofthe period, stanbullians. Faruk Ilikan (ed.), Hanio Palmira Brummett, Cinemamight havebeen seenasthe notion ofprogress which was delineated Is it possible to uphold society with ignorance?” This is the time for progress; the world is the world sciences;of Neither the fame of Anatolia and Arabia nor the glory of Cairo and Heart remains “Alas!The West has become the locus of rising knowledge, ÷ lu, The Late Ottoman Empire Late Ottoman The Sermet Muhtar Alus Eski Gunlerde Alus Muhtar Sermet Image and Imperialism in the Ottoman Revolutionary Press 1908-1911 Press Ottoman Revolutionary inthe Image andImperialism 44 Theprogressive tenetsof Enlightenment were atstake in the , p. 139. 22 , 46 ø stanbul: stanbul: Even though the perception of cinema 45 ø stanbullian audience shows how he ø letisim, 2001, pp. 61-64. pp. 2001, letisim, , New York: ú a : CEU eTD Collection 27. technology and progress. a modern experience for many andwasin accord with the Westernized ideology of 48 Edip (Ad Halide is example One was passed. law the before were asthey known name given their after parenthesis in begiven will surnames their 1934, after surname whowere assigned individuals For Halid. and Refik have consolidated in and was trainedin filmmaking there.In this way “progressive tenets ofcinema”might prominentnames ofearlycinema,Ertu Muhsin found in bibliography alphabetized according to his first given name. Other examples include Enver Pa Enver include examples Other name. given his first to according alphabetized bibliography in found Re Cevdet example an As time. at the were known as they or titles names given totheir according be identified will surnames without individuals bibliography purposeof and the the text for In era. Republican early the 1934 during of Law” the“Surname with accord in were provided Lastnames orprofession. position their from stemming orhadtitles name, and birth theyhadtwopersonal names, either surnames: didnothave Ottomans time thecapitalofspectacles.” canbeconsidered Paris world’s highest spectacle culture hasbeenreached bytheGermans, whileatthesame example comes from a literaryspectacles journal saddened that we cannotoffer any support to ourartists fortheir first films.” “as it isthecase for many areas, even for the arts we arebound to the Thus,West. Iam 47 cinema. Oneexample dates ofthis to1921 wheretheauthor Cevdet Re pointing outthe superiority ofEuropeans in filmmakingthe of and idea progress via Rag Cevdet Re Cevdet Õ b Hulusi, “Tema b Hulusi, In thefilm journals ofearly twentieth-century, there aremany articlesdedicated to Õ var). ú id, “Sinema Hakkinda Notlar IV”, in: IV”, Notlar Hakkinda “Sinema id, ú id is an individual with two given names, neither of which is a surname. Thus, he is Thus,he asurname. is ofwhich neither names, two given with anindividual is id ú a, Tema ø stanbulviaMuhsin Ertu ú a ve Dar’ül Bedayi”, in: Bedayi”, Dar’ül a ve Yarin 23 ÷ , no. 11, (29 December 1921 [1337]), p. 8. Muslim 8. p. 1921[1337]), (29 December , no.11, rul’s films. Overall, novelty ofcinema was ÷ Dergah rul wentrul toGermany during I World War Dergah , no: 15, (20 November 1921 [1337]), p. 1921[1337]), 15, (20November no: , that says; “without adoubt the 48 Interestingly, oneofthe ú id explains that; 47 Another ú a CEU eTD Collection arts thatexisted intheimperialcapital willorder be examinedin tocontextualize the of cinema-houses andtheprofile ofspectators. Secondly, otherforms ofperformance before the Armistice Period. Thisincludes details about the film screenings, theopening servedalso as amajor for vehicle the embracement ofWestern culture. course ofwaryearswas livelyandvibrant incertaindistrictsofthecity. milieuThis lively and on-goingpoverty for many, itcan beargued that the socio-cultural lifeduringthe might like look and how a modern person might behave.Even though there was chaos Additionally, most ofthefilms portrayed what themodernworld andamodernized society spectators to observe and understand the so-called worldWestern via the films. important activity for certainaudiences. It also was a significant opportunity forthe this transition period, cinema-going experience in were changingandnewsocial classes were appearing.Despite theongoingof turmoil occupation, population exchanges andpolitical andsocial struggles. Economic relations broader performance culture of year ofthe first film screenings in1896 until the Armistice Period and locate withinit the Introduction CINEMA IN The first section ofthischapter will contain abriefdescription ofcinema-going This chapterwillshed lightonthecinema-going experience in ø STANBUL ON THE EVE OF ARMISTICE PERIOD ø stanbul at that time. This period was atime ofwar, CHAPTER 2. CHAPTER 24 ø stanbul was thriving and becoming an ø stanbulfrom the CEU eTD Collection population ofthisdistrict was consisting diverse; ofwealthyMuslims, Europeansofall and was themost modernized section ofthe city.In theearly twentieth-century, the I will refer all these as “films” while covering this period. this covering while these as“films” all will refer I Here ribbon). (cinema seridi/kurdelasi” “sinema and images) (moving fotograf” “canli ofdreams), (curtain perdesi” such as“hayal forms these describing terms for are many there languages Turkish and Ottoman cinema-going became aform of entertainmentfor themasses in distribution offilms toothersocio-economic groups. service throughout the city to economic conditions, limitedcinema-going and the city. Yet,during theearly years of cinemaobstacles, ranging from limited electricity form. and Itwas graduallyonly later thatcinema-going would spreadtoother parts ofthe with Westerners,hadtheways andmeans topatronizethis newly-introduced art Western Western educational background, close commercial relationships or anytype ofcontact also called moving-pictures, projections of photograph, of projections moving-pictures, called also 50 population. Caddesi Istiklal of street the in was concentrated population Pera’s ofGalata. district ofthe walled north hill to the stood onthe known as today Beyoglu, Pera, <Õ imperialcapital intheneighborhoods ofPeraas the andGalataaswellinhabitants of 49 of theOttoman Empire;the activity mainlyfor theupperclasses. This bothnon-Muslim included and Muslim subjects 2.1 Pera: SoMuch Like Paris local forms ofperformances andotherearlier adopted performanceWestern arts. cinema-going experience this veryin period.This form of performance cultureconsists of During the early years of cinema (1896-1927), black and white, silent and one or two minute films were films minute and oneortwo silent white, and black (1896-1927), cinema of years early the During Galata is located on the northern bank of the Golden Horn in Hornin ofthe Golden bank northern onthe located is Galata ld Õ z Palace, theimperial family themselves. The Peradistrict of In theearly twentieth-century cinema-going in . These districts of the capital were inhabited mainly by the non-Muslim and diverse non-Muslim bythe mainly inhabited were capital the of districts . These ø stanbul was the mainthe circulation hub for of European films élite , senioradministrators, andwealthy merchants ofthe Grande RuedePera Grande 25 cinématographe 49 Thesepeople, who oftenpossessed a 50 ø stanbul and was a former Genoesetown. and was aformer stanbul Itwas onlyafterthe1930s that , also called as either called also , ø stanbul was a form of cultural or kinematoscope ø stanbul. Cadde-i Kebir . In Turkish In the . or CEU eTD Collection the Western European forms ofopera,dramas andvaudeville were available inPera. 52 97. p. 1985, Press, of Wisconsin University 51 widevariety ofcultural activities, from the localshadow plays, fancy restaurants, modernschools, embassybuildings, cultural centers and theatres. A Pera’s symbolsof modernity and EuropeanlifestyleWestern consisted ofmodern stores, wellas some ofthewealthiest members ofthenon-Muslim merchant community.” the rather violentand disorganized world oftherepresentatives of powersWestern as too. Inthe words ofhistorian Edhem Eldem,Pera “was aworld ofcontrasts, ranging from Austrians. nationalities andOttoman Christians –mostly Greeks,Armenians, Jews, Frenchand Edhem Eldem, “ Eldem, Edhem Kemal Karpat, 51 AftertheBolshevik Revolution, RussianWhite émigrés beganPera, tolive in Figure 2.1- Shops and people on narrow up-hill street of steps in Pera, 1900s. ø Ottoman Population 1830-1914 Demographic and Social Characteristics andSocial Demographic 1830-1914 Population Ottoman stanbul: From Imperial to Peripheralized Capital”, p.148. Capital”, Peripheralized to From Imperial stanbul: (Collection of Maggie Land Blanck) 26 meddah and ortaoyunu , Wisconsin: , , to 52 CEU eTD Collection (eds.), vol. 2, vol. (eds.), p. 43.; Behzat Usdiken, “Bonmarseler”, in: “Bonmarseler”, Usdiken, p. Behzat 43.; p. 358.; Behzat Usdiken, “Beyo Usdiken, p. Behzat 358.; Dunden Bugune Dunden Bugune in: Sinemasi”, “Asri Usdiken, SeeBehzat information detailed For photography. for andtools materials technical was selling which he in Pera, in located store, Bon Marché his for known is Weinberg Sigmund Europe. from oranémigré citizen anOttoman have been either he might descendant, Polish-Jewish of Being “Weimberg”. spelled alsosometimes is whosesurname aboutSigmund Weinberg, exists information organized theorganized firstscreenings 1896 in late at the evidence. evidence abouttheearly film byfocusingscreenings onboththe theoryanddialectics of Salle Sponek HenriDelavallée, who may haveorganized the first include informationabout three individuals, Sigmund Weinberg, M.Tambouridisand the firstpublic to theintroduction ofcinema into Curtain 2.2 The ofDreams: Arrival oftheSeventh Art 53 the changing nature ofthesociety of interactionbetween spectatorsand cinemaWestern provides animportant glimpse into technology, consumerism tothe and fashion cultured ø established inthe1910s.Silent, blackand white,short films broughtthe to first West coffeehouses, theatre salons andmuseums untilthe first permanent cinema-houses were The venuesfor thenewly-arrived filmswere store-front small cinema-houses, stanbuland provided avisualrepresentationof conceptsofurbanWestern life, Rekin Sigmund an Weinberg, furtherto establishbasic historicalWhile researchfacts related isneededeven the Teksoy, Turkish ø stanbul: Tarih Vakfi, 1994, p. 298.; Rekin p. 1994, Vakfi, Tarih stanbul: Pub, located in Pera. In thissection, intention to exploreis the available cinématographe ø stanbul Ansiklopedisi stanbul Cinema ÷ lu’nun Eski Sinemalari I”, in: I”, Sinemalari Eski lu’nun , M. Thomen & O. Celiktemel (tran.), (tran.), O. Celiktemel & M. Thomen , screeningsoccurred inPeralate1896.Varioussources ø stanbullian of , N. Akbayar, E. Isin (eds.), vol.1, vol.1, (eds.), Isin E. Akbayar, N. , ø stanbullian society, ithasbeen widely accepted that ø Dunden Bugune stanbul during this veryperiod. 27 Polish-Jewish descendant, might have Teksoy (ed.), “Turkiye'de Sinema “Turkiye'de (ed.), Teksoy ø Toplumsal Tarih Toplumsal stanbul Ansiklopedisi stanbul Salle Sponek cinématographe élites ø stanbul: Oglak, 2008, p.14. Limited p.14. 2008, Oglak, stanbul: of theimperial capital. The ø stanbul: Tarih Vakfi, 1993, Vakfi, Tarih stanbul: , , no. 22, (October 1995), (October 22, no. , , Pubin Pera. screenings atthe , N.Akbayar, E. Isin ” , in: , 53 Yet, Arkin CEU eTD Collection Bugune in: “Stamboul”, See Orhan Kologlu, districts. andGalata Pera of andprofessionals merchants 1934 it took the name “ name the took 1934 it After between 1875and1964. French in was published newspaper This local p. 1896), [N.P.]. (9 December 57 Tarih historiography of first film screenings See Behzat Usdiken,. “Beyo Usdiken,. SeeBehzat screenings film offirst historiography 56 ø cinématographe same newspaper show that another 55 times throughout themonth atthe newspaper reveal thatthey started on December 9,1896andwere repeatedseveral region. Announcements ofthescreenings in the“Thèatres” column ofthe Frères and organized organizer offilm screenings. M.Tambouridis was likely arepresentative ofLumière French language newspaper oftheperiod, 54 265-71. pp. 1968), (1 January 17,no.196, vol. traveled to this asfact,there is other data about thefirst film that screenings refutes this. upper classresidents of concertsplays, and Sinema Ansiklopedisi Sinema ù Weinberg later organized other screenings at theFevziye K in 1901 whilevaudeville shows were taking also place. Because of the popularity of films, accordingto Hilmi A. Malik, screened Weinberg silentfilmsPera’s atConcordiaTheatre stanbul: Kocu Yayinlari, p.5727. Kocu Yayinlari, stanbul: No Name, “Théatres”, in: Some sources indicate that Weinberg’s screenings were organized in late 1897. For detailed For 1897. late in were organized screenings that Weinberg’s sources Some indicate Resad Mimaroglu, “Fevziye Kiraathanesi”, in: Kiraathanesi”, “Fevziye Resad Mimaroglu, Hilmi A. Malik, Hilmi ehzadeba , no. 26, (February 1996), pp. 46-51. 1996), 26,(February no. , Most probablyfrom the veryearlydaysof its invention, the ø stanbul Ansiklopedisi stanbul úÕ ø stanbul throughtherepresentatives of Lumière Frèresfrom France. Alocal district. Türkiye'de Sinema ve Tesirleri screenings forspectators at thesame location onDecember 25-26, , ø stanbul, 1975, p. 453.; p. 1975, stanbul, 54 meddah ø cinématographe stanbul” instead of the French name. The main readers of readers main The French name. the of instead stanbul” Fevziye was acoffeehouse that regularly hosted the localshadow Stamboul , N.Akbayar, E. Isin (eds.), vol.7, ù ehzadeba shows, especially during themonth ofRamadan forthe , Journal Quotidien, Politique et Litteraire, Eduard Chester (ed.), Pera, Chester(ed.), Eduard Litteraire, et Politique Quotidien, Journal , Salle Sponek úÕ projections Decemberin 1896while on tour thein . Nijat Özön, "Türk Sinemas "Türk Özön, Nijat 55 , Ankara: Hakimiyet-i Milliye Matbaasi, 1933, p.7. Matbaasi, Milliye Hakimiyet-i Ankara: , manysourcesWhile haveaccepted secondary ø stanbul 28 ø stanbullian, Henri Delavallée, organized Stamboul Pub. Ansiklopedisi ø stanbul: Tarih Vakfi, 1994, p. 43. 57 ÷ Moreover, announcementsthe in lu’nun Eski Sinemalari IV”, in: Sinemalari Eski lu’nun , lists M. Tambouridis as the , Resat Ekrem Kocu (ed.), vol. 10, (ed.),vol. Kocu Ekrem Resat , Õ na Toplu Bir Bakis", Bir na Toplu Õ raathanesi located thein cinématographe Stamboul 56 i n: Stamboul Toplumsal Türk Dili, Türk Dunden were CEU eTD Collection avec ses projections photographiques attirent chaque soir beaucoup de beaucoup monde.” chaque soir attirent photographiques ses projections avec Delavallée Henri M. donne. nous que séances “Les curieuses [N.P.]. p. 1896), December 27-28 (25-26, 61 Sanat 60 6 ½, 8 ½, et 9 ½ heures. Prixd’entrée 5 piastres.” 5½, lessoirs tous Représentation que peucouteaux. amusant aussi assister spectacle ace d’aller lecteurs nos a encore recommandons nous et nous présente M.Delavallée nouveauté intérassante quelle dit avons la présence de S. E. le minister de Gréce accompagné d’un accompagné deGréce minister le E. présencedeS. la dernier, jeudi Remarqué, monde. de beaucoup chaque soir attirent photographiques ses projections avec 59 painter by profession. See, Jean Francois Staszak Jean Francois See, profession. by painter The only available information on Henri Delavallée is that he began to live in in live he beganto that is Delavallée onHenri information available only The 58 was several embraced in quarters of concerning theconcretehistoricalfacts aboutcinema’s afactthatthecinema is arrival, it end of1896. Iftheannouncements of novelty of Whoever may haveorganizedthefirstscreenings, hasit beenfirmly established thatthe to determinewhether or not D. Henriand HenriDelavallée refer to the same person. projection ofthe“Arrivalof Russian Tsars toParis”. announces the opening of D. Henri‘s cinema-house anda public Moreover, theatre historian Metin Andstatesthatanewspaper datedDecember 18,1896 every evening. There were four shows every evening between 5.30 pm and 9.30pm. 1896. ø stanbullian spectators who attendedthefirst screenings. No Name, “Théatres”, in: Sonrasi", Oncesive Gosterisinin Sinema Ilk Birahanesindeki Sponek “Turkiye'de And, Metin Ibid, (25-26 December 1896), p. [N.P.]. “Les curieuses séances que nous donne. M. Henri Delavallée Henri M. donne. nous que séances curieuses “Les [N.P.]. p. 1896), December (25-26 Ibid, Ibid, (25-26 December 1896), p.[N.P.]. 1896), December (25-26 Ibid, , no. 10, (1974), p. 8. 58 Theannouncements claim thattheshows ofDelavallée attracted largecrowds cinématographe Stamboul traveledto , Journal Quotidien, Politique et Litteraire, Eduard Chester (ed.), Pera, Chester(ed.), Eduard Litteraire, et Politique Quotidien, Journal , ø stanbullian society ø stanbul quiteearly in itsinfancy; most atthe likely Stamboul , Géographies de Gauguin Géographies 29 aretobe believed there were many 60 cavass Currentlyno clear information exists after its invention. its after et du personnel de la légation. Nous légation. de la du personnel et 61 While this ambiguity exists ø , Editions Bréal, 2003,p.95. Bréal, Editions , stanbul in 1894, and hewasa 1894, stanbul in cinématographe in: Milliyet 59 CEU eTD Collection 63 Galatasaray High Schoolwith thehelp of history professor accepted as the first Turkish filmmaker, alsodisplayed films tothestudents atthe Fridays arematinees.” Fridays ø in is Parisians the amused show that fascinating and “surprising a states that and Armenian Greek French 62 Figure 2.2-Handbill promoting the film screening in Salle Sponeck Pub inPera, written in Ottoman stanbul for the first time. Shows are everyday at 5. 30 pm, 6.30 pm 8.30 pm and 9.30 pm. Sunday and Sunday pm. and 9.30 pm8.30 pm6.30 30 pm, 5. at everyday Shows are time. the first for stanbul Teksoy, “Turkiye'de Sinema “Turkiye'de Teksoy, This handbill, promoting a film screening in Salle Sponeck Pub in Pera, written in Ottoman Turkish, Ottoman in written Pera, Pub in SalleSponeck in screening a film promoting handbill, This Following thesescreenings, Fuad Bey(Uzk Turkish, French Greek and Armenian. (Gökmen, Mustafa. 1997) See Mustafa Gökmen, See Mustafa ” , p. 452. p. , Yildiz Tiyatrosunda Sinema Yildiz Tiyatrosunda 30 Õ nay), who laterbecame widely , ø stanbul, 1997,p.20. stanbul, ù akir Seden in 1910. 62 63 CEU eTD Collection 66 1940s. the in Theatre was asYeniSes named andit cirque and hall a was as music alsoused venue This Ramirez. entrepreneur was Spanish owned by Theatre the political alliance between Germany andtheOttoman Empire duringthe I. World War audience thanthe others. The popularity ofthesefilmswas alsolikely affectedbythefact popular. According to the survey of Hilmi German A.Malik, films weremorelifelike tothe Scandinavian countries. Later,between 1915and1918, German films became very Theatre. diplomatic parties every whereWednesday film screeningswould be shown atRamirez exchange ideasduring theintermission. SpanishAmbassador Camposagrado organized élite A inKâ Friday 65 34. p. 2003, Loubet at the Reception ofLongchamp on July 14 64 to singleevents orthemes. Examples include: charged with creating newsreels forthe purposes ofthestate propaganda. Film Dairesi appointed asthedirector fortheCentral Military Office ofCinema (MOFD, possible after electricity became availableinall parts of Pera. In1915 Weinberg was the first permanent cinema-house Pera.in Theopening ofthis cinema-house was only company PathéFrèresandopened upPathé Cinema in1908. Sigmund eventually Weinberg became thedistributor for Frenchfilm and photography Malik, Sadi N. Duhani, N. Sadi Nijat Özön, Nijat , administrative andmerchant classes of thecitywouldshare refreshments and Besides state propaganda, early films ofthe periodwere usually shorts dedicated Türkiye'de Sinema 65 Mostfilmsthe city screened beforein World Iwerefrom War France, Italy and ). FuadBey also got his filmmaking start inthis organizationwhich was Türk Sinemas Türk ÷Õ Beyoglu’nun Ad Beyoglu’nun thane . Thescreenings became occasions wherememberssocial ofthe , p. 8. Õ Tarihi (Dünden Bugüne) 1896-1960 Bugüne) (Dünden Tarihi Õ Pera Iken Pera , ø stanbul: Celik Gulersoy Vakfi Vakfi Gulersoy Celik stanbul: 31 Ascending , Cendrillon , Ankara: Antalya Kültür Sanat Vakf Sanat Kültür Antalya Ankara: , to theTowerofEiffel 64 ø , stanbul, 1990, p. 76. Ramirez 76. p. 1990, stanbul, ThePathé Cinemawas Boat Race in Prinkipo Merkez Ordu , Mr. Emile 66 Õ , , CEU eTD Collection Magic (1914), Cinéma Orientaux (1912), Cinéma (PathéCinéma,Weimberg 1908), Central (1911), Cinéma Cosmographe, Cinéma Etoile, Cinéma Luxembourg, Cinéma most about1915 likely include: Amphithéatre de Petits-Champs, Cirquede Péra, Cinéma fought, demand ofthenewest form of artmoderately existed in with shows for women at1:30pm and formenat 8:30pm. screening sceneryincluded ofcocoons, adrama entitled Müdafaa’i Milliye Cinema onJanuary 23,1914; inthemidst ofthewar years.The screeningof theperiod, announced the journalin concluded with adrama entitled Bismarck: the “We, Germans, are only afraid ofGod the in battlefield.” Thescreenings The announcement alsodepictedamottoattributed to“theGreat Diplomat” Prince German-French (1870-1871) War andmaneuvers ofGermany1914. the in during War Wilhelm and PrinceBismarck. Theannouncement of were screened,emphasizing theglory and victories ofEmperor Frederick, Emperor the Ottoman EmpirewasaGerman show inWorld I.Inthis ally War seven different films public demand 1914.The in film entitled “The 300Years of History of German Army”ran longer than expected due to 68 Selahaddin. fact thetheatre andfilm journal [1330]), p. 3. p. [1330]), Özuyar, 67 diminish in No Name, in: Name, No No Name, in: Theatres recorded Cesarin Raymond’s geographical survey of Pera published, During I, World despiteWar the ongoing turmoil, thedemand forcinema not did Sinemanin Osmanlica Seruveni Osmanlica Sinemanin ø stanbul andfilms continued tobe screenedasthey were beforethewar. In Ferah Sinema Ferah is a newspaper of theater, a newspaper is of , no: 57, Ibrahim Halid (ed.), (ed.), Halid Ibrahim 57, no: , , no: 62, (23 January 1914), p. 1. This information is cited from the work of Ali of work cited from the is p.1. Thisinformation 1914), (23 January no: 62, , Ferah Ferah , Ankara: Oteki Yayinevi, 1999, p. 107. 1999, Yayinevi, Ankara: Oteki , Blanshet Theater hosted these German propagandafilms as reported thatscreenings ofGerman propaganda 32 and acomic show monkeys.of cinématographe ø stanbul: Sancakciyan Matbaasi, (29 January 1914 (29 January Matbaasi, Sancakciyan stanbul: Sinema Princess Elena Ferah and arts, owned byKavakibizade andarts, 68 tookplace at While World War I wasbeing War While World ø stanbul. featured heroes ofthe and a comic film ù ehzadeba 67 Another úÕ ’s CEU eTD Collection schedules. addition to film screenings andwere often operated on temporary, seasonaland variable opened inSirkeci. 70 69 Théatre Odeon and Théatre d’Hiver de Petits-Champs. 1914 in Nijat Özön, Nijat CesarRaymond, ù ehzadeba Sinema El Kitabi El Sinema Nouveau Plan dePéra Nouveau Plan 70 úÕ At this timemany ofthese venueshosted other performance artsin and followingthis Ali Efendi Cinema andKemalBey Cinema were , ø stanbul: Elif Yayinlari, 1964, pp. 113-114. pp. 1964, ElifYayinlari, stanbul: , Imprint Constantinople: Librairie Raymond, [1915], p.15. [1915], Raymond, Librairie Constantinople: , Imprint 33 69 Milli Cinema was established in CEU eTD Collection Figure 2.3- Announcement of cinématographe 34 screenings. ( Ferah , 1914) CEU eTD Collection experience. For most ofthe spectators the medium of cinemawas apoignant and impressive streets of Paris thatwere reflected on the screen inthis way: that ofTalu’s, in hisperceptionof cinema as“magical”. Hedescribed thelarge grey entitled “LastNight Iwas intheKingdom of Shadows”. Gorky’s experience was similar to watching a the newartand the technology of cinema. In fact,Talu’s impressions were notunlike manyspectators upon their first experience of ephemeral, andimmutable notionsandcharacterized byasenseofshock and surprise. experience whichillustrates theway modernity hasbeenidentified byitsvigorous, in Nizhegorodski listok Nizhegorodski Cinema Early Companion to 73 72 Pub inPera. 71 cinématographe 2.3 “Lifeless Smiles, Soundless Laughter” Ercument Ekrem Talu (1886-1956), Turkish poet and author. poet Turkish (1886-1956), Ekrem Talu Ercument Ercument Ekrem Talu, “ Talu, Ekrem Ercument Maxim Gorky, “Last Night I was in the Kingdom of Shadows”, in: ofShadows”, Kingdom wasthe I in “Last Night Gorky, Maxim see the muscles contradicting in their grey faces.” their movements are full livingof energy…Their laughter is soundless although you loom larger as they come closer to you…Their smiles are lifeless, even though life… [T]he darkness in which you sit, somewhere from afar people appear and “…Suddenly a strange flicker passes through the screen and the picture stirs to The Russian authorMaxim Gorkyelaborately explained histhoughts after This was theinitial impression ofErcument Ekrem attheLumièreTalu Frères’ The train leaves silently. Oh myGod! It iscoming right for us.” Movements are so fast and uncontrolled. You may think that they are all in shock. chimney. There are people onthe harbor walking inrush. Oh what a big rush! “There is a station in Europe and a locomotive spews black smoke from its cinématographe 72 Therushofemotion usedbythis screeningof “The Arrival oftheMail1896 Train” in atthe , 4 July 1896], 1996, p. 5. 1996,p. 1896], 4 July , ø stanbul'da Ilk Sinema ve Ilk Gramafon", in: Ilk Gramafon", Sinema ve Ilk stanbul'da , Colin Harding & Simon Popple (eds.), Slovenia: Gorenjski Tisk, [from Tisk, Gorenjski Slovenia: (eds.), Popple &Simon Harding Colin , screening atthe Nizhni-Novgorod fair inanewspaper review 35 ø 73 stanbullian spectator todescribe his Perde Sahne Perde In the Kingdom of Shadows: A Shadows: of In theKingdom 71 , no. 7, (1943), p. 5. no. 7,(1943), , Salle Sponek CEU eTD Collection fact inthedecades leading uptotheturn of thecentury,imperial capital offered a of upon adampened curtainhung onawall inthePalace. longer than aminute andwere enjoyed bythe palace residents. The filmswere projected were presentedtothe Sultan byaFrench court jester named Bertrandwere notmuch magicians whoperformed styles Western of entertainment the in Palace.The films,which The Sultanic family was introduced tofilms by the Italian andFrench actors and 2.4 A Plethora ofPleasures: Other Forms ofPerformance Arts imperial capital. appealed to the projectors of Lumière Frères. The technology of early cinema andits fleeting images and bustle thatwas shown in the urban scenes of France was onthescreen thanks to midstthe modern ofa cityelicited curiosity and attraction from the spectators. The hustle spectator. Themovementsa train,horse-carriages, of bike-riders andscenesofpeople in her memoirs that there were of theOttoman Sultan.Ay Souls (1913)" in: (1913)" Souls 75 and Western oriented 74 Ay Tom Gunning, "From Kaleidoscope to the X-Ray: Urban Spectatorship, Poe, Benjamin and Traffic is andTraffic Poe, Benjamin Urban Spectatorship, X-Ray: the Kaleidoscope to "From Tom Gunning, cinématographe ú e Osmano A closereadingof these initialimpressions to films demonstrates thatthenovelty Prior tothearrival ofcinema in It canbeargued thatthe ø stanbullian spectators and gave them a glimpse ofthe world beyond the ÷ Wide Angle Wide lu, 75 Babam Abdülhamit Babam was effective andsuccessfulatdepicting lifelikemoments tothe ø stanbullians. , vol. 19, no. 4, (1997), pp. 25-63. 19, no.4,(1997), , vol. ú e Osmano cinématographe cinématographe , ø stanbul: Guven, 1960, p. 68. 1960, Guven, stanbul: Cinématographe ÷ ø stanbul, anumber ofperformance artsexisted. In lu, daughterlu, ofSultan AbdülhamidII recounts in 36 screenings Y in was embraced early in its history by wasearly initshistory embraced also gained areceptioninthehome 74 Õ ld Õ z Palace in late1896. élite CEU eTD Collection comprehensive works onTurkish film history. framework. the worka case is in This entitled “From Karagöz toCinema”;the most oneof published inTurkeyto thisdayhas usedthe of duality versusEast West as itstheoretical formed byavarietyofinfluences at thistime, or East. beitWest oppositions, helps oneappreciate therich visualand entertainment culturethatwas performance artswithout the use of the “Eastern” and“Western” genresas binary ø genres, have roots intheEastern world. In fact much oftheperformance culture of performance artswere imported from EuropeWestern andothers, suchas the local performance cultureof thedaywithin this distinct historical milieu. someWhile of cinema-going within thesociety. Theatre historian MetinAndhasdefined two different ø as audience’s participation. Hence, an understanding of local performance arts in politics, values and lifestyles of asociety; via the script,performer, subject matter, aswell wasamalgamationof local an and arts.Western that theperformance cultureof Ottoman culture andTurkish asareplacement tothelocal forms. art Itcanbeargued author, Nijat Özön,possesses the view, heldbymany; those arts cameWestern to 76 theatre-going activities ofthe plethora ofvisual pleasures, from artsWestern tolocalspectacles. Anexamination ofthe stanbulduring this periodwas affected by variouscultures. Thus,thestudy of stanbulduring theearly twentieth-century is important toevaluatethe later phenomena Nijat Özön, Nijat However, much ofthescholarship about performance culture andcinema Theatricalperformances canreflect thegeneral dimensions ofaculture, religion, Karagöz’den Sinemaya Turk Sinemasi ve Sorunlari ve Sinemasi Turk Karagöz’den Sinemaya ø stanbul intheyearsbefore theintroductionof cinema ø stanbullians offersan intriguingglimpse intothe 37 76 It is obvious, even from the title that its , Ankara: Kitle Yayinlari, 1995. Yayinlari, Kitle Ankara: , CEU eTD Collection Yayinlari, 1963-64, p. 28. 1963-64, Yayinlari, a smallorchestra. Among theaudience therewouldbe peoplefrom different strataofthe world. Generally meddah was byEuropeanarts,particularly influenced byFrench plays.Henceanaverage Byzantium cultural themes aswell. Inthesecond half ofthenineteenth-century, cultures and often based on the holy history oftheMuslims. Itwas lateraffected by the Islamic world. dramatic gestures performed byastoryteller. It is acommon performance artthroughout 2.5 Local FormsPerformance of Culture audience with theperformance. of formalscripts, reliance upon familiar subject matter andcollective participation bythe ortaoyunu 78 three most widespread localTurkish theatre genresareconsidered to be 77 these techniques through the usage of puppetry, story telling anddramatic dances. audience and performers. Boththe folk and popular theatre traditions in Anatolia employ use ofsimple andtheirtendency language to onaclose rely connection betweenthe of art as well. He claims thatbothforms arenatural and vivid dueto theirspontaneity, classification isnotsolely based ongeographical distribution, butinvolves other features areas and the second is popular theatre found inthe bigtowns andcities. And’s types of improvisatory Turkishtheatre: one is thefolktheatre found villagesin andrural Metin And, Metin Metin And, “The Turkish Folk Theatre”, in: Theatre”, Folk Turkish “The And, Metin Meddah story teller would know at least a hundred stories from different regions of the and shadow plays. All three can be regarded as improvisatory due to the lack A History of Theatre of Theatre and Popular Entertainment in Turkey Entertainment and Popular of Theatre ofTheatre History A is thenarration ofadramatically rich story with voicemodulation and meddah 78 Meddah shows tookplace in thecoffeehouses with accompaniment of was originally influenced bythemes from Persian and Arabic Asian Folklore Studies Folklore Asian 38 , vol. 38, no.2, (1979), p. 155. p. (1979), no.2, 38, , vol. , Ankara: Forum meddah meddah 77 The , CEU eTD Collection took place inpublic squares, openair venues orinthecoffee houses ofthecity. Itwas tuluat noteworthy that 1870sin Turkish actors developed a new form of stage-theatre called clowns andother comical andsatirical elements ofpopularand folk theatre. It is also includes some otherforms suchaspuppetry,shadow-theatre, dancing ofjesters and Ortaoyunu of Jewish entertainers public from that timeuntil theendofnineteenth-century. responsible fortheadoption ofthisperformance form. commedia dell’arte from Portugal andSpain attheendof fifteenth and sixteenth century, when Jewish culture. Heexplains “theJewish emigrants, who bythe came toTurkey thousands Italian announcement ofa were generallymade inOttoman Turkish Greek, Armenian andFrench.A typical ø 79 the performances. A society, including children. Yet, most ofthetimewomenmen and were segregated during 81 80 de temps tout Ramazan.” le pendant heures en turc, àtrios langues en diverse ridicules réprésentations ses soir chaque continuer veut qu’il annonce aupublic Efendi Asqui Eastern Studies), vol. 10, no: 1, (1983), p.54. 1,(1983), 10,no: vol. Studies), Eastern stanbul Nicholas N. Nicholas Nermin Menemencioglu, “The Ottoman Theatre 1839-1923”, in: 1839-1923”, Theatre Ottoman “The Menemencioglu, Nermin pp.165-169. Theatre”, Folk “The Turkish And, , which was based ontheimprovisational natureof Commedia dell’arte Ortaoyunu three hours after sunset] each night during the month of Ramadan.” amusing performances indifferent dialects at three o’clock for Turkish time [means “The actor Asqui Efendi announces to the public that he likes to continue his meddah relies uponasetnarration andwell definedcharacters, aready-made plot.It Martinovitch, was enjoyed bythediverse audiences. Announcements oftheshows is another is improvised folk theatretradition andisoftencompared tothe had already been introduced to Spain” may havebeen a largely meddah meddah The Turkish Theatre Turkish The . Metin Andpoints out that show 1910in in show would routinely last twothree hours.Apparently, or in , New York: Benjamin Blom, 1968, p. 25. “Le commédien 25. “Le 1968, p. Blom, Benjamin , NewYork: 39 ø stanbulread: ortaoyunu 80 Healsohighlights the existence ortaoyunu Bulletin was heavilyinfluenced by (British Society for Middle Societyfor (British . 79 81 Ortaoyunu shows CEU eTD Collection explained inhis memoirs how oftheatrehis love started atanearly age while watching the sameway. InfactoneoftheTurkish actors andfilmmakers, Muhsin Ertu the world that cinema later would. these local forms ofperformances didnot introduce the audience tothesame views of stereotypes ofthe inhabitants of atypicalOttoman community. relatively educated Hacivat. Other characters ofthe show usually portray ethnic on thedialogues of particularly the characters: twomain the idle Karagözand the Karagöz first playedfirst thepuppets ata plaza known as fourteenth-century. Another attributes theemergence of characters, Karagöz andHacivat, asreal people livinginthecityof Bursa in the the emergence of important andinfluential partofthe socio-cultural life ofthecity. Many legends exist about was primarily performed inthemansions and coffeehouses of 84 eyed” main character of the play, has a long tradition within 83 82 from the men. performances, women audiencememberswould often havebeen separated with aveil a smallorchestra was accompanying with theshow. Similar tothe frequently performed during onastageorplaza theimperialand religious holidays while And, Metin And, Metin Martinovitch, A History of Theatre Some who enjoy did thelocal entertainment also went ontoembrace cinema in The shadow play, also frequently referred to as , shadowplaysinclude agreat variety ofcharacters, yet the show is grounded 100 Soruda Türk Tiyatrosu Tarihi Tiyatrosu Türk 100 Soruda The Turkish Theatre Turkish The 82 Karagöz , pp. 47-48. pp. . , pp.15-17. , O ne ofthemost portrays popular thetwo principle , ø stanbul: Gercek Yayinevi, 1970, pp. 48-49. pp. 1970, Yayinevi, stanbul: Gercek 40 Kü ú terî Meydan Karagöz Karagöz ø stanbullian society. , the name of the “black- 84 Õ toSheikhKü in the samein period. Itcanbe argued that ø stanbul andwere an ú Karagöz terî who meddah ÷ rul, 83 CEU eTD Collection 86 65. p. ø Cevdet cites from Ze’evi p.134. 2006, Press, ofCalifornia University Berkeley: came to culturalof life àlaTurca toàlaFranca2.6 From the popularity of content of lines, the arrival ofcinemawithin the discussions of illusionand reality also affects the going to thecoffeehouse very early; waiting impatiently forthestart oftheplay.” Troupe. He addsthat “Inorder tofind aseat inthefirst row, Iwould torturemyself by can beverywellobserved one ofthedialogues in of ø love of performance artswasnurtured byallof theselocal genres. Ismail inÜsküdar, andsaw playsWestern inKad hosted shadow plays-, attended 85 the local shows. Hewatched stanbul: Yapi Kredi Yay KrediYapi stanbul: stanbullians represented achange from the local forms toanew form. This new medium Dror, Ze’evi, Dror, Muhsin Ertu Muhsin Western forms ofperformance culturewere gradually integrated into thesocio- not sure, isit called a‘sinematograf’ or a ‘minagotoraf’?” dandies, bums and hooligans. The whole nation is there …all buying tickets. I am matmazeller “...I’ll bedamned, all these Indeed, the introduction of forms art Western thesocio-cultural into life of ø stanbul inthe 1830s and continued withthe introduction of modern theatre in Karagöz ÷ Producing Desire: Changing Sexual Discourse in the Ottoman Middle East, 1500–1900 East, Middle Ottoman inthe Discourse Sexual Changing Producing Desire: rul, ø stanbul. Thisprocess began when novels,paintings Western and opera cinématographe Benden Sonra Tufan Olmas Tufan Benden Sonra [mademoiselle], shows Õ nlar Õ , 2002, pp. 178-179. , 2002,pp. for acertainextent. Themain character,Karagöz, Karagöz efendiler utters: ortaoyunu atBüyükKahve -acoffeehouse that regularly madamlar Õ n [sirs], , 41 performances ofHamdiEfendi andKücük ø stanbul: Dr. Nejat Eczacibasi Vakf Eczacibasi Nejat Dr. stanbul: beyler ,[madams] Õ köy staged by the Osmanl [gentlemen], Karagöz 86 müsyüler shows. Inthefollowing agalar Kudret, Karagöz, vol. 1, vol. Karagöz, Kudret, [monsieurs] [landlords], Õ Yay amazed by Õ nlari, 1989, nlari, Õ , Dram 85 His , CEU eTD Collection Héllene Masqué Italian troupes atY Turkish title of the play is ofplay the title Turkish just after1908. was aboutAnatolian wedding customs. Itwas staged by an amateur troupe Selanikin 89 88 play waswritten by The Barber ofSeville were performed inspecially designed theatre buildings. On January 19, 1845, Rossini's theatres. From then onoperas,operettas andmodern dramas troupes ofthe Western latest plays oftheday such asthoseofMoliére andCorneille were performed inthese <Õ theatre.” life wasaffected by theseinnovations. Onlyafter theTanzimat, peoplewere introduced to era of1839notonly were theadministrative changes occurring, butalso entertainment cinématographe suchaspanoramas,West dioramas,magic lanternshows andeventually 87 performance arts, the 1840s, photography in the1850s, and cinema 1896.Along in with the local Refik Ahmet, Refik Ahmet Sevengil, Ahmet Refik Ibid, p. 29. Ibid, ld Õ z Palacetheatre was builtduring thereign ofSultanAbdülhamid II, 1889. in The In hermemoirs, Ay According totheater historian RefikAhmet Sevengil, “starting from the Tanzimat . Shealso notes that the French ambassador of , 87 Barbier de SultanAbdülmecid hadtheDolmabahçe Palace theatre built in1859 and the ø brahim Turk Tiyatrosu Tarihi 89 screenings. Õ ø ù ld stanbul alsoprovided various alternative activities imported from the ø inasi Efendi (1824-1871); Young Ottoman intellectual and author of the time. The time. ofthe and author intellectual Young Ottoman (1824-1871); Efendi inasi brahim S ø ù Õ was stagedattheNaum Theater. stanbul NasilEgleniyordu? stanbul z Palace. These included operassuchas air Evlenmesi éville, LaFille deRégiment, Frdiavolo, Mascotte ú e Osmano ù inasi Efendi1860 in andentitled , ø stanbul: Kanaat Kutuphanesi, 1934, p.13. 1934, Kanaat Kutuphanesi, stanbul: . ÷ lu recalls the operas and operettas staged by the 42 , ø stanbul: stanbul: ø letisim, 1985, pp. 163-164. 1985, letisim, 88 The first styleTurkish The Western ø stanbul invited Sarah Bernard The Poet’s Marriage Traviata, Troubadour, Bal and La Belle which CEU eTD Collection participation inwhich audience was often silent. drink coffee at were usedto in localperformances. The during the performances created adifferent atmosphere for the audience than what they claims thatthenewmanners, seating habits, andrestrictions on eatingor speaking up existed andwas differentthanthose ofaudience of And points outthat adistinctive setofmanners forthe audience ofthe theatreWestern but also a new set of manners tobe observed asthey watched the performances. Metin audience too, Western drama andopera introduced not onlya new cultural experience culturaland artistic performance- temporally is andspatially more bounded. For the ø L’Enlévement delaToledad claimed thatthere was a large crowd of peopleduring thesecond show of opera 93 92 p. [N.P.]. 1896), (9 December One suchannouncement, datedDecember 9,1896indicates that 91 soon to be staged at the Odeon Theatre. Stamboul 90 and Coquelain Cadet tothe palace tostage their plays. stanbulembraced these artforms soonaftertheir arrival tothecity. And, Ibid, (17 December, 1896), p. [N. P.]. No Name, “Théatres”, in: Osmano 100 Soruda Türk 100 Soruda Compared to ÷ lu, contained announcements ofthe Babam Gedik Pa , p. 68. , , Karagöz pp. 99-102. Stamboul ú a Theatre before theygotused tothe modeWesternized of onDecember 16,1896attheOdeonTheater. and theotherlocalperformance arts, dramaWestern -asa , Journal Quotidien, Politique et Litteraire, Eduard Chester (ed.), Pera, Chester(ed.), Eduard Litteraire, et Politique Quotidien, Journal , ø stanbullian audience used to smoke, eatand 43 91 upcomingopera andoperettas in A news item from the same newspaper 93 meddah 90 The local FrenchThe local newspaper , ortaoyunu La BelleHéllene and 92 Karagöz. The ø stanbul. élite was He of CEU eTD Collection go frequently tothetheatre would havetobeeither disguised asamanwould or haveto and traditional customs ofsocial life. Some enthusiastic women audiencewho desired to Muslim womenwatching theatre and films inthesame venuewith menwas againstIslam performances. Somemembers ofthe public andsome of thenewspapers claimed that reactions against amixed-gendered audience were harshduringthe initialdays ofstaged gender show for thepublic, yetsome conservatives protested this action. Infact,the to thetheatre salons.In February1909 the Sporting Club in women.Showings forthewomenwere scheduled during theday and at nights menwent menfordifferentand showings been theatre-going Traditionallywouldhave therefor 94 Metin And, Metin Figure 2.4- Asample of Karagöz Turkish Shadow Play Shadow Karagöz Turkish Karagöz characters, Zenne and Celebi. (And, Metin. 2005) , ø stanbul: DostYay stanbul: 44 Õ nlar Õ , 2005. , ø zmirorganized amixed- 94 CEU eTD Collection pp. 275-276. pp. Century”, in: Century”, 97 the time. of author February 11-17, 1902. and balls aswell.Thefollowing isoneoftheexamples weekly ofhis scheduleactivities in 96 random, exampleof how an enthusiastic patrons of all forms. “SaidBey” ofPaulDumont’s work isagood, yet a went todifferent performances intheearly twentieth-century, there were number ofmany whospectators the of ideas and motivations the on speculate to difficult is it While Western Europe. thesocietyethics in andeventually culture produce a high suchaswhatcanbefoundin 95 everyday stepsofamiddle class his leisure activities. SaidBey’sdiary offers aninterestingopportunity totracethe dress likeanon-Muslim order toenter.lady in show that heattended drama, Nam tended tosee drama,Western operaandcinema apositive light.Anavid in supporter of with thechangesthat were introduced bythe new arts, butothers,such as intellectuals Paul Dumont, “Said Bey: The Everyday Life of an of Life Everyday Bey:The “Said Dumont, Paul Refik Ahmet. Refik And, 100 Soruda Soruda Türk 100 The Modern MiddleEast, Modern The Õ k Kemal, theatrek as described a school thatwould improvemanners and Turk Tiyatrosu 96 , p. 209. p. 97 ortaoyunu, Karagöz , pp. 34-35.; Nam 34-35.; pp. ø stanbullian followed bothlocaland formsWestern of art in Albert Hourani, Philip S. Khoury (eds.), London: I.B. Tauris, 1993, Tauris, I.B. London: (eds.), Khoury S. Philip Hourani, Albert ø stanbullian intheearlytwentieth-century. His notes Õ k Kemal (1840-1888); Young Ottoman intellectual and intellectual Young Ottoman (1840-1888); k Kemal , Western, drama andfrom time to time 45 ø stanbul Townsman at the Beginning Twentieth ofthe the Beginning at Townsman stanbul 95 Someconservatives were notcontent opera CEU eTD Collection 98 changes happening throughout theEmpire and accepted the artforms.Western circumstances ofthe time, including domestic andexternalforces, encouraged the the timewho receivedaEuropean style education. Moreover, political and economic Most ofthepeopleof the upper classes supported this process asdid the intellectuals of European artsshould beunderstood asaresult of administrative and cultural policy. Bey as“anurban bridge between Eastand West.” While it isthequestion of interpretation, itisnoteworthy thatPaulDumont depicts Said Table 2.1- A sample leisureof activities of Said Bey. (Dumont, P., 1993) Ibid, p. 278. Ibid, Sunday, February 17 Saturday, February 16 Friday, February 15 Thursday, February 14 Wednesday, February 13 Tuesday, February 12 Monday, February 11 accepting Western of dimensionhistoricaltwentieth-century,the early the In 46 Calgili Gazino (café-concert) Greek carnival at Beyoglu Visit to Seyfeddin Bey again Raki atTokatliyan Raki Confectioner’s atPera In the evening, Midday meal at Yani’s Visit to neighbors in the evening Midday meal at Tokatliyan Raki Midday meal at Yani’s Show of Visit to neighbors in the evening Nargile Muhallebi [a desert] Midday meal at the bazaar Karagöz Arab music Arifiye coffeehouse 98 at Sirkeci [alcoholic beverage] atDirekler Arasi [hookah] show in the evening Meddah Karagöz show CEU eTD Collection turmoil, cinema-going was growing inpopularity in established inseveraldistricts during I.Infact,World War despite theongoing political venues forfilm screenings were oftenad hoc, permanent cinema-houses were later other groups ofpeopleand spread beyond thestreets of Pera.Even though thefirst mindset and contactwith otherparts ofthe world. Gradually, cinemawas embraced by early cinemawasfirstly theupper classes ofPera that oftenhada Western-oriented city, embracingthe popular performance andvisualarts ofthe time. Theaudience of a complex cultural phenomenon. Thedistrict ofPerawas themostmodern sectionofthe cinema in1896untiltheArmistice Period, cinema-going in Conclusion shared bymany scholars. carriedout attheturn led the disappearance of popular Turkish theatre andthis view is the introduction of arts.Western Martinovitch’s belief that the modernization reforms that a part ofa part adopting arts.Hesaysthat:Western 100 99 claims thatthetraditional forms of Western artforms duringthatperiod. Russian theaterhistorian, Nicholas Martinovitch Martinovitch, And, influences Turkey moved away from its indigenous dramatic spirits.” its traditional color and vigor. And with Westernization and the opening to outside dialogues were replete with sexual and obscene jokes. So gradually support Despite the great transformation thatwas takingplace from the introduction of “Someintellectuals the 19 in Contemporary scholars have debated the role and effect of the acceptance of “The Turkish Folk Theatre”, p.170. Theatre”, Folk “The Turkish The Turkish Theatre Turkish The Ortaoyunu because they found primitive and vulgar, and admittedly 99 Metin And also sees the demise oflocalperformance arts as , p. preface. th meddah century, champions of Western culture, refused to , 47 ortaoyunu ø stanbul. , and ø stanbul canbeinterpreted as Karagöz were threatened by 100 Ortaoyunu lost CEU eTD Collection Armistice Period,the imperialcapital presented alively social milieu. oyunu performance arts and cinema aswell asthelocalperformance arts of performance artsasa whole. However itis clear that during this period Western contemporarywell as sourcesdiffer their in interpretation oftheaffectscinema onlocal cinema, isanongoingtopic ofresearch anddiscussion. Members ofsocietythedayas The interplay between local performance artsandthenewly arts, arrived suchas and shadow plays were patronized by diverse audiences. Indeed, on theeve of 48 meddah , orta CEU eTD Collection under the leadershipof Mustafa KemalAtatürk. of September 1923endedthe Armistice Period. occupationThis ofthekeyOttoman cities occupation ofthe city andother parts of the former Empire until their departure in Greek Armies occupied various partsof Anatolia.Western Thesepowers remainedin the British Army startingonNovember 13,1918. Empire known astheArmistice Period (1918-1923). the AlliedPowers onOctober 30, 1918 initiated thelasthistoricalchapter ofthe Ottoman Thrace ontheroad tobecome of theRepublic Turkey. TheMudros Armistice, signed with Germany sealedtheendof Empire andsetthe territory of Anatolia andEastern imperialcapital. During IthealliancethatOttomanWorld War Empire forgedwith screenings inlate 1896until 1918wasfollowed byanevenmore challenging time forthe 102 101 Introduction FILMMAKING AND CINEMA-GOING DURING THEARMISTICE DURING FILMMAKING AND CINEMA-GOING Mehmet Temel, Mehmet Nur Bilge Criss, ø stanbuland The period of transition and change that occurred in ø ø stanbul under Allied Occupation 1918-1923 Occupation underAllied stanbul sgal Yillarinda sgal Yillarinda ø zmirhelpedto initiate theTurkish ofIndependence War (1919-1922) ø stanbul’un Sosyal Durumu Sosyal stanbul’un CHAPTER 3. CHAPTER PERIOD 49 102 101 , Ankara: Kultur Bakanligi, 1998, pp. 1-10. 1998, Bakanligi, Kultur Ankara: , , Leiden: Brill, 1999, pp.1-2. Brill, Leiden: , Following this, theFrench andthe ø stanbulcame underoccupation by ø stanbul from the first film CEU eTD Collection difference between “Ottoman” and“Turkish” became increasingly blurred.” [Committee and Progress] ofUnion became increasingly penetrated byTurkist ideas, the weregrasping all for power andclaiming legitimacy atthistime. Indeed, “as the CUP Westernism and Turkism, alongwith thenational aspirations ofdifferent ethnic groups, As was notedearlier inChapter One, these ideologies, suchasOttomanism, Islamism, thought astowhat political andnational forces would dominate thefutureof region. 3.1 Competing Ideologies subject ofthischapter. and theformationof the early Republic. This early filmmaking anditsenvirons is the ø University Press, 2008, p. 166. p. Press,2008, University 103 these aspirations onto the screen via some oftheworks oftheearly Ottoman cinema. significant. Thus, many ofthe political and intellectualdevelopments ofthe era projected time nationalistmovements andproto-nationalist sentiments became graduallymore ( the earlyfilms oneofthese fitinto raw footage formatsthe 1917 release until of behind the lines, chroniclingthe yearsofwar and thenationalstruggle. Themajority of duringthis time were newsreels depicting scenesboth from the battlefield andfrom the introduction offilm into theOttoman society.Unsurprisingly, theinitial films developed subjects oftheOttoman begantomake Empire theirown films, almost twenty yearsafter of cinema andcinema thisof going in area the world. Itwasthis during periodwhen stanbul. The storyofearly filmmaking closely tied is tothatofthe country’s state of war Pençe) ù  ükrü M.Hanio ükrü The lateOttoman periodwaswitness todifferent and competing schoolsof Interestingly enough, the Armistice Period was also important for the development directed bySedat Simavi, thefirst feature-length narrative film produced in ÷ lu, A Brief History of the Late Ottoman Empire of theLate History ABrief 50 , Princeton and Oxford: Princeton andOxford: Princeton , 103 Duringthis The Claw CEU eTD Collection emergence ofdomestic film production thein region.A newsreel filmed duringthis period 3.2 TheFirst Domestic Films understand theformationof early Ottoman cinema. these effortsand understanding them within this larger historical milieu will help to possible source of income generationfor military expenses. Linking these early films to These state agencies formed organizations for filmmaking andalso viewed it as a were state-owned and theirworks were dedicated tothe advancement ofthe war effort. Ottomans.late Infact,during theArmistice Period thefirst film production institutions glimpse athowthefilmmaking was affectedbythesehistoricalevents thecaseof in of thenationalist sentiments andmovements oftheperiod the in region, butto take a Turkey. that focus on the Turkism which willeventually led tothe emergence ofRepublic of of this text, thespecific proto-nationalist aspirations considered most intently are those the culturalaspirations and ideologies ofthe communities at this period.For thepurpose context ofearly cinema this in region signifies themes foundwithin thefilms thatreflected text. Thus,theusageofterms “nationalist”, “patriotic” and“proto-nationalist” the in the various nationalist movements duringthis period will notbeexplored in detail inthis nation state or independence according totheir point of view. The complex question of come with certainto beassociated groups ofcommunities with goals ofestablishing a theme orsubject matterofthefilms refersto the ideasand values which were orhave Some oftheseearly films highlight proto-nationalist and patriotic concerns. The Not onlydid thewar andArmistice Period signal theend ofthe Empire butalso the This chapterseeksnot toportrayeverydetail oftheearly filmmaking thecontextin 51 CEU eTD Collection 106 1998. Yayincilik, 1997.; Giovanni Scognomilo, Giovanni 1997.; Yayincilik, important political and military moments intheregion by the state. cinemawas graduallyusedmoremore and frequently forthe purpose ofrecording the power ofthe cinema new andits technology wereunderstood. well From then on early stage inthe struggle for power and important symbols ofvictory and sovereignty, appointed to record this important moment bytheleaders of CUP. Evidently, from this screened films andinitiated the opening of cinema-houses in Committee ofUnionandProgress (CUP). Reserve Officer FuadBey,who previously threat against Ottoman sovereignty was deemed important bymembers ofthe Chronicling thepublic destruction ofthismonument, asymbol oftheRussianvictory and of theRussian-Ottoman (1877-1878) War -was destroyed in1914bythepublic. (tran.), (tran.), to allow a detailed construction of its existence asthefirst “Turkish” film. footage hasnotsurvived tothepresent dayand contemporary resources arefartoothin historians. no. 3, no. Russian army toshow markthe highwater theirforces of during theirsieges of The RussianMonument intheAyastefanos district of interpretation ofthelimited literature may lead onetomake thefollowingconclusions: filmed onNovember byReserve 14,1914 Officer FuadBey (Uzk information see Dilek Kaya- Mutlu, “Ayastefanos’taki Rus Abidesi: Kim Yikti Kim Cekti Kim Yazdi”, in: Yazdi”, Kim Cekti Kim Yikti Kim Rus Abidesi: “Ayastefanos’taki Mutlu, Kaya- seeDilek information 105 ofTurkey. andRepublic Empire Ottoman the in of filmmaking Y Abidesi’nin 104 entitled Ayastefanos refers to today’s Yesilkoy district in in district Yesilkoy to today’s refers Ayastefanos There are so many different accounts about the loss of the first “Turkish” newsreel. For detailed For newsreel. “Turkish” first the of loss the about accounts different somany are There Fuad Bey (Uzk Bey Fuad ø ø stanbul, (Bahar 2006), pp. 12-21.; Rekin Teksoy, Rekin 12-21.; pp. 2006), (Bahar stanbul, stanbul: Oglak, 2008, p. 17.; Burcak Evren, 17.; Burcak p. 2008, Oglak, stanbul: The Destruction ofthe Russian Monument in Ayastefanos The Destruction oftheRussian Monument in Ayastefanos ÕNÕOÕúÕ Õ nay) (1888-1956) worked as a director, cameraman and producer during the early years early the during andproducer cameraman adirector, workedas (1888-1956) nay) ) hasbeencalled thefirst “Turkish” film manyby contemporary film Türk Sinema Tarihi 1896-1959 Tarihi Sinema Türk ø stanbul. Teksoy, stanbul. Degisimin Donemecinde Turk Sinemasi Turk Degisimin Donemecinde 52 Turkish Cinema ø stanbul- which was built bythe Turkish Cinema , vol. 1, , vol. , M.Thomen & O.Celiktemel ø stanbul,was reportedly ( ø stanbul: Kabalci Yayinevi, Kabalci stanbul: Ayastefanos’taki Rus Õ nay). , p. 16. , was reportedly 105 104 Acautiously , ø This early stanbul: Leya stanbul: ø stanbul Seyir 106 , CEU eTD Collection outweigh for some scholars. of theRussian Monument mightregion bequite different. Thestrategic importance ofclaimingthat Destruction oftheRussian Monument recorded an eventmore inline with national struggle themes, suchasFuad Bey’s interestingcase. theManakisWere Brothers from a different ethnic groupor hadthey transition period may bethecase of which was thefirst film of thecountry is an during thistime period. For oneto getasense ofjust how problematic thestudyof this newsreels covering anumber ofsignificant events throughout theBalkans and of theOttoman Empire until theend of Balkan (1912-1913)Wars andthey made 1911. Manakis’ footage of Manakis Brothers in May 1911. May in Brothers Manakis bythe footages 12different in filmed Sultan’s visits past”. marching Thessaloniki in andtroops girls “Young 67: Number train”. Thessaloniki-Monastir the Café, Toumbe Monastir, at “The Sultan 66: Number Café”. Bechtsina way the to onhis Thessaloniki in “The Sultan 64: Number Reshid”. Sultan with “Festivities 61: Number Thessaloniki”. at ship Sultan’s 47:“The Number Viziers”. paradeofthe the with Monastir, of people the by reception “The Sultan’s 27: Number Monastir”. from departure his before Monastir, in station railway the at Sultan “The 18: Number a carriage”. in andarriving Café Bechtsina the at Sultan the Thessaloniki, in Sultan the before “March 10: Number Café”. Toumbe the the mosque, of out coming mosque, the at Sultan 8:“The Number to Monastir”. enroute Sultan bridges.The –NaousaAmyntaio Thessaloniki “Train, 7: Number Thessaloniki”. in Sultan the past, before marching andoters troops Towns-people, [Freedom]. “Hurriyet 6: Number past”. marching others and soldiers schoolchildren, with prefecture the window of atthe “The sultan 4: Number order]: [in thefollowing thescenesflow that suchdetail in has beenfilmed event journey…Every Sultan’s the filmed Brothers Manakis shotbythe footage film the of “Most footage: the of content Detailed 120. 119- pp. 1997, Europe, of Capital Cultural the for Organization Thessaloniki: 107 The Christos K. Christodoulou, K. Christos Destruction of the Russian Monument in Ayastefanos 107 Interestingly enough, another newsreel filmed the Empire in predates Fuad Bey’s TheManakis Brothers, considered ethnically asMacedonians, were thesubjects Sultan Mehmed Re was thefirst “Turkish” film outweighed andevencontinues to The Manakis Brothers: the Greek Pioneers of the Balkanic Cinema Balkanic the of Pioneers theGreek Brothers: Manakis The , the portrayal of their place in the film history of the ú ad V’s Visit toSelanik andMonastir 53 . This is Yannakis andMiltos The Destruction ø on May stanbul The , CEU eTD Collection 111 110 109 military. district of were screenedforthe public attheMilitary Museum Muze)(Askerithe in Sultanahmet Squads ofGalcia Opearation Özön, newsreels suchas: tools imported from Europe and Western its budgetwas limited. Reserve Officer FuadBeyserved ashisassistant. country’s forces. battlefields. Uponhis return, Enver Pa saw many shortfilms ofwar andvariousnewsreels filmed bytheGerman Army atthe the benefits thatan office ofcinema couldbring tothe war effort. During his stay there he probably during hisearlier stay in Germany for political reasonsthat Enver Pa assist the military through theproduction offilm screenings for fundraising. It was 108 Cinema (MOFD, capacity as Minister,War heestablished thestate-owned CentralMilitary Officeof 3.3 FilmProduction Institutions and Newsreels Teksoy, “Turkiye'de Sinema “Turkiye'de Teksoy, Teksoy, Özön, Rekin Teksoy (ed.). “Turkiye'de Sinema “Turkiye'de (ed.). Teksoy Rekin Sinema ElKitabi Sinema The cameramenworked oftheMOFD atthebattlefields andin 1916filmed several The firstnationalinstitution for filmmaking wasinitiated byEnver Pa Sinema 111 Turkish Cinema Later,theMOFDattempted toproduceothertypesoffilms the comedy like ø stanbuland money raised during thescreenings wassent tosupport the , p. 114. 108 Merkez Ordu Film Dairesi Sigmund Weinberg was appointed as the general manager andthe , The Battle ofCanakkale ø stanbul: Elif Yayinlari, 1964, p. 114.; Teksoy, p.114.; 1964, Yayinlari, Elif stanbul: , p.135. ” , p. 453. p. , . 110 Theproducts of theMOFD, newsreels from the battles, ” , in: , ú a founded this organization todothe same forhis Arkin Sinema Ansiklopedisi 54 , ) in 1915in in ) The FuneralofVon derGoltz Pa 109 TheMOFD had limited technical ø Turkish Cinema stanbul. TheMOFD aimed to , ø stanbul, 1975, p. 453.;Nijat 1975, stanbul, , pp. 16,134. , ú a, when his in ú ú a realized a, The 19 CEU eTD Collection 1918 [1334]), p.11. 1918 [1334]), loss of“Turkish national dignity” more if were films produced in thefuturesame Halide Edip 114 author Halide Edip harshly. Oneexample, publishedinliterary journalofspectacles, as internationalwell ones. Most intellectuals criticized the domestic films of theMMC and aesthetics terms. Cinema-goers could choosebetween watching domestic films as veterans. Disabled Veterans (MGC, staff andresources were transferred to anewly established organization, TheSociety of Empire, including theMOFDandMMC. reasonall this oftheMOFD’s For equipment, country. After the war, theAlliedPowers appropriated the resources oftheOttoman struggle. This institution, similar totheMOFD, produced newsreels throughout the Müdafaa-i Milliye Cemiyeti whenmany oftheactorswere called toserve thein military. 113 Empire Ottoman Late of the History of 725,000 (325,000 deadand400,000 (325,000 725,000 of causalities Ottoman 1918, By arms. to was called service, civil the outside 112 Horhor theNutroaster Halide Edip, “Müdafaa-i Milliye Cemiyeti Riyaset-i Muhteremesine”, in: Muhteremesine”, Riyaset-i Cemiyeti Milliye “Müdafaa-i Edip, Halide Nijat Özön, “Türk Sinemas “Türk Özön, Nijat Ibid, p.18. “Approximately 15 percent of the entire population, or almost one out of two adult males two adult of one out or almost population, entire the of 15percent “Approximately p.18. Ibid, should be delayed until amore serious and attentive approach isintroduced.” issue, the organization should stop filming andwasting money and this difficult task Cemiyeti “[Earlier] we noted that the Society ofNational Defense, [MMC, The first productions ofstate-owned institutions were notappreciated thein artistic Another state-owned charitable institution -the SocietyofNationalDefense (MMC, 113 goes onto saythat the productions ofMMC wouldhavegradually caused the ] makes newsreels, yet very bad ones, until finding a specialist on this ( Ad Õ ( var) dated September 26,1918: Leblebici Horhor A Õ na Toplu in: Bakis", Bir na Toplu ) -started to make films in1917 while supporting the national Malul Gaziler Cemiyeti , Princeton and Oxford: Princeton University Press, 2008, p. 181. p. Press,2008, University Princeton and Oxford: Princeton , wounded).” See for detailed information detailed See for wounded).” ÷ 55 a Türk Dili, , 1916); but thefilm could notbecompleted vol. 17, no. 196, (1 January 1968), p.269. 1968), January 17, no.196,(1 vol. ) whichwas) providing helptothe 112 Tema had reached the appalling figure appalling the had reached Müdafaa-i Milliye Müdafaa-i ù Tema ú ükrü M. Hanio M. ükrü a , no: 9, (26 September no:9, , ú a , comes from 114 ÷ lu, ABrief CEU eTD Collection Europe and Northern America, these examples ofearly domestic filmswere fraught with with unsuccessful endingsaftertheir move tofeature-length narratives. filmmakingorganizations the country in that startedasstate-sponsored organizations met critics ofthe day.Infact, anarticle published in1918 first locally made andproduced feature-film, itwasreceived notwell bythe audiences or 117 [N.P.]. raise fund for the military. wouldhave the knowledge of the play. It was produced by the MMC and distributed to Consequently, onegetsasense ofthat the film targeted ahigh-society audience who Rauf’s play ofthesame name, criticizingwas asatire theinstitution ofmarriage. 116 115 andpoorloss products. filmmakers andcompares theirsuccessful films tothemore recentsituation of money way. Interestingly, shehighlights MMC’s previouscollaboration with GreekandBulgarian dignity” with theirfilms. organization and as a state organization MMC would protect “Turkishness” and “national entitled 3.4 Thefeature-length narrative films concerns. morewith developednarratives, while maintaining theirgoals ofpromoting thenationalist organizations continued film making andeventually began producing feature-length films No Name, “Memlekette Sinema Hayati”, in: No Name, ““Müdafaa-i Milliyenin Mektub-u Cevabi”, in: Cevabi”, Mektub-u Milliyenin ““Müdafaa-i Name, No Ibid, p. 11. Compared tothetraveling newsreels and feature-length films from Western The first The first feature-length narrative film of theSociety ofNational Defense was The Claw ( Pençe 115 116 While , SedatSimavi, 1917). TheMMC that replied this“arrogant” attitude saddened the In spite of the harsh criticisms, Inspiteoftheharsh thestate-owned film The Claw Tema does earnaplace infilm history asbeing the 56 ú a , no. 6, (15 August 1918 [1334]), p.7. Tema The Claw ú a Tema , no: 10, (17 October, 1918 [1334]), p. 1918 [1334]), 10, (17October, no: , , based on author Mehmet ú a , reveals thatalltheearly 117 CEU eTD Collection our history,ahistoricalepic, the Alemdar Vakasi.” that the “[MMC, theSociety of NationalDefense,] is filming themost auspicious events of thein audience to leave thecinema-house in shame. Theauthordoesgo onto mention “The technical mistakes lowerthefirst national film to acoarsequality” andcaused many 119 was it completed. wardue to not the conditions yet 1917, costumesbe provided” should toensure film quality. that, “agooddirector with aqualified cameraman, andaproficientdécor andperiod disappointed review with some tipsabouthow maketo agoodfilm. Thearticle states harshly dissect illustrates his excitement article inhis entitled “Bedia Muvahhit Han celebrated women’s participation innationalfilm making. For instance, author Vedat Örf authoritiesWhile opposed this development, artists, intellectuals andpressofthetime barrier andact in the domestic films. Bedia Muvahhit wasan exampleof this situation. starred the filmsin was animportant stepforTurkishoriginactresses tobreak thegender Eliza Binemeciyan, Nureddin Sefkati and Rasit Riza. Having Turkish Muslim women I. Thefilm starred actors from Armenianand Turkish origins such asBediaMuvahhit, ( the timewhen itwas first released. comments andtheaudience reaction that Grandvezier Alemdar Mustafa Pa Mustafa Alemdar Grandvezier 118 technical problems andother hallmarks of inexperience. The Casus Ibid, p. 7. Ibid, p.7. The Society ofNational Defense followed withadventure an film called , SedatSimavi), released 1917,in which Alemdar Vakasi The Claw was a resistance movement organized by the Janissaries against the against Janissaries the by organized movement was a resistance with words, with representativeof anumber critiques of it received. ú a in 1808 in 1808in a in ø stanbul. The film was planned to be shot by Sedat Simavi in Simavi by Sedat beshot wasto planned Thefilm stanbul. The Claw The 57 portraysduring spying events World War 118 didnot acclaim much appreciation at Theanonymous authorfollows the 119 Itisobviousfrom these Tema Õ ú m”. Forhim, Turkish a article went on to The Spy CEU eTD Collection May 23,1919. protest against theoccupation forces was attheSultanahmet filmed of district supporters to resist theoccupation ofAnatolian lands byforeigntroops. Another public protest also marked thestartofNational Movement byMustafa Kemal andhis 121 Naz MMC onMay 15,1919 and is entitled The protest organized in Society ofDisabled Veterans filmed thepublic protests against theoccupation forces. production ofnewsreels andotherinformation from thebattlefields. Inthis vein, the of thetimes, driven by proto-nationalistic themes,which were reinforcedbythe comedy, adventure and drama. Interestingly, most oftheworks were couched in events Karagözo and 120 ( chronicling comic the characteroftheclumsyBican Efendi, filmmaking. women couldcontribute greatly tothedevelopment ofnational theatre and domestic Bican Efendi Vekilharc Teksoy, “Turkiye'de Sinema “Turkiye'de Teksoy, Vedat Örf, “Sanatkarlar Örf, Vedat Õ m (ed.), (21 February 1922 [1338]), p. 1. 1922 [1338]), (21 February (ed.), m Bican Efendi’s Dream Up until thispoint, most earlyfilms exemplified a variety of genres suchas Followingabove-mentioned films, in1921the MMC produced three comedies ÷ lu. 120 121 ÕPÕ]Õ ), ø stanbul against the Greek occupation of ” Bican Efendi the SchoolMaster , p. 455. p. , Tan ( Bican Efendi’nin Ruyasi Õ yal Õ m Bedia Muvahhit Han Muvahhit Bedia m Protest in Fatih against 58 Õ m”, in: m”, ) were) directed by ( Bican Efendi Mektep Hocasi Sinema Postas Bican Efendi theButler ø zmir’s Occupation ø zmir was filmed bythe Õ , no: 8, Hikmet ù ø stanbul on adi Fikret . This ) CEU eTD Collection tools. Additionally, Emine emphasizes the recent success ofFuadBey working on2500- claims thatagoodcameraman cannotguarantee agood result withouthaving these investment, agoodsubject, andqualified decorations fortheeastern styled settings. He Veterans. Emine theimportant recounts toolsandstepsoffilmmaking; the first attempts toanalyze thefootages and narratives filmed bytheSociety ofDisabled objective film criticism also appeared. In an article written in 1919 by KemalEmine, he the stainupon us[via cinema].” for introducing the history of Turks, the essence ofthe Oriental spirit, andfor wiping out Cevdet Re 122 propaganda tool. Forexamplethe journalin of arts and ideas, Cevdet Re Cevdet In addition tocelebrating these rationalist themes, someattempts tooffermore Many intellectuals and writers oftheday supported theuse of cinema asa ú ú id suggeststhat id “benefiting from cinema animportant is taskforus.Itistime id, “Sinema Hakkinda Notlar I”, in: Notlar Hakkinda “Sinema id, Figure 3.1- Public protest at Sultanahmet, 1919. ( 122 Yarin 59 , no. 8, (1 December 1921 [1337]), p.12. 1921[1337]), (1 no.8, December , Cumhuriyet Yar Õ n , 1997) , thecolumnist CEU eTD Collection 123 as developedit somewhere else.” “progress” byenabling itsviewers toshare andparticipate in theexperience ofmodernity argues that “the cinema fedthenational self-confidence that its own modernity was in one way, similar tothe early formation ofLatinAmerican filmmaking. AnaM. Lopez the history ofearly Ottoman cinema. Indeed, the situationof filmmaking atthistime is, in Governess:3.5 The An Example of“Nationalist Sentiments” Reserve Officer FuadBey veryis important forthesake of country’s future nationalfilms. cinema forourcountry.” our only hopeisthatFuadBey wouldcontinue making film and show the success of metre film length and addsthat, “although there aresome things leftout in hisworks… 2000), p. 53. p. 2000), 124 their role inthechanges takingplace. Much of theseproductions created in theearly representations may havehelped thecreators andspectators ofthe films understand filmsepics, suchashistorical newsreels ofprotests against theoccupation andcultural proto-national or ethnic representations. For example,the choice ofthemes inthe early occupation andturmoilwas taking place. use thenovelty ofcinema and toidentify affirm themselves thecountry while was under context, there was anurgent need for the filmmakers tocontribute to this “progress” and worldwide cinema ofparticipation realm and afeeling inthat realm. InthelateOttoman Kemal Emine, “Bizde Sinemacilik”, in: Sinemacilik”, “Bizde Emine, Kemal Ana M. Lopez, “Early Cinema and Modernity in Latin America”, in: LatinAmerica”, in and Modernity Cinema “Early M. Lopez, Ana Comparisons toother countries’ filmmaking experienceshelps tobetter understand The studyofearly film narratives in theOttoman contextmay expose thethemes of 123 Obviouslyhebelieves thathisfullsupport andappreciation for Tema 124 Inother words, early films contributed to this ú a , no. 15, (1 April 1919 [1335]), pp. 1-2. pp. 15, 1919[1335]), no. (1April , 60 CinemaJournal , 40, no.1, (Fall40, CEU eTD Collection Fabrikasinin of “TheSocietyDisabled Veterans Film ( Factory” the country. Period becamemore visible with this censorship related to the distribution of local films in Allied Powers. However, thepower exercised bytheAlliedPowers during theArmistice fact, 126 censored bythe occupied forces in Anatolia after the initial screenings of theWhile whole country was undertheoccupation ofAlliedPowers, thefilm was Angel is,then, opposed andconfronted bythe “upstanding morals” ofthe Turkish family. lives inthe mansionof awealthy Turkish family andeventually beginsto tempt themales. young and“morally corrupt” Frenchgoverness. Inthisblack andwhite, silent film Angel Mürebbiye film, whileFuad Bey handled the camera.” 125 Behzat HakiButak,Ra Efendi. “Aside from Ahmet Fehim, actors from Armenianand Turkish origins such as on thenovel ofHüseyin Rahmi Gürp Veterans, stands asaprime example, afeature-length production ofTheSociety ofDisabled resistance movement during the Armistice Period. years ofcinema actedasan intermediary for the nationalist discourse and heraldedthe Teksoy, “Turkiye'de Sinema “Turkiye'de Teksoy, Hüseyin Rahmi Gürp Rahmi Hüseyin The Governess When When viewed from the national andcultural representation one particularfilm An article describing the premierof was first published in 1895. Teksoy, 1895. in published was first The Governess ø lk Eseri Õ nar’s (1864-1944) works include novels, short stories, plays and also translations. and also plays stories, short novels, works include nar’s (1864-1944) ) anddepicted a period of “our national lifeand nationalmorality and was anexample national ofpassive resistance taken against the ú it R it ” ( , p. 455. p. , Õ Mürebbiye za Samako,Mrs. Kalitea,Bayzar Fasulyeciyan starred the in Õ nar’s and filmed bythefamous actorAhmet Fehim , AhmetFehim, 1919). Turkish Cinema 125 The Governess 61 Themainprotagonist ofthefilm, Angel, is a , p. 18. claims that it was the first work Malulin Guzât Sinema Film The Governess ø stanbul. was based 126 In CEU eTD Collection Company which Ertu skills back to his home country upon his skills backtohishomereturn. countryuponhis order tolearn thedetails andtechniques offilmmaking hisexperiences andbring and City Theatre formany years.For this reason, duringthe war yearshewent toBerlin in and theUSSR respectively. artistic impressions in film history, heshot twenty ninefilms Turkey, intotal Germany early cinema yearsbeforetheproclamation ofRepublic. Although hehad leftnolasting p. 247. p. 3.6 Muhsin Ertu screen. claims theaudience was happy to see their true “national identity” projected onto the figures ofthetime andthefilm crew. Thearticle aboutthescreening written in Gürp fifty tosixty people, including the MinisterWar Enver Pa Governess 130 129 128 visible afterthedefeat andoccupation began in thecountry. According to another: the occupying French forces. Undoubtedly, national consciousness wasmore is thatthe emphasis on morality and customs was away toshow “the inferior morals” of 127 customs “with thehelp oftechnology and equipment.” Muhsin Ertu Muhsin Sinema “Turkiye'de Teksoy, pp. 1-2. Ibid, E. G. [?], “Murebbiye Filmi”, in: Õ nar, journalists of the daily newspapers, anumber ofwomen, otherprominent He had always beeninterested in filmmaking while staging plays for the The riseof film director and actor Muhsin Ertu 128 won agreat popular appreciation. The first screening in ÷ rul, ÷ Benden Sonra Tufan Olmas Tufan Benden Sonra rul: The Makingrul: The of Domestic Cinema ÷ rul foundedwith Nabi Zeki inBerlin produced his first film ” , p. 458. p. , 129 Tema ú a , no.17, (1 June 1919 [1335]), p. 1. (1 June1919 [1335]), no.17, , Õ n , 62 ø stanbul: Dr. Nejat Eczacibasi Vakf Eczacibasi Nejat Dr. stanbul: 130 127 ÷ TheStamboul Film Production rul wasrul aturning point during the One way tointerpret these lines ú a, the author Hüseyin Rahmi ø stanbul consisted of Õ Yay Tema Õ nlari, 1989, nlari, ø stanbul’s Tema ú a, The The ú a CEU eTD Collection The Shirt ofFire supporthis KemalFilm Studio wasfounded 1922.in Oneofhis most successfulfilms, Kemaland films didnotreceivepopular appeal from audience,heencouragedthe entrepreneurs national cinema lengthfor inagreat seventeen his years ofprolific work. Althoughhis film was approachedandthe columnist harshly criticizes ø adaptation ofMaurice Level’s novel and the main character all atthe same time” writes Ertu 133 132 131 Samson stanbullian audience. Theliterary journal N.D., “Sinematograf”, in: pp. 273-275. Ibid, Tema As adevoted follower ofcinema, Muhsin Ertu no support,”no it is of nouse. Where is the art?” investments are wiped out. Even ifwe scream “this is not appreciated and there is be no one who wouldn’t be saddened. So much labor wasted in vain, and the ears? IfMr. Muhsin Ertu “Muhsin Ertu ú ( a , no: 22, (1920 [1336]), p.14. , no:22,(1920[1336]), Izd ù Õ akir (Seden)Brothers tostart the firstprivate film production company. With rap Figure 3.2- Muhsin Ertu , Muhsin Ertu ( ÷ Ate rul’s “Izd ú Dergah ten Gömlek Õ rap,” to what useless junk have wesubjected our eyes and , vol. 13, no: 29, (20 June 1922 [1338]), pp. 63-64. pp. (20 June1922[1338]), 13, no:29, , vol. ÷ ÷ rul were to abandon the stage “Izdfor rul, 1919).“Formy firstfilm,was thedirector,producer I ÷ , 1923, Muhsin Ertu , 1923,Muhsin rul Bey from “Samson”. ( L’Angoisse Dergah 63 could not capture much acclaim from the 132 illustrates how this first feature-length ÷ rulcontributed tothe emergence of ÷ The Samson ÷ rul) isanadaptationof Halide rul inhis memoirs. Tema ú a , 1920) Õ rap,” there would ’s failure. ’s 133 131 Yet,this CEU eTD Collection figures for thenumber ofcinema-houses inthese years,asurvey conducted bythe availablecinema-houses. inthe ø helped totarget alargeraudience andincrease attendance numbers. openingof permanent cinema-houses in screenings were exhibited along withvariety theater shows andtraveling cinemas, the first permanent cinema-houses were established the in 1910s. Even though the first store-frontsmall cinema-houses, coffeehouses, theatresalons andmuseumsthe until 3.7Cinema-houses and cinema-going in collectivism as anation that was evidentatthat time. until 1844 and later on Turkish gold lira was introduced. lira gold onTurkish 1844 andlater until “kuru the to refer “piastres” languages European the region. Nodoubt, regulations; hencethisevent was innovative and important partoftheearlyfilm history in womenwere prohibitedfrom acting onstage and filmsin duetothereligious and legal women,Bedia Muvahhit andNeyyire Neyir, in leading roles. Aswas notedearlier, Muslim nation-state. Additionally, the film was significant in terms ofstarring two Turkish Muslim war yearsandstruggle for aRepublic it clearly celebrates the victory of making amodern six months beforetheproclamation ofRepublic ofTurkey. Independence in 135 134 Edip’s novelof thesame Ertu title. stanbul. Theticket prices ranged from according 7piastres toseating3 to classes Mustafa Gökmen, Mustafa Teksoy, twenty-fiveapproximatelycinema-houseswerein there I War During World As was notedearlier in Chapter Two, thevenues for thenewly-arrived films were Turkish Cinema The Shirt ofFire Eski Eski , p. 25. , ø The Shirt of Fire stanbul Sinemalari stanbul 135 is notasurprising is decision since itwas released only most While of thefilm historians’ data show similar ÷ , rul’s interest portrayingin the Turkish of War ú ø ø reflectedthepatriotic emotions and senseof ” which was also a unit of currency in the Ottoman Empire intheOttoman currency of alsoaunit was ” which stanbul: stanbul: stanbul initiated awider distribution offilms and 64 ø stanbul ø stanbul Kitapligi Yayinlari, 1991, pp. 21-24. In 21-24. pp. 1991, Yayinlari, Kitapligi stanbul 134 While thefilmWhile chronicles the CEU eTD Collection German, andAmerican,” and, “on the whole they arecheap and sensational.” lucrative business. also statedThe survey that “thefilmsItalian,French, shown are “according to standards,”Western butwere improvingto larger due audiences andmore According tothesurvey of British forces, the cinema-houses were poorly built structures 137 Life Social in Oriental 136 temporary cinema-houses in Period. British occupation forces indicates ariseincinema-houses right beforetheArmistice Ibid, pp. 264-265. Ibid, Johnson, Richard Clarence 136 Table 3.1- A List of 26 cinema-houses in May 1921. (Johnson, Clarence R. 1922) Layla Bahcesi Cinema Tepé Taksim Garden Cinema Appollon Cinema Taksim Cinema Kumkapi Shark Sinemasi Cinema Ertugrul Military Museum Milli Cinema Alemdar Cinema Kemal Bey Cinema Ali Efendi Majestic Cinema Variété Pangalti Ciné Amphi Cinema Orientaux Central Eclair Ciné Palace Luxemburg Russo-American Cosmograph Etoile Magic InMay 1921there were approximately thirty-two permanent and twelve Name , New York: The Macmillan Company, 1922, pp. 264-265. pp. 1922, Company, Macmillan New The , York: Constantinople To-Day or The Pathfinder Survey of Constantinople AStudy ofConstantinople Survey Pathfinder or The To-Day Constantinople ø stanbul, asmerely twenty sixofthem is shownTable3.1. in Old Old Old Old Old Old Old Old Old Old Location Uskudar Uskudar Pera Pera Pera Pera Pera Pera Pera Pera Pera Pera Pera Pera Pera Pera ø ø ø ø ø ø ø ø ø ø stanbul stanbul stanbul stanbul stanbul stanbul stanbul stanbul stanbul stanbul 65 Seating Capacity 1000 1030 1005 400 400 200 752 450 466 350 452 482 460 342 900 541 300 300 500 500 300 500 500 338 280 ---- Classification 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 nd nd nd nd nd nd nd nd nd nd nd nd nd rd st st st st st st st st st st st st Class Class Class Class Class Class Class Class Class Class Class Class Class Class Class Class Class Class Class Class Class Class Class Class Class Class 137 CEU eTD Collection [1340]), p. 14. [1340]), that there aresome discrepancies. number of cinema-houses until theyear of 1924, yet the available evidence still shows brief, can beconcludedit thatfrom During Worldwas Ithere War agradualrise the in conditions duetothe lackofunified regulation and stateorentrepreneurshipformation. In country thein mid-1920s. Additionally, itwas difficultto maintain basic informationof all cinema-goingwas as it still beingformed bydiscrete entities indifferent parts of the the profile andtaste of spectators can be perceived as an attempt tobetter understand readers concerning these venues. films, generalpublic opinion about the cinema-going activities and any suggestions of the back the name, owner, location and profile of thecinema-houses aswell as list ofthe many cinema-houses are thein entire country. The journal asksthe readers to report Additionally the journalcalls onthehelpof its readers livingAnatolia in tofindouthow 139 cinema-houses in different countries around world as it was published by for Interestingly, both of the surveys tallied thirty-two permanent cinema-houses; yet one is number ofcinema-houses located thein entirety of thecountriessurveyed. all overtheworld. The surveywas conductedbyAmericans 1924 andin gives the 138 No Name, “Kari ve Karielerimize, Bir Rica”, in: Rica”, Bir Karielerimize, ve “Kari Name, No No Name, “Sinema Istatistikleri”, in: Istatistikleri”, “Sinema No Name, ø stanbul, thelatter for theentire country. Below, 3.2 Table shows thenumber of Obviously this minorattempt tofindoutthe generalconditions ofcinema-going, A local film journal, Sinema Y Sinema 139 Õ ld <Õ Õ]Õ ld , alsopublished asurvey about cinema-houses Õ]Õ Sinema 66 , vol. 1, no: 1, Mehmet Rauf (ed.), (1924 [1340]), p.7. [1340]), (1924 Rauf(ed.), no: 1,Mehmet 1, , vol. <Õ ld Õ]Õ , vol. 1, no: 1, Mehmet Rauf (ed.), (1924 (ed.), RaufMehmet no: 1, 1, , vol. Sinema Y Õ ld Õ]Õ 138 . CEU eTD Collection magazines, fashion journals and daily newspapers of the time describe the egalitarian the basis ofconsumer products,beauty tips andstargaze.Most ofthewomen’s purely adiversion afforded tothem by their high economic status. to access the cinema-houses; beitfor encountering moremodern andliberating ideas or were probably from the upperclassresidents of houses, women particular became in avid followers significantly ofcinema. Thesewomen especially during the Armistice Period, with the rising number ofpermanent cinema- ø doubt supports claims that thedemand forcinemawas alsogrowing by theaudiences in Table 3.2 – AList of number of cinema-houses in 1924 in the selected countries. ( stanbul. The available memoirs, film and artmagazines andnovels suggest that Cinema-houses began tocater tothewomen audience,appealing towomen on The increasing number ofcinema-houses, in theabove-mentioned statistics, no Yugoslavia Turkey The Balkans Switzerland Spain South 1200 America Scandinavia Russia Poland Central 500 America Italy Hungary Holland Germany France England Czechoslovakia 23 Canada Belgium Austria Country 1924 [1340]) 67 117 32 23 123 156 703 3500 300 2200 180 227 3721 2400 3000 750 778 800 Cinema-houses Numberof ø stanbul, who had thewaysmeans and Sinema <Õ ld Õ]Õ , CEU eTD Collection Matbaas 141 [1340]), p. 11.; No Name, “Agnes Ayres”, in: “Agnes Ayres”, p. 11.; No Name, [1340]), 3, (24 June, 1924 [1340]), pp. 6-7.; No Name, “Mary Pickford”, in: “Mary Pickford”, NoName, pp. 6-7.; 1924 [1340]), (24 June, 3, choices.” Elhamra Cinema andseethe filmsmaking before their winter outfit andaccessory announcement claims that“it ishighly recommended thatthefashionable ladies visit the announcement aimed at“fashionable ladies” for theopening ofanew cinema-house. The 140 literature the context Ottomanin deeply realism. ofthelate rooted in erais part Thus,this 3.8 Depiction of Cinema inNovels ofthePeriod Cinema,be youwillParis.” in Pickford andAgnesAyres. lists ofthe various cinema-houses andpointing out the beauty of stars such as Mary society, liberated women chic in dresses and athletic bodiesadvertising while thefilm No Name, “Elhamra Sinemas “Elhamra NoName, For detailed information see No Name, “Banyo Mevsimi ve Ç ve Mevsimi “Banyo seeNoName, information detailed For The novel isapowerfultoolfor highlighting the socialmilieu ofthetime, because Õ , (15 September 1923 [1339], p. [N.P.]. 1923[1339], (15 September , 141 Aclose reading ofthis article suggests that “if you go to the Elhamra Figure 3.3- Saray Cinema-house [Ciné Palace]. (Atatürk Library Archives) 140 Õ nda Paris’in SonModas nda Paris’in A fashion journal, Afashion Sinema 68 <Õ ld Õ]Õ , vol. 1, no: 1, (1924 [1340]), p. 13. Õ ”, in: ”, Süs Õ plak Ayaklar, in: Ayaklar, plak Süs , exemplifies this matter in the Sinema , no: 14, Selami Izzet (ed.), Tanin (ed.), Izzet Selami14, no: , <Õ ld Sinema Õ]Õ , vol. 1, no: 1, (1924 1, 1, no: , vol. <Õ ld Õ]Õ , 1,no:vol. CEU eTD Collection advocates of the first group ofwomen asthemodelwoman ofthesociety. Thesepeople the cinema-house and the other day at the theaters in Pera. science clubs andguilds as opposed tothe“ignorant, child-neglector”, living onedayat were two groupsofwomen thesociety: in the“realist” hard-worker and who jointhe there timethat the of commoncriticizesbelief Edipthe Halide womanauthor, a As society. century literature and helped toshapedebates ontraditional and modernist views inthe going and its environs became common themes ofthefiction intheearly twentieth- gaze and eventually looksfor men in life that resemblethe stars in the films. 1935), portrays another account ofawoman who enjoys goingtocinema forthemale- 144 Peyami Safa.] set thestage ofthis novel. lifestyle. Cinema-going became suchastaple ofentertainment life that even cinema was and dreamy spectators”coming outof the cinema-houses andgives details ofthat ø imitates thelife-style andbeautytipsofstars. Theauthor illustrates thenight life of cinema-houses inthe liberated and modernized. Oneofthem, Berna,isportrayedas a fervent follower of 143 Eventually the heroine encounters other young girls in conservative young girl, Mebrure, in the midst oftheGreek and Turkish of1919.War 142 Safa’s novel of thechapter will examinethe depictions of cinema novels in ofthe period. Peyami stanbulcentered onthecinema-houses. He describes the crowdslarge of“enchanted Halide Edip, “Bir Mukayese”,in: “Bir Edip, Halide Server Bedi, Server PeyamiSafa, The Would BeGirls Sinema Delisi K Sinema Delisi Sözde K Õ zlar ù ehzadeba , ø stanbul: Ötüken, 1995, pp.7, 50. 1995, Ötüken, stanbul: Õ z 142 , Yarin ø Anothernovel, stanbul: Semih Lütfi Kitabevi, 1935. [Server Bedi is apseudonymfor Bediis 1935. [Server Semih Lütfi Kitabevi, stanbul: ( úÕ , no. 28, (27 April 1922 [1338]), p. [N.P.]. Sözde K district of Õ 69 zlar ø stanbul.Berna , Cinema Crazed Girl 1923) depictsthe lifeof atraditional and ø stanbulwho tendto be more wishes tobe anactress and 144 Therewere also ( Sinema Delisi K 143 Cinema- many Õ z , CEU eTD Collection to cinema from the time of Sultan visualpleasuressociety had changeditstaste in from these typesofcharacters. audience, Press, 1996, p. 120. p. Press,1996, 145 women, thecultoftruewomanhood.” descriptions of theearly American filmswhich also dramatized “thefate ofthefallen that women saw projected onto the screen. This was reminiscent of Miriam Hansen’s generally feltthat cinema wouldeventually become dangerousdueto the Western mores Miriam Hansen, Miriam Another example,a collection of anecdotes written by Refik Halid, shows how the The Governess Figure 3.4- Hale Cinema-house in Kad Babel and Babylon Spectatorship in American Silent Film Silent in American Spectatorship Babylon Babel and ( Mürebbiye Abdülaziz (r.1861-1876), Sultan Abdülhamid II(r.1876- , Ahmet Fehim, 1919) 145 In the context of the 70 Õ köy. ( Le Courrier du Cinéma Karagöz , to Western drama,to Western , then was agoodexample of , London: Harvard University Harvard London: , ø stanbullian women , 1922) CEU eTD Collection cinema appealedto certainaudiences. realm more theand engagedin pleasures ofcinema. Insum, despitetheongoing turmoil, patriotic concerns. It was at also this time thatwomenmore became inthesocial visible national struggle. Additionally, some oftheseearly films highlight proto-nationalist and through newsreels and fictions. These productions covered thewaras the yearsaswell number ofindividuals begantocasttheir ownrealities andviewpoints onto thebigscreen Conclusion examples mentioned. within the realm of thecountry’s progress and usedpositivist outlooks asfound inthe the spectacles of modern technology.Most of theauthors of the time portrayedcinema waywhich in cinema captured the imagination ofmany and was upheld as an exampleof limitedmilieu ofAnkara atthetime future orhis dream for thenewcapital. continents. Either thiswas anironicway forRefikHalid tocriticize the technologically the high-tech center for cinema with monitors broadcasting the events of five different Hat 147 146 1909) andthemid-1920s respectively. Refik Halid, Refik Halid, Refik Õ rat During theArmistice Period (1918-1923), the state-owned institutions anda Õ , 1918), Refik Halid depicts thenewly emerged nation-state’s capital, Ankara, as Ago Pa Üç Nesil Üç Üç Nesil Hayat ú a'n Õ n Hat Õ rat , ø Õ stanbul: Semih Lütfi Kitabevi, [1943], pp. 34-39, 91-95. pp.34-39, [1943], LütfiKitabevi, Semih stanbul: , ø stanbul: Semih Lütfi Kitabevi, 1939, p. 29. 1939, LütfiKitabevi, Semih stanbul: 146 In 71 The Memoirs ofAgoPa ú a ( 147 Ago Pa Yet, it is the Yet,itis ú a'n Õ n CEU eTD Collection contemporary approaches. Additionally, Chapter Two gavean overview ofthe first film were Chapter examined in Two vis-à-visthe ideas ofthemembers ofthedayand the the linkagesbetweensociety, technology andcinema. of thelate Ottoman era,with afocusonthemodernist framework, helpstounderstand were takingplaceat that time. Anunderstanding ofvarious issuesduringthe lastdecade in cinema inthe a evolutionof and the introductionthat historical perspective. wasbroaderargued It progress. cinemawas understoodvis-à-vis theideology ofmodernization, technology and turmoiland change; what films represented for certain audiences andhow the novelty of the transformations inthesociety ofthe timewere reflected cinemain the during years of to feature-length narratives hasalso beenexplained. The main aimwas toexplorehow importance of the foundation of state-owned film production institutions, from newsreels between forms the Western formsof artandlocal ofarthasbeendiscussed.The screenings, profiled theaudience andthecinema-going experience. The interrelation principally modernization and nationalism. Broadly, it has portrayed the first film ø stanbulduring the late Ottoman erainrelation tothecompeting ideologiesof the time, The interplay between localperformance arts and thenewlyarrived arts Western This thesis hasexaminedthe introduction ofcinema, cinema-going andfilmmaking In ChapterOne, the interrelation ofmodernity andcinemawas examined within ø stanbullian society was connected to the broader transformations that CONCLUSION 72 CEU eTD Collection under turmoil. to theaudiences, as they sought anamusing experience while theimperialcapital was modernity and nationalism. Atthesame time,cinema -thecurtain of dreams -appealed into thesocial changes and ideologies ofthe periodwithin thedistinct framework of historical studyofearlycinema thelate in Ottomanprovidesan important era glimpse representation of cinema the within context of changing tastes and attitudes. Moreover, thechanging profile ofcinema atthis audience time showed the propaganda and highlighted proto-nationalist and patriotic concernsofthe time. that the initialfilms developedduring the Armistice Periodserved for the state- the country’sstate ofwar andtheformationof the earlyRepublic. This chaptersuggested issues on thesescreenings intoday’sfilm history. screenings that took place thePerain district of By and large, thepreliminary assumptions made inthisthesis show that the Chapter Three showed thatthehistory ofearly filmmakingis closely tiedtothat of 73 ø stanbuland introduced the existing CEU eTD Collection 1908 1908 1908 1896 1895 1889 1877 1876 1876 1859 1853 1839 1830 1808 1789 1683 1566 1520 1453 1451 1413 1299 TIMELINE OF RELATED EVENTS OpeningCinemaIstanbul upPathé in Bulgariadeclares independence YoungTurksRevolution First First Y War Russo-Turkish begins(1877–1878) Constitution Ottoman First AbdulhamidII becomesSultan (1876-1909) Dolmabahçe Palacetheatre isbuilt TheCrimeanbegins War Greecegainsindependence Mahmud II becomes Sultan (1808-1839) Ottoman forcebesiegeVienna becomes Selim Sultan (1566-1574) II Suleyman IbecomesSultan(1520-1566) Mehmed II becomes Sultan (1451-1481) Osman IfoundsOttoman Empire (1299-1324) Tanzimat(1839-1871) reformsbegins becomesSultan Selim (1789-1807) III Mehmed IItakes Constantinople; Empireend oftheByzantine MehmedI becomesSultan (1413-1421) Õ ld Õ z Palacetheatre isbuilt cinématographe cinématographe screeningsinIstanbul screeningsinParis 74 CEU eTD Collection 1923 1923 1923 1922 1922 1922 1921 1920 1920 1919 1918 1918 1918 1915 1914 1913 1912 1909 1909 LausannePeaceTreatyissigned Alliedoccupationends ofIstanbul Ottoman Empireisabolished TreatyofSèvres issigned TurkeygivesuptheOttomanEmpire non-Turkishareas andall Istanbul byAllied occupied forcesbegins Mudros of Armistice Central Military OfficeofCinemaisfounded WarIbegins(1914-1918) World EnverPashaleadsthecoup BalkanWars(1912-1913) Mehmedbecomes Sultan V(1909-1918) Mudanya Armistice is signed MudanyaArmistice is Recognition Nationalist Parliament of inAnkara of Independence TurkishWar starts Mehmed becomes VI Sultan(1918-1922) Sultan AbdulhamidII isoverthrownbyCUP Kemal Studioisfounded Film Republic ofTurkeyisestablished 75 CEU eTD Collection A Tragedy at Leander’s Tower (K Horhor the Nutroaster (Leblebici Horhor), Muhsin Ertu The Shirt ofFire (Ate 1923 The Mystery of Bosphorus (Bo A Love Tragedy in Istanbul (Istanbul’da Bir Facia-i A 1922 Bican Efendi’s Dream (Bican Efendi’nin Ruyasi), Bican Efendi the School Master (Bican Efendi Mektep Hocasi), Bican Efendi the Butler (Bican Efendi Vekilharç), 1921 The Satanists ( Festival of Black Tulip (Kara Lale Bayram 1920 Binnaz, Ahmet Fehim Samson (Izd The Governess (Mürebbiye), Ahmet Fehim 1919 The Marriage of Himmet A 1918 The Spy (Casus), Sedat Simavi The Claw (Pençe), Sedat Simavi 1917 FILMOGRAPHY Õ rap), Muhsin Ertu ù eytana Tapanlar), Muhsin Ertu ú ten Gömlek), Muhsin Ertu ÷ a, (Himmet A ÷ ÷ aziçi Esrar rul Õ z Kulesinde Bir Facia), Muhsin Ertu ÷ Õ ), Muhsin Ertu a’nin Izdivac Õ ), Muhsin Ertu ÷ 76 ÷ rul ù ù rul .F. 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