History of ancient roman empire pdf

Continue This article is about the history of Rome in antiquity. For general overview, see for other purposes, see Ancient Rome (disambiguation). Ancient RomeRoma753 BC-476 AD Senate Populus Ke Reman territory of Roman civilization: Roman Republic Roman Empire of the Western Roman Empire of the Eastern Roman Empire Capital, several others during the late Empire, in particular, Constantinople and Ravenna. Republic (509-27 BC) Empire (27 BC-476 BC) Historical EpochReacered history The founding of Rome 753 BC The overthrow of Tarkin Proud 509 BC Octavian proclaimed August 27 BC The collapse of the Western Roman Empire 476 AD part of a series about the politics and government of the unskined Rome Periods of the Roman Kingdom753-509 BC. Roman Republic509-27 BC Roman Empire27 BC 395 Principle to dominate WesternAD 395-476 Eastern Era 395-1453 Timeline of the Roman Constitution Of the Kingdom Constitution of the Empire Constitution Of the Late Empire of the Senate Legislative Assembly Executive Magistrates Precedent and Law of the Roman rights Ius Imperium Mos maiorum Collegiality Auctoritas Roman citizenship Cursus honorum Senatus consultum Senatus consultum ultimum Assemblies Centuriate Curiate Plebeian Tribal Magistrates Consul Praetor Kwaestor Promagistrate Aedile Tribune Censor Governor Extraordinary Magistrate Corre Dictator Magister equitum Consular Tribune Rex Triumviri Decemviri Names and honors of emperor Legatus Dux Officium Praeses Praefectus Vicari Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Ancient Rome Roman civilization from the founding of the Italian city of Rome in the 8th century BC. before the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century of our era, encompassing the Roman kingdom (753 BC,509 BC), the Roman Republic (509 BC) and the Roman Empire (27 BC) before the fall of the Western Empire. Civilization began as an Italian settlement on the Italian peninsula, traditionally dated 753 BC, which grew into the city of Rome and which subsequently gave its name to the empire over which it ruled, and the widespread civilization developed by the empire. Civilization was led and ruled by the Romans, alternately considered an ethnic group or nationality. The Roman Empire expanded to become one of the largest empires in the ancient world, still ruled from a city estimated to have 50 to 90 million inhabitants (approximately 20% of the world's population at the time) and covering 5 million square kilometers (1.9 million square miles) at an altitude of 117 AD. Over the centuries of its existence, the Roman state has evolved from an elected monarchy into a democratic classical republic, and then into a increasingly autocratic semi-factual military dictatorship during the Empire. Through conquests, cultural and linguistic assimilation, at its height it controlled the coasts of North Africa, Egypt, southern Europe and much of Western Europe, the Balkans, Crimea and much of the Middle East, including Anatolia, the Levant and parts of Mesopotamia and Arabia. It is often grouped into classical antiquity along with Ancient Greece, and their similar cultures and societies are known as the Greco-Roman world. Ancient Roman civilization has contributed to modern language, religion, society, technology, law, politics, government, war, art, literature, architecture and engineering. Rome professionalized and expanded its armed forces and created a system of government called res publica, inspiring modern republics such as the United States and France. He achieved impressive technological and architectural feats, such as the construction of an extensive system of aqueducts and roads, as well as the construction of large monuments, palaces and public facilities. Punic wars with Carthage were decisive in the creation of Rome as a world power. In this series of wars, Rome gained control of the strategic islands of Corsica, Sardinia and Sicily; took Hispania (modern Spain and Portugal); and destroyed the city of Carthage in 146 BC, giving Rome supremacy in the Mediterranean. By the end of the Republic (27 BC) Rome had conquered land around the Mediterranean Sea and beyond: its region had spread from the Atlantic to Arabia and from the mouth of the Rhine to North Africa. The Roman Empire emerged with the end of the Republic and the dictatorship of Augustus. The seven hundred and twenty-one years of the Roman-Persian wars began in 92 BC with the first struggle against Parthia. It will be the longest-running conflict in human history and will have serious long-term consequences for both empires. Under Trajan, the Empire reached its territorial peak. It stretched from the entire Mediterranean basin to the beaches of the North Sea in the north, to the shores of the Red and Caspian Seas in the east. Republican nakoi and traditions began to decline in the imperial period, with civil wars becoming a prelude to the rise of the new emperor. The Splinter states, such as the Palmyra Empire, temporarily divided the Empire during the 3rd century crisis before some stability was restored to the Tetrarchy phase of imperial rule. Suffering from internal instability and attacked by various migratory people, the western part of the empire fell into independent barbarian kingdoms in the 5th century. The eastern part of the empire remained a power in the Middle Ages until its fall in 1453 AD. river Tiber in central Italy, the twin brothers Romulus and Remus, who descended from the Trojan Prince Aeneus, and who were the grandchildren of the Latin king Numittor Alba Longa. King Numitorus was overthrown by his brother, Amulia, while Numittor's daughter, Rhe Sylvia, gave birth to twins. Ever since Rhea Sylvia was raped and impregnated with Mars, the Roman god of war, the twins have been considered semi-unseen. According to legend, Rome was founded in 753 BC by Romulus and Remus, who were raised by the wolf Wolf New King, Amulius, feared that Romulus and Remus would forget the throne, so he ordered them to drown. She the wolf (or the shepherd's wife in some accounts) saved and raised them, and when they were old enough, they returned the throne of Alba Longa to Numitora. The twins founded their own city, but Romulus killed Remus in an altercation over the location of the Roman Kingdom, although some sources say the quarrel was about who would rule or give his name to the city. Romulus became the source of the city's name. In order to attract people to the city, Rome has become a sanctuary for the poor, expelled and undesirable. This caused a problem, in that Rome came to have a large male population but was deprived of women. Romulus visited neighboring towns and tribes and tried to secure marriage rights, but since Rome was so full of undesirables, it was denied. Legend has it that the Latins invited the Sabins to the festival and stole their unmarried maidens, which led to the integration of Latins with sabers. Another legend, recorded by the Greek historian Dionysius Galicarnasse, states that Prince Aeneas led a group of Trojans on a sea voyage to find a new Troy, since the original was destroyed at the end of the Trojan War. After a long time in rough seas, they landed on the banks of the Tiber River. Shortly after they landed, the men wanted to go back to sea, but the women who were traveling with them did not want to leave. A woman named Roma suggested that women burn ships at sea to prevent them from leaving. At first, the men were angry with the gypsies, but soon realized that they were in the perfect place to be. They named the settlement after the woman who set fire to their ships. The Roman poet Virgil told this legend in his classic epic poem Aeneid, where the Trojan Prince Aeneil designed the gods to find a new Troy. In the epic, women also refuse to return to the sea, but they are not left on Tiber. Having reached Italy, Aeneus, who wanted to marry Lavinia, was forced to wage war with her former fiance Turnus. According to the poem, the kings of Alban descended from Aeneas, and thus Romulus, the founder of Rome, was his descendant. The main article of the Kingdom: Etruscan painting of the Roman kingdom; dancer and musicians, The Tomb of the Leopards, Italy Rome grew out of settlements around the ford on the Tiber River, a crossroads of traffic and commerce. According to archaeological evidence, the village of Rome was probably founded some time ago in the 8th century BC, although it may return as early as the 10th century BC, members of the Latin tribe of Italy, on the top of the Palatian hill. The Etruscans, who had previously settled in the north in Etruria, seem to have established political control in the region by the end of the 7th century BC, forming an aristocratic and monarchical elite. The Etruscans apparently lost power by the end of the 6th century BC, and at that moment, the original Latin and Sabin tribes reinvented their government, creating a republic with much greater restrictions on the ability of the rulers to exercise power. Roman tradition and archaeological evidence point to the complex within the framework of the Romanum Forum as a place of power for the king and the beginning of a religious center there as well. Numa Pompilius, the second king of Rome, succeeding Romulus, began construction projects in Rome with his royal palace Regia and the virgin complex Vestal. Republic Main article: Roman Republic This bust from the Capitol Museums is traditionally defined as a portrait of Lucius Junius Brutus, Roman Bronze Sculpture, 4th to late 3rd century BC According to tradition, and then writers such as Livi, the Roman Republic was created around 509 BC, when the last of the seven kings of Rome, Tarkin Proud, was overthrown by Lucius Junius based annually on elected magistrates and various representative assemblies was established. The Constitution established a number of checks and balances, as well as the separation of powers. The most important magistrates were the two consuls who together exercised executive power, such as the empire or military command. Consuls had to work with the Senate, which was originally the nobility's advisory board, or patrician, but grew in size and power. Other Magistrates of the Republic include grandstands, quaestors, aediles, praetors and censors. Masters were initially limited to patricians, but were later open to ordinary people, or plebeians. The Republican electoral assemblies included the comitia centuriata (Centuriate Assembly), which voted on issues of war and peace and elected men to the most important positions, and comitia tributa (tribal assembly), which elected less important positions. Italy (as defined by today's borders) in 400 BC In the 4th century BC Rome was under attack by the Gauls, who now expanded their power on the Italian peninsula beyond the Po Valley and through Eturia. On July 16, 390 BC, the Gallic army, led by the chief of the Brennus tribe, met the Romans on the banks of the Alia River, ten miles north of Rome. Brennus wins and the Gauls headed for Rome. Most Romans fled the city, but some barricaded themselves on Capitol Hill for the last stand. The Gauls looted and burned the city, and then besieged Capitol Hill. The siege lasted seven months. The Gauls then agreed to give the Romans peace in exchange for 1,000 pounds (450 kg) of gold. According to a later legend, the Romans watching the weigh-in noticed that the Gauls used false scales. The Romans then took up arms and defeated the Gauls. Their victorious General Camilus remarked: With iron, not gold, Rome buys it freedom. The Romans gradually conquered other peoples of the Italian peninsula, including the Etruscans. The last threat of Roman hegemony in Italy came when Tarentum, a large Greek colony, enlisted the help of Pirra Epir in 281 BC, but those efforts also failed. The Romans secured their conquests by establishing Roman colonies in strategic areas, thus establishing stable control over the region of Italy, which they conquered. Punic Wars Home article: Punic Wars See also: The Roman Conquest of the Iberian Peninsula This section needs additional quotes to check. Please help improve this article by adding quotes to reliable sources. Non-sources of materials can be challenged and removed. (September 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this message pattern) Rome and Carthage ownership of the changes during the Punic Wars of the Carthaginian possessions of the Roman possessions One of the most famous Roman sieges was that of the Celtiber fortress of Numantia now of north-central Spain Scipione Aemilianus in 133 BC. No. 5634), dated mid-1st century BC, 1750-1734 BC Rome faced a new and formidable adversary: Carthage. Carthage was a rich, prosperous Phoenician city-state that intended to dominate the Mediterranean. These two cities were allies during the Time of Pirr, which was a threat to both, but with the hegemony of Rome in mainland Italy and the Carthaginian thalassocracy, these cities became two major powers in the Western Mediterranean, and their differences over the Mediterranean led to conflict. The First Punic War began in 264 BC, when the city of Messana sought the help of Carthage in their conflicts with Hiero II Syracuse. After the Carthaginian intercession, Messana asked Rome to expel the Carthaginians. Rome entered this war because Syracuse and Messana were too close to the newly conquered Greek cities of southern Italy, and Carthage was now able to make an offensive through Roman territory; along with this, Rome can expand its area over Sicily. Although the Romans had experience in land battles, defeating this new enemy naval battles. Carthage was a maritime power, and the Roman lack of ships and naval experience made the road to victory long and difficult for the Roman Republic. Despite this, after more than 20 years of war, Rome defeated Carthage and a peace treaty was signed. One of the reasons for the Second Punic War was the subsequent military reparation of Carthage, with which Carthage agreed at the end of the First Punic War. on the Roman, Marcus Claudius Marcellus, quint Fabius Maxim Verrus and Publius Cornelius Scipione. Rome fought in this war at the same time as the First Macedonian War. The war began with the audacious invasion of Spain by Hannibal, a Carthaginian general who led operations in Sicily during the First Punic War. Hannibal, the son of Hamilkar Barki, quickly passed through Spain into the Italian Alps, causing panic among Rome's Italian allies. The best way to defeat Hannibal's goal of forcing the Italians to leave Rome was to apprehend the Carthaginians with a guerrilla war of attrition, a strategy proposed by the quintet Fabius Maximus, who will be nicknamed Cunctator (delayed in Latin), and whose strategy will be forever after known as Fabian. Because of this, Hannibal's goal was unattainable: he could not bring enough Italian cities to rebel against Rome and replenish his shrinking army, and thus lacked the machines and manpower to circle Rome. However, Hannibal's invasion lasted more than 16 years, ravaging Italy. Finally, when the Romans perceived the depletion of Hannibal's reserves, they sent Scipione, who defeated Hannibal Gasdrubal's brother in present-day Spain, to invade the unprotected Carthaginian hinterlands and force Hannibal to return to protect Carthage himself. The result was the end of the Second Punic War with the famous decisive Battle of zama in October 202 BC, which gave Scipione his agnomic African. At great cost Rome made significant successes: the conquest of Spain by Scipione, and Syracuse, the last Greek kingdom in Sicily, Marcellus. More than half a century after these events, Carthage was humiliated, and Rome was no longer worried about the African threat. Currently, the focus of the republic is only the Hellenistic kingdoms of Greece and the uprisings in Spain. However, Carthage, having paid for military reparations, felt that its obligations and subordination to Rome ceased, the vision is not shared by the Roman senate. When Numidiya invaded Carthage in 151 BC, Carthage asked for Roman intercession. The ambassadors were sent to Carthage, among them was Marcus Porcius Kato, who, seeing that Carthage could make a comeback and restore its significance, ended all his speeches, no matter what the subject was, saying: Ceterum censeo Carthaginem esse delendam (Also, I think that Carthage should be When Carthage fought Numidi without the consent of Rome, the Third Punic War began when Rome declared war on Carthage in 149 BC. Carthage resisted well at the first blow, involving all the inhabitants of the city. However, Carthage could not withstand the attack of Scipione Aillian, who completely destroyed the city and its walls, enslaved and sold all citizens and gained control of the region, which became a province of Africa. This is how the Punic War ended. All these wars led to the first overseas conquests of Rome (Sicily, Spain and Africa) and the rise of Rome as a significant imperial power and began the end of democracy. The Late Republic After defeating the Macedonian and Selevkid Empires in the 2nd century BC, the Romans became the dominant people of the Mediterranean Sea. The conquest of hellenistic kingdoms led to closer contact between Roman and Greek cultures, and the Roman elite, once rural, became luxurious and cosmopolitan. At this time Rome was a consolidated empire, from a military point of view, and had no serious enemies. Gaius Marius, a Roman general and politician who radically reformed Roman militaryforeign domination, led to internal strife. Senators got rich at the expense of the provinces; soldiers, who were mostly small farmers, had been away from home longer and could not maintain their land; and increased dependence on foreign slaves and the growth of Latifundia have reduced the availability of paid work. Revenues from military mining, mercantilism in the new provinces and tax farming created new economic opportunities for the rich, forming a new class of merchants called horses. Lex Claudia forbade members of the Senate to engage in trade, so although the cavalry could theoretically enter the Senate, they were strictly limited in political power. The Senate constantly quarreled, repeatedly blocked important land reforms and refused to give the equestrian class a greater say in government. Violent gangs of urban unemployed, controlled by rival senators, intimidated the electorate through violence. The situation came to a head in the late 2nd century BC under the Gracchi brothers, a pair of grandstands that tried to pass land reform legislation that would redistribute major patrician land parcels among plebeians. Both brothers were killed, and the Senate passed reforms aimed at reversing Brother Grasci's actions. This has led to a growing split of plebeian groups (people's) and equestrian classes (optimats). Marius and Sullah Gaius Marius, a Newus-homo who began their political careers with the help of the powerful Metelli family, soon became the leader of the Republic, holding the first of seven of their consulates (unprecedented number) in 107 BC, claiming that his former patron, quint Caecilius Metellus Numidicus unable to defeat and capture the Numid king Jugurtha. Then Marius began his military reform: in his recruitment to fight Jugurt, he charged the poorest (innovations), and many landless people joined the army; it was the seed of ensuring the army's loyalty to the general in the team. Lucius Cornelius Sullah was born into a poor family that was once a patrician family. He had a good education, but became poor when his father died and left none of his will. Sullah joined the theatre and found many friends there before becoming a general in the Jugurtin War. At this time, Marius began his quarrel with Sallla: Marius, who wanted to capture Jugurt, asked Bokhus, Jugurta's son-in-law, to hand him over. When Marius failed, Sullah, General Marius at the time, in a dangerous enterprise, went to Bokhus and persuaded Bokhus to hand him over to Jugurt. This was very provocative towards Marius, as many of his enemies encouraged Sulla to confront Marius. Despite this, Marius was elected to five successive consulates from 104 to 100 BC, as Rome needed a military leader to defeat the Chimbres and the Teutons, who threatened Rome. Lucius Cornelius Sullah After the resignation of Marius, Rome had a short peace, during which the Italian socii (allies in Latin) requested Roman citizenship and voting rights. Reformist Marcus Livius Druzus supported their trial, but was killed, and the Sosses rebelled against the Romans in a social war. At one point, both consuls were killed; Marius was appointed to command the army along with Lucius Julius Caesar and Sulla. By the end of the social war, Marius and Sullah were prime ministers in Rome, and their guerrillas were in conflict, both sides were talking for power. In 88 BC, Sullah was elected to his first consulate, and his first assignment was the defeat of Mithridate VI Pontus, whose intentions were to conquer the eastern part of the Roman territories. However, Marius's guerrillas ruled him on the military command, challenging Soulla and the Senate, and this angered Sulla. To consolidate his power, Sullah carried out an amazing and illegal action: he went to Rome with his legions, killing all those who supported the cause of Marius, and piercing their heads at the Roman Forum. The following year, 87 BC, Marius, who had fled during the Sulla march, returned to Rome while Sullah was campaigning in Greece. He seized power with Consul Lucius Cornelius Sinna and killed another consul, Gnais Octavius, reaching his seventh consul. Trying to raise the wrath of Sulla, Marius and Sinna avenged their guerrillas, honoring them with violence. Marius died in 86 BC due to his age and ill health, just a few months after the seizure of power. Sinna exercised absolute power until his death in 84 BC. campaign, was a free way to regain his own power. In 83 BC he made his second march in Rome and began a time of terror: thousands of nobles, knights and senators were executed. Sulla also held two dictatorships and another consulate, which began the crisis and decline of the Roman Republic. Caesar and the First Triumvirate This section needs additional quotes to check. Please help improve this article by adding quotes to reliable sources. Non-sources of materials can be challenged and removed. (September 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this message pattern) Landing the Romans in Kent, 55 BC: Caesar with 100 ships and two legions made against landing, probably near the deal. After pushing a little inland against fierce opposition and losing ships in a storm, he retired back across the English Channel to Gaul from what was exploration in force, only to return next year for a more serious invasion. In the middle of the 1st century BC, Roman politics was turbulent. Political differences in Rome were identified with two groups, popular (who hoped for the support of the people) and the best (the best who wanted to maintain exceptional aristocratic control). Sulla promises all populist leaders, and his constitutional reforms removed powers (such as plebs) that supported populist approaches. At the same time, social and economic difficulties continued; Rome has become a metropolis with a super-rich aristocracy, debt-ridden contenders and a large proletariat of often poor farmers. The latter groups supported the Catilin conspiracy, a resounding failure, as consul Marcus Tullia Cicero quickly arrested and executed the main leaders of the plot. On this turbulent scene came Gaius Julius Caesar, from an aristocratic family with limited wealth. His aunt Julia was Marius's wife, and Caesar identified with the pops. To achieve power, Caesar reconciled two of the most powerful men in Rome: Marcus Lisinius Crassus, who financed most of his previous career, and Crassus's rival, Gnais Pompey Magnus (cornered as Pompey), with whom he married his daughter. He formed them into a new informal union, including himself, the First Triumvirate (three people). This suited the interests of all three: Crassus, the richest man in Rome, became richer and eventually achieved a high military command; Pompey had a greater influence in the Senate; and Caesar received a consulate and military command in Gaul. As long as they could agree, all three were actually rulers of Rome. In 54 BC, Caesar's daughter, Pompey's wife, died in childbirth, unraveling one link in the union. In 53 BC, Crassus invaded Parthia and was killed at the Battle of Carrhe. The triumvirate disintegrated after Crassus' death. Crassus acted as an intermediary between Caesar and Pompey, him, two generals maneuvered against each other for power. Caesar conquered Gaul, gaining immense wealth, respect in Rome and loyalty to the battle-hardened legions. He also became a clear threat to Pompey and hated many optimatists. Convinced that Caesar could be stopped by legal means, Pompey's party tried to deprive Caesar of his legions, a prelude to caesar's trial, impoverishment and exile. To avoid this fate, Caesar crossed the Rubicon River and invaded Rome in 49 BC Pompeii and his party fled from Italy, persecuted by Caesar. The Battle of Farsal was a brilliant victory for Caesar, and in this and other campaigns he destroyed all the leaders of the opticians: Methell Scipione, Kato the Younger and Pompey's son, Gnais Pompey. Pompey was assassinated in Egypt in 48 BC Caesar was now outstanding over Rome, attracting bitter hostility from many aristocrats. He has been awarded many positions and honors. In just five years, he held four consultations, two conventional dictatorships and two special dictatorships: one for ten years and the other for ten years. He was killed in 44 BC, on the March Ides of the Liberators. Octavian and the Second Triumvirate of the Battle of Aktum, by Laureys Castro, written in 1672, National Maritime Museum, the assassination of The King's Caesar caused political and social upheaval in Rome; without the dictator's leadership, the city was run by his friend and colleague Marcus Antony. Soon after, Octavia, whom Caesar accepted by his will, arrived in Rome. Octavian (historians consider Octavius Octavian because of the Roman naming conventions) tried to join Caesar's faction. In 43 BC, together with Antony and Marcus Avilius Lepid, Caesar's best friend, he legally founded the Second Triumvirate. This union will last for five years. Since its formation, 130 to 300 senators have been executed and their property confiscated because of their alleged support for the Liberators. In 42 BC, the Senate inspired Caesar as Divus Julius; Octavian thus became Filius Divi, son deified. In the same year, Octavian and Antony defeated Caesar's killers and the leaders of the Liberators, Marcus Junius Brutus and Gaius Cassius Longin, at the Battle of Philippi. The second triumvirate was marked by the prohibitions of many senators and equity: after the uprising led by Antony's brother Lucius Antony, more than 300 senators and equity participated were executed on the anniversary of the March ids, although Lucius was spared. The Triumvirate banned several important people, including Cicero, whom Antony hated; Tully Cicero, the younger brother of the speaker; and Lucius Julius Caesar, a cousin and friend of the famous general, for his support of Cicero. However, Lucius was pardoned, perhaps because his sister Julia intervened in his case. Triumvirate Empire among the triumvir: Lepid was given a charge of Africa, Antony, eastern provinces, and Octavian remained in Italy and controlled Spain and Gaul. The second triumvirate expired in 38 BC, but was extended for another five years. However, relations between Octavian and Antony deteriorated, and Lepid was forced to resign in 36 BC after the betrayal of Octavian in Sicily. By the end of the Triumvirate Antony lived in Ptolemy Egypt, an independent and rich kingdom ruled by Antony's lover, Cleopatra VII. In addition, Antony adopted a lifestyle considered too extravagant and Hellenistic for a Roman statesman. After the donations of Antony Alexandria, which gave Cleopatra the title of King's King, and the children of Antony and Cleopatra regal titles of the newly conquered eastern territories, the war between Octavian and Antony began. Octavian destroyed Egyptian troops at the Battle of Aktum in 31 BC, And Antony and Cleopatra committed suicide. Now Egypt was conquered by the Roman Empire, and a new era began for the Romans. Empire - Main article: The Roman Empire In 27 BC and at the age of 36, Octavian was the only Roman leader. That same year he took the name August. This event is usually accepted by historians as the beginning of the Roman Empire, although Rome was an imperial state from 146 BC, when Carthage was destroyed by Scipione Alian, and Greece was conquered by Lucius Mummius. Officially, the government was republican, but August took absolute powers. His reform of government led to a two-century period colloquially referred to by the Romans Pax Romana. The Julio-Claudian dynasty of the Julio-Claudian dynasty was created by Augustus. The emperors of this dynasty were: Augustus, Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius and Nero. The dynasty is so called because of the genus Julia, the Family of Augustus, and the genus Claudius, the family of Tiberius. Julio-Claudians began to destroy republican values, but on the other hand, they elevated the status of Rome as the central power in the world. While Caligula and Nero are usually remembered as dysfunctional emperors in popular culture, Augusta and Claudius are remembered as emperors who were successful in politics and the army. This dynasty introduced imperial tradition in Rome and thwarted any attempt to restore the Republic. August August August of Prima Porta, 1st century AD, depicting Augustus, the first Roman emperor Augustus collected almost all the republican powers under his official name, princes: he had the powers of consul, Prince of Thelatus, Oedil, censor and tribune, including tribune holiness. This was the basis of the emperor's power. August is also stylized under Emperor Gaus Caesar Divi Filius, Commander Gaius Julius Caesar, son of the mischievous. With this title he not only boasted of his family connection to Julius Caesar's blankets, but the use of the emperor meant a constant connection with the Roman tradition of victory. He also reduced the influence of the senatorial class in politics by boosting the equestrian class. Senators have lost the right to rule some provinces, such as Egypt; because the governor of this province was directly appointed emperor. The establishment of the Praetorian Guard and its military reforms, the creation of a permanent army with a fixed size of 28 legions, gave him full control over the army. Compared to the era of the Second Triumvirate, the reign of Augustus as princes was very peaceful. This peace and wealth (which were granted by the agrarian province of Egypt) led to the fact that the people and nobles of Rome supported Augustus, increasing his power in political affairs. In military activities August was absent from combat. His generals were in charge of field command; get commanders such as Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, Nero Claudius Drus and Germanicus great respect from the population and legions. August intended to extend the Roman Empire to the known world, and during his reign Rome conquered Cantabria, Aquitaine, Raethea, Dalmatia, Illyrikum and Pannonia. During the reign of Augustus, Roman literature grew steadily in the so-famous Golden Age of Latin literature. Poets such as Virgil, Horace, Ovid and Rufus developed rich literature and were close friends of Augustus. Along with Maecenas, he stimulated patriotic poems like Virgil's epic Aeneid, as well as hisstoriographical works like that of Livi. The works of this literary age lasted in Roman times and are classics. August also continued to shift in the calendar promoted by Caesar, and the Month of August is named after him. August brought to Rome a peaceful and prosperous era known as Pax Augustus or Pax Roman. August died in 14 AD, but the glory of the empire continued after its era. From Tiberius to Nero Bustier of the Roman Empire on Aug. The yellow legend shows the scale of the Republic in 31 BC, shades of green represent the gradually conquered territories during the reign of Augustus, and the pink areas on the map represent the client states; areas where Roman control was shown were subject to change even during August's reign, especially in Germany. The Julio-Claudians continued to rule Rome after Augustus's death and remained in power until Nero's death in 68 AD. , Livia Drusilla, August appointed her son from another marriage, Tiberius, as his heir. [72] The Senate agreed with the succession, and granted Tiberius the same titles and honors once granted to Augustus: the title of princely and paternal patria, and the Civil Crown. However, Tiberius was not an enthusiast of political affairs: after an agreement with the Senate, he retired to Capri in 26 AD and left control of the city of Rome in the hands of prefect Prefect Sedjanus (until 31 AD) and Macro (from 31 to 37 AD). Tiberius was considered an evil and melancholic man, who may have ordered the murder of his relatives, the popular General Germanic in 19 AD, and his own son, Drusus Julius Caesar, died (or was killed) in 37 AD. As a child of Jemellus, Caligula was elected to rule the Empire. He was a popular leader in the first half of his reign, but became a rude and mad tyrant in his years, controlling the government. Suetonius claims that he performed incest with his sisters, killed some men just for entertainment and assigned a horse to the consulate. The Pretorian Guard killed Caligula four years after Tiberius' death and, with the belated support of the senators, proclaimed her uncle Claudius the new emperor. Claudius was not as authoritarian as Tiberius and Caligula. Claudius conquered Liceia and Thrace; his most important work was the beginning of the conquest of Britain. Claudius was poisoned by his wife Agrippina the Younger in 54 AD His heir was Nero, the son of Agrippina and her ex-husband, as Claudia's son Britannik did not achieve masculinity after the death of his father. Nero sent his general, Suetonia Paulina, to invade modern Wales, where he faced stiff resistance. The Celts in modern Wales were independent, rigid and resistant to tax collectors and fought Paulinus when he fought against East to West. It took him a long time to reach the northwest coast and in 60 AD, he finally crossed the Menai Strait to the sacred island of Mona (present-day Anglesey), the last stronghold of the Druids. Its soldiers attacked the island and killed druids, men, women and children, destroyed the shrine and sacred groves and threw many sacred standing stones into the sea. While Paulinus and his troops mass-scattered the Druids in Mona, the tribes of modern East Anglia staged a revolt led by the queen Ofadiceia Iceni. The rebels looted and burned Kamulodunum, Londinium and Verulamy (modern Colchester, London and St Albans respectively) before they were crushed by Paulinus. Boadicea, like Cleopatra before her, committed suicide to avoid the shame of the parade in Rome. Nero's guilt in this rebellion is debatable, but there was influence (both positive and negative) on the prestige of his regime. Nero is widely known as the first persecutor of Christians and the Great Fire of Rome is rumored to have been started by the emperor himself. In 59 AD he killed his mother, and in 62 AD he killed his wife Claudia Octavia. Never very stable, he allowed his advisers to run the government until he slipped into debauchery, excess and madness. He was married three times, had numerous dealings with both men and women, and, according to some rumors, even his mother. The conspiracy against Nero in 65 AD at Calpurnius Piso failed, but in 68 AD the armies led by Julius Videks in Gaul and Servius Sulpiz Galba in modern Spain rebelled. After deserting the Praetorian Guard and sentenced to death by the Senate, Nero committed suicide. The Flauan dynasty of Bust Vespasian, the founder of the Flavian Flavian dynasty, was the second dynasty ruled by Rome. By 68 AD, the year of Nero's death, there was no chance of returning to the old and traditional Roman Republic, so the new emperor had to rise. After the upheavals of the year of the four emperors, Titus Flavius Vespasian (angled as Vespasian) took control of the Empire and created a new dynasty. Under the Flaviy, Rome continued its expansion, and the state remained safe. The most significant military campaign undertaken during the Flavian period was the siege and destruction of Jerusalem in 70 years by Titus. The destruction of the city was the culmination of a Roman campaign in Judea after the Jewish uprising of 66. The second temple was completely destroyed, after which titus soldiers proclaimed him emperor in honor of the victory. Jerusalem was looted and most of the population was killed or dispersed. Joseph claims that 1,100,000 people, most of them Jews, were killed during the siege. 97,000 people were captured and enslaved, including Simon Bar Giora and John From Giscala. Many fled to areas around the Mediterranean. Titus reportedly refused to accept the victory wreath because there is no point in defeating people forgotten by their own God. Vespasian Vespasian was a general under Claudia and Nero. Together with his son Titus, he fought as a commander in the First Jewish-Roman War. After the upheavals of the Year of the Four Emperors, in 69 AD, the four emperors were on the throne: Galba, Otho, Vitelli and, finally, Vespasian, who defeated the troops of Vitellius and became emperor. He reconstructed many buildings that were unfinished, like the statue of Apollo and the temple of Divus Claudius (the bereaved Claudius), both initiated by Nero. Buildings once destroyed by rome's Great Fire have been restored and it has revitalized the Capitol. Vespasian also began construction of the Flavian Amphitheatre, better known as the Colosseum. Historians Joseph and Pliny the Elder their work during vespasian's reign. Vespasian was Joseph's sponsor, and Pliny dedicated his Naturalism Story to Titus, the son of Vespasian. Vespasian sent legions to protect the eastern border in Cappadocia, extended the occupation in Britain (modern England, Wales and southern Scotland) and reformed the tax system. He died in 79 AD Titus and Domitian Titus had a short reign; he was emperor from 79 to 81 AD. He completed the Flavius amphitheater, built with war trophies from the First Jewish-Roman War, and promoted games dedicated to the victory over the Jews, which lasted a hundred days. These games included gladiatorial fights, chariot races and a sensationally mocking sea battle on the flooded lands of the Colosseum. Titus died of fever in 81 AD, and his brother Domitian was his successor. As emperor, Domitian took over the totalitarian traits, thought he might be the new Augustus, and tried to make a personal cult of himself. Domitian ruled for fifteen years, and his reign was marked by his attempts to compare himself to the gods. He built at least two temples in honor of Jupiter, the highest deity in the Roman religion. He also liked to be called Dominus et Deus (Master and God). The Nerva-Antonin dynasty of the Roman Empire reached its greatest scale under Trajan in 117 AD the Nerva-Antonin Dynasty from 96 AD to 192 AD was the rule of the emperors Nerva, Trajan, Adrian, Antonina Pius, Marcus Aurelius, Lucius Verus and Kommod. During its reign, Rome reached its territorial and economic climax. It was a time of peace for Rome. The criteria for choosing an emperor were the qualities of a candidate and no longer related ties; moreover, there were no civil wars or military defeats during that period. After Domitian's assassination, the Senate quickly appointed Nerva to uphold imperial dignity. This was the first time that senators had chosen an emperor since Octavian was awarded the titles of Princes and Augustus. Nerva had a noble origin, and he served as a counselor to Nero and the Flavians. His reign restored many of the freedoms once taken by Domitian and the beginning of Rome's last golden era. Trajan Judge Trajan (fragment) Eugene Delacroix Nerve died in 98 AD, and his successor and heir was General Trayan. Trajan was born into a non-patian family from Spain Baetica (modern Andalusia) and his place appeared in the army, under the Domitian. He is the second of five good emperors, the first of which is Nerve. Trajan was greeted by the people of Rome with enthusiasm, which he justified by managing well and without the bloodshed that marked the reign of Domitian. He released many people who had been unjustly imprisoned by Domitian and returned private property confiscated by Domitian; process started by Nerve before death. Traian Dacia (approximately modern Romania and Moldova) and defeated King Dehebalous, who defeated the forces of Domitian. In the First Dacian War (101-102), the defeated Dacia became a client kingdom; during the Second Dacian War (105-106), Trajan completely devastated the enemy's resistance and annexed Dacia to the Empire. Trajan also annexed the client state of Nabatea to form the province of Arabia Petrae, which included land in southern Syria and northwestern Arabia. He has built many buildings that live to this day, such as the Trajan Forum, trajan Market and Trajan's Column. Its chief architect was the Apollodor of Damascus; Apollodor did the Forum and Columns project, and reformed the Pantheon. Trajan's Arc de Triomphe in Ancona and Beneventum are other projects he has designed. During the Second Daky War, Apollondor made a large bridge over the Danube for Trajan. Trajan's last war was against Parthia. When Parthia appointed the King of Armenia unacceptable for Rome (Partia and Rome shared domination over Armenia), he declared war. He probably wanted to be the first Roman leader to conquer Parthia, and repeat the glory of Alexander the Great, the conqueror of Asia, whom Trajan next followed in a clash of Greco-Roman and Persian culture. In 113 he went to Armenia and overthrew the local king. In 115, Trajan became the nucleus of Parthian hegemony, took the northern Mesopotamian cities of Nisibi and Batne, organized the province of Mesopotamia (116) and issued coins declaring that Armenia and Mesopotamia were under the rule of the Roman people. In the same year he captured Selevesia and the capital Parthian Ktesifon (near present-day Baghdad). After defeating the Parthian uprising and the Jewish uprising, he left due to health problems. In 117, his illness grew and he died of swelling. He appointed Adrian as his heir. Under Trajan's leadership, the Roman Empire reached the peak of its territorial expansion; The dominion of Rome now covers 5.0 million square kilometers (1.9 million square miles). From Hadrian to Commodus Map showing the location of hadrian's wall and the Wall of Antonin in Scotland and Northern England, many Romans emigrated to Spain (modern Spain and Portugal) and remained for generations, in some cases in vents with Iberians; one of these families produced Emperor Hadrian. Adrian withdrew all troops stationed in Parthia, Armenia and Mesopotamia (present-day Iraq), abandoning Trajan's conquests. Hadrian's army defeated the rebellion in Mauritania and the Bar Kohba uprising in Judea. It was the last large-scale Jewish uprising against the Romans and was destroyed with massive consequences in Judea. Hundreds of thousands of Jews were killed. Адриан переименовал провинцию Иудея Провинсия Сирия Палаестина, в честь одного из самых ненавистных Иудеи He built fortifications and walls like Hadrian's famous wall between Roman Britain and the barbarians of modern Scotland. A well-known filellenist, Adrian promoted culture, especially Greek. It also banned torture and humanized laws. Adrian built many aqueducts, baths, libraries and theaters; in addition, he traveled to almost every province of the Empire to check military and infrastructure conditions. After Adrian's death in 138 AD, his successor Antonin Pius built temples, theatres and mausoleums, promoted art and sciences, and bestowed honors and financial awards on teachers of rhetoric and philosophy. Antonin made a few initial changes when he became emperor, leaving untouched as far as possible the arrangements made by Hadrian. The Antonin expanded Roman Britain, invading what is now southern Scotland and the construction of the Antonina Wall. He also continued Adrian's policy of humanizing laws. He died in 161 AD. The Pantheon, Rome, built during the reign of Hadrian, which still contains the largest irresistible concrete dome in the world, Marcus Aurelius, known as the Philosopher, was the last of the five good emperors. He was a stoic philosopher and wrote Meditation. He defeated the barbarian tribes in the Marcoman Wars as well as the Parthian Empire. His co-emperor Lucius Verus died in 169 AD, probably the victim of the Antonian plague, a pandemic that killed nearly five million people through the Empire in 165-180 AD. The powerful influence of laws and manners gradually strengthened the union of provinces. All citizens enjoyed and abused the benefits of wealth. The image of a free constitution has been preserved with decent reverence. The Roman Senate appears to wield sovereign power, and all executive powers of the government have been transferred to the emperors. The Reign of the Five Good Emperors is considered the golden era of the Empire. Commodus, the son of Marcus Aurelius, became emperor after the death of his father. He is not considered one of the five good emperors. First, it was due to his direct kinship with the last emperor; moreover, he was passive compared to his predecessors, who often personally led their armies. Kommod usually took part in gladiatorial battles, which often symbolized cruelty and roughness. He killed many citizens, and his rule was the beginning of Roman decadence, as stated by Cassius Dio: (Rome has turned) from a golden kingdom into a kingdom of iron and rust. The Severan Commodus dynasty was killed by a conspiracy involving quinta Amilia Laetus and his wife Marcia at the end of 192 AD. The following year is known as the Year of the Five Emperors, during which Helvius Pertinax, Didius The sands of Niger, Claudius Albinus and Septimius Severus held imperial dignity. Pertinax, a member of the Senate who was one of Marcus Aurelius's right-hand men, was the choice of Laetus, and he ruled vigorously and sensibly. Laetus soon became jealous and provoked the murder of pertinax by the Pretorian Guard, who then auctioned the empire at the highest price, Didius Julianus, for 25,000 sisters per person. Legions of three border provinces - Britain, Pannonia and Syria - resented being expelled from the donated provinces, and in response declared their individual generals emperor. Lucius Septimius Severus Gotha, a pannonian general, bribed the opposing forces, pardoned the Praetorian Guard and established himself as emperor. He and his successors were governed by the support of the legions. Changes in coins and military expenditures were at the root of the financial crisis that marked the crisis of the third century. Septimius Severus Severan Tondo, c. 199, Severus, Julia Domna, Caracalla and Gota, whose face erased Severus was on the throne after the invasion of Rome and after Didius Julian was killed. Two of his other rivals, Peschennius Niger and Claudius Albinus, were recognized by other factions as emperor. Severus quickly conquered Niger in Byzantia and promised Albinus the title of Caesar (which meant he would be co-emperor). However, Severus betrayed Albinus, accusing him of plotting against his life. Severus went to Gaul and defeated Albinus. For these actions, Machiavelli said that Severus was a ferocious lion and a smart fox (Severus), tried to revive totalitarianism, and in addressing the people and the Senate, he praised the gravity and cruelty of Marius and Sulla, who worried senators. When Parthia invaded Roman territory, Severus waged war against that country. He captured the cities of Nisibis, Babylon and Celesia. Reaching Ktesifon, the capital of Parfian, he ordered the looting, and his army killed and captured many people. Despite this military success, it failed in the invasion of Hatra, a wealthy Arab city. Severus killed his legate, as the latter wins the respect of the legions; and his soldiers were starved to death. After this disastrous campaign, he retired. Severus also intended to defeat the whole of Britain. To do this, he waged war against the Caledonians. After numerous losses in the army due to the terrain and ambushes of the barbarians, Severus went himself to the battlefield. However, he fell ill and died in 211 AD, at the age of 65. From Karakalla to the Bust of Alexander Severus Karakalla of the Pergamon Museum, Berlin After severos' death, his sons Karakalla and Geta became emperors. In their youth, their squabbles divided Rome into two factions. In the same year his brother, a young man, was killed in his mother's arms and may have killed 20,000 Goeth followers. Like his father, Caracalla was belligerent. He continued Severus's policies and won the respect of the legions. Caracalla was a violent man, and was prosecuted for the murder of his brother. He ordered the deaths of people in his circle, as did his mentor, Chilo, and his father's friend, Papinean. Knowing that the people of Alexandria did not like him and spoke ill of his character, he served as a banquet for his notable citizens, after which his soldiers killed all the guests. Out of the safety of the Sarapis Temple, he then presided over the disciplinary carnage of the people of Alexandria. In 212, he issued a Decree of Caracalla to grant full Roman citizenship to all free people living in the Empire, and at the same time raised the inheritance tax levied only on Roman citizens to ten percent. The message that the soothsayer had predicted that Prefect Pretorian Macrin and his son were to rule the empire was dutifully sent to Caracalla. But the report fell into the hands of McRinus, who felt he had to act or die. Macrin conspired to kill Karakalla by one of his soldiers during a pilgrimage to the Moon Temple in Karrhe in 217 AD. Incompetent Macrin, came to power, but soon retired from Rome to the east and Antioch. His brief reign ended in 218, when the young Bassian, the high priest of the Temple of the Sun in Emes and the allegedly illegitimate son of Caracalla, was declared emperor by disgruntled soldiers of Macrinus. The bribes received Bassian's support from the Legionnaires, and they fought against Makrinus and his Praetorian Guard. He adopted the name Antonin, but history named it after its sun god Elagabalus, represented on Earth in the form of a large black stone. Elagabalus was an incompetent and lascivious ruler who was well known for the extreme extravagance that offended all but his favorites. Cassius Dio, Herodian and The Story of Augusta have many accounts about his extravagance. He adopted his cousin, Alexander Severus, as Caesar, envied and tried to kill him. A Pretorian guard preferred Alexander, killed Elagabalus, dragged his mutilated corpse through the streets of Rome and threw it into the Tiber. His successor was his cousin Alexander Severus. Alexander waged war against many enemies, such as the reborn Persia and the German peoples who invaded Gaul. His losses made soldiers dissatisfied with the emperor, and some of them killed him during his German campaign, in 235 AD Crisis of the third century Main article: The crisis of the third century The Roman Empire suffered internal divisions, forming the Palmyra Empire and the Gallic Empire a catastrophic scenario arose after the death of Alexander Severus: The Roman state civil wars, external invasions, political chaos, pandemics and economic depression. The old Roman values fell, and Mithrovism and Christianity began to spread to the population. The emperors were no longer people associated with the nobility; they were usually born in the lower classes of distant parts of the Empire. These people rose to prominence through military ranks, and became emperors through civil wars. Over a 49-year period there were 26 emperors, which indicates political instability. Maximinus Trucks was the first ruler of the time to rule for only three years. Others ruled for just a few months, like Gordian I, Gordian II, Balbin and Hostilian. The population and borders were abandoned, as the emperors were mainly concerned about victory over rivals and the establishment of their power. The economy has also suffered in this era. The massive military expenditures of the North caused the devaluation of The Roman coins. Hyperinflation also came at this time. The Cyprian plague broke out in 250 and killed a huge part of the population. In 260 AD, the provinces of Syria Palaetina, Little Asia and Egypt separated from the rest of the Roman state to form Palmyra, ruled by the queen of zenobia and focused on Palmyra. In the same year, the Gallic Empire was created by Postumus, preserving Britain and Gaul. These countries separated from Rome after the capture of Emperor Valerian Sasanid of Persia, the first Roman ruler captured by his enemies; it was a humiliating fact for the Romans. The crisis began to recede during the reign of Claudius Gothic (268-270), who defeated the Gothic invaders, and Aurelian (271-275), who conquered the Gallic and Palmyra empires. The crisis was overcome during the reign of Diofletian. Empire - Tetrarchy Main article: Roman Empire Diofletian Roman Follis profile of Diofletian In 284 AD, Diofletian was proclaimed emperor of the Eastern Army. Diocletian healed the empire from crisis, political and economic shifts. A new form of government was created: Tetrarchi. The empire was divided between four emperors, two in the West and two in the East. The first tetranians were Diocletian (in the East), Maximian (in the West) and two younger emperors, Galerius (in the East) and Flavius Constance (in the West). To adjust the economy, Diokletian made several tax reforms. The Diofletian expelled the Persians, who plundered Syria and conquered several barbaric tribes with Maximian. It took a lot of the behavior of the eastern monarchs, like wearing pearls and gold sandals and clothes. Anyone in the presence of the emperor now had to prostrate himself - a common act in the East, but never practiced in Rome before. Diofletian did not use the disguised form of the Republic, as other emperors have done since August. [132] 290 and 330, half a dozen new capitals were created by members of Tetrarchy, officially or not: Antioch, Nicomedia, Thessaloniki, Sirmium, Milan, and Trier. Diofletian was also responsible for significant Christian persecution. In 303, he and Galerius began persecution and ordered the destruction of all Christian churches and scripts and banned Christian worship. Diocletian abdicated in 305 AD with Maximian, thus becoming the first Roman emperor to retire. His reign put an end to the traditional form of imperial rule, the principle (from the princes) and marked the beginning of the Tetrarhi. Aul Palatine Trier, Germany (then part of the Roman province of Gallia Besco), a Christian basilica built during the reign of Constantine I (b. 306-337 AD) of Constantine and The Christianity of Constantine, adopted the Empire as a tetranch in 306. He waged many wars against other tetranchers. First, he defeated Maxentius in 312. In 313, he issued a Milan decree that gave Christians the freedom to practice their religion. Constantine was converted to Christianity, with respect for the Christian faith. He began the Christianization of the Empire and Europe, a process completed by the Catholic Church in the Middle Ages. He was defeated by the Franks and Alamanni for 306-308. In 324, he defeated another tetrak, Lixinia, and controlled the entire empire, as it was before Diocellian. To celebrate his victories and the relevance of Christianity, he rebuilt Byzantia and renamed it New Rome (New Rome); but soon the city was informally named Constantinople (City of Constantine). The reign of Julian, who, under the influence of his adviser Mardonia, tried to restore the classical Roman and Hellenistic religion, only briefly interrupted the succession of Christian emperors. Constantinople served as the new capital of the empire. In fact, Rome lost its central importance after the crisis of the third century-Mediolanum was the western capital from 286 to 330, before the reign of Honorius, when Ravenna was made capital, in the 5th century. The administrative and monetary reforms of Constantine, reuniting the empire under one emperor and rebuilt the city of Byzanti, changed the high period of the ancient world. The Fall of the Western Roman Empire Home article: The Fall of the Western Roman Empire In the late 4th and 5th centuries, the Western Empire entered a critical stage that ended with the fall of the Western Roman Empire. Under the last emperors of the Constantine dynasty and the Valentine dynasty, Rome lost decisive battles against the Sasan Empire and the German barbarians: in 363, Emperor Julian the Apostate was killed at the Battle of Samarra, against the Persians, and the Battle of Adrianopla cost the life of Emperor Wales (364-378); the victorious goths have never been banished from The Empire did not assimilate. The next emperor, Theodosius I (379-395), gave even more strength to the Christian faith, and after his death the Empire was divided into the Eastern Roman Empire, which was ruled by the Arkady and the Western Roman Empire under the command of Honorius, the sons of Theodosia. (quote necessary) End of incursions into the Roman Empire between 100-500 AD Westgoths enter Athens. A bag of Rome barbarians in 410 by Joseph-Noel Sylvester. The situation became more critical in 408, following the death of Stylycho, a general who tried to reunite the Empire and repel the barbaric invasion of the early 5th century. The professional field army collapsed. In 410, the Feodosian dynasty saw how the Visigoths plundered Rome. During the 5th century, the Western Empire experienced a significant reduction in its territory. Vandals conquered North Africa, the Westgoth claimed that the southern part of Gallecia was taken by The Soube, Britain was abandoned by the central government, and the Empire was further affected by the invasions of Attila, the leader of the Huns. General Oreste refused to comply with the demands of the barbaric allies who had now formed an army and attempted to expel them from Italy. Dissatisfied with this, their leader Odoaker defeated and killed Orestes, invaded Ravenna and demolished Romula Augustus, Oreste's son. This event of 476 usually marks the end of classical antiquity and the beginning of the Middle Ages. The Roman nobleman and former emperor Julius Nepos continued to rule the emperor from Dalmatia even after the deposition of Romulus Augustus until his death in 480. Some historians consider him the last emperor of the Western Empire instead of Romulus Augustus. After about 1,200 years of independence and nearly 700 years as a great power, Rome's rule in the West ended. Since then, various causes of the fall of Rome have been proposed, including the loss of republicanism, moral decline, military tyranny, class warfare, slavery, economic stagnation, environmental change, disease, the decline of the Roman race, and the inevitable ebb and flow experienced by all civilizations. At that time, many Pagans claimed that Christianity and the decline of the traditional Roman religion were responsible; some rationalist thinkers of the modern era attribute this decline to a shift from a military to a more pacifist religion that has reduced the number of available soldiers; while Christians such as Augustine Hippo argued that the sinful nature of Roman society itself was to blame. The Eastern Empire had a different fate. It survived for nearly 1,000 years after the fall of its Western counterpart and became the most stable Christian kingdom in the Middle Ages. In the 6th century, The Justinian recaptured the Italian peninsula from the Ostrogoths, North Africa from vandals, southern Spain from the Visigoths. But in the years following Justinian's death, Byzantine possessions in Italy were greatly reduced by pawnshops who settled on the peninsula. In the east, partly because of the debilitating effect of the Yustinian plague, the Byzantines were threatened by the rise of Islam. His followers quickly led to the conquest of the Levant, the conquest of Armenia and the conquest of Egypt during the Arab-Byzantine wars and soon posed a direct threat to Constantinople. In the next century, the Arabs also captured southern Italy and Sicily. In the west, the Slavic population was also able to penetrate deep into the Balkans. The Byzantines, however, managed to stop further Islamic expansion into their lands during the 8th century and, starting in the 9th century, reclaimed parts of the conquered lands. In 1000 AD, the Eastern Empire was at its peak: Basil II recaptured Bulgaria and Armenia, and culture and trade flourished. However, soon after, this expansion was abruptly halted in 1071 with the Byzantine defeat at the Battle of Manzikerte. The consequences of this battle sent the empire into a protracted period of decline. Two decades of internal strife and Turkic incursions eventually led Emperor Alexios I Comnenos to call for help from Western European kingdoms in 1095. The West responded with crusades, as a result of which the participants of the Fourth Crusade led to the plundering of Constantinople. The conquest of Constantinople in 1204 would fragment what remains of the Empire into successor states; The ultimate winner was the Nickey Empire. After the imperial takeover of Constantinople, the Empire was nothing more than a Greek state, bounded by the Aegean coast. The Byzantine Empire collapsed when Mehmed the Conqueror conquered Constantinople on May 29, 1453. The Society of the Roman Forum, the political, economic, cultural and religious center of the city during the Republic and then the Empire This section needs additional citations to check. Please help improve this article by adding quotes to reliable sources. Non-sources of materials can be challenged and removed. (September 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this message template) The Imperial City of Rome was the largest urban center in the empire, with a population estimated to be between 450,000 and nearly one million. Public places in Rome sounded so loud and hoofed and the wheels of an iron chariot sounded that Julius Caesar once proposed to ban the movement of chariots during the day. Historical estimates show that about 20 percent of the population, population, population under the jurisdiction of ancient Rome (25-40%, depending on the standards used, in Roman Italy) lived in countless urban centers, with a population of 10,000 or more and several military settlements, high level of urbanization by pre-industrial standards. Most of these centers had forum, temples and other buildings similar to Rome. The average life expectancy was about 28 years. (Timefraim?) Law Main Article: Roman law Roots the legal principles and practices of the ancient Romans can be traced back to the Law of the Twelve Tables, promulgated in 449 BC, and to the codification of a law issued on the orders of Emperor Justinian I around 530 AD (see Corps Juris Civilis). Roman law, preserved in the codes of Justinian, continued in the Byzantine Empire and formed the basis of similar codifications in continental Western Europe. Roman law continued, more broadly, to be applied across much of Europe until the end of the 17th century. The main sections of the law of Ancient Rome, contained in the Justinian and Feodosian codes, consisted of Jesus Civic, Julius Gentia and Julius Natural. The Ius Civile (Civil Law) was the body of the general laws, which apply to Roman citizens. Praetores Urbani (sg. Praetor Urbanus) were people who had jurisdiction over cases involving citizens. The Ius Gentium (Law of Nations) was the body of the general laws that apply to foreigners, and their relations with Roman citizens. Pretor Peregrinei (sg. Praetor Peregrinus) was a person who had jurisdiction over cases involving citizens and foreigners. Ius Naturale covered natural law, a body of laws that were considered common to all beings. Class Structure Main Articles: Social Class in Ancient Rome and Status in the Roman Legal System Patricia Torlonia Bust of Kato the Elder, 1st Century BC Orator, c. 100 BC, Etruscan-Roman Bronze Statue featuring Aule Metel (Latin: Aulus Metellus), an Etruscan man dressed in Roman times; The statue has an inscription in the Etruscan language of Roman society largely regarded as hierarchical, with slaves (servi) at the bottom, freedmen (liberti) above them, and free-born citizens (cives) at the top. Free citizens were also divided into classes. The widest and earliest division was between patricians who could trace their origins to one of the 100 Patriarchs at the founding of the city, and plebeians who could not. This became less important in the later Republic, as some plebeian families became rich and entered politics, and some family patricians fell economically. Any patrician or plebeian who could consider the consul his ancestor was a noble (nobilis); the man who was the first of his family to hold consular, such as Marius or Cicero, was known as Novus homo (the new man) and ennobled his descendants. Patricia's origins, however, continue to be of considerable prestige, and many religious posts continued to be confined to patricians. Class originally based on military service, has become more important. Membership in these classes determined periodically by censors, according to the property. The richest were the senatorial classes, which dominated politics and command of the army. This was followed by cavalry (equity, sometimes translated knights), initially those who could afford a military horse, and who formed a powerful trading class. Several other classes, originally based on military equipment that the members of the organization could afford, followed them, and at the bottom - proletarians, citizens who had no property. Before the reforms in Marius, they had no right to military service and were often described as slightly taller than freed slaves in wealth and prestige. The right to vote in the republic depended on the class. Citizens were enrolled in voting tribes, but the tribes of wealthy classes had fewer members than the poor, all proletarii enrolled in one tribe. The vote was done in class order, top to bottom, and stopped once most tribes were reached, so the poor classes were often unable to cast their votes. Women have some basic rights with their male counterparts, but they are not fully regarded as citizens and are thus ineligliclian to vote or participate in political life. At the same time, women's limited rights gradually expanded (due to emancipation), and women gained freedom from paterfamilias, gained property rights and even had more legal rights than their husbands, but still had no voice, and were absent from politics. Allied foreign cities often gave Latin law, an intermediate level between full citizens and foreigners (peregrines), which gave their citizens the right under Roman law and allowed their leading magistrates to become full Roman citizens. Although there are varying degrees of Latin rights, the main division was between those suffragio (with a vote; enrolled in a Roman tribe and able to participate in comitia tributa) and sinus suffragio (without voting; can not take part in Roman politics). Most of Rome's Italian allies gained full citizenship after the social war of 91-88 BC, and full Roman citizenship was extended to all free-born men in the Caracalla Empire in 212. Education Home article: Roman school In the early Republic, there were no public schools, so the boys were taught to read and write their parents, or educated slaves, called paedagogi, usually of Greek origin. The main purpose of education during this period was to teach young people agriculture, war, Roman traditions and public affairs. Young boys learned a lot about civilian life, accompanying their fathers to religious and political functions, including the Senate for the sons of nobles. The sons of nobles were disciples politician at the age of 16, and campaigned with the army from the age of 17 (this system was still used among some noble families in era). Educational practices were changed after the conquest of hellenistic kingdoms in the 3rd century BC and, as a result, Greek influence, although Roman educational practices were still very different from the Greek. If their parents could afford it, boys and some girls as young as 7 were sent to a private school outside the house called Ludus, where the teacher (called a litter or master of ludi, and often of Greek descent) taught them basic reading, writing, arithmetic, and sometimes Greek, until the age of 11. Starting at the age of 12, the students went to secondary schools, where the teacher (now called grammar) taught them Greek and Roman literature. At the age of 16, some students went to a rhetorical school (where teachers, usually Greek, were called retorts). Education at this level prepared students for a legal career and required students to remember the laws of Rome. Pupils went to school every day, except for religious festivals and market days. There were also summer holidays. The main articles of the government: The Roman Constitution and the History of the Roman Constitution Additional information: The history of citizenship - Roman concepts of citizenship This section needs additional quotations to verify. Please help improve this article by adding quotes to reliable sources. Non-sources of materials can be challenged and removed. (September 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this message template) Originally Rome was ruled by kings, who in turn were elected from each of Rome's major tribes. The exact nature of the king's power is unknown. He may have held almost absolute power, or perhaps simply was the chief executive officer of the Senate and the people. At least in military matters, the power of the king (Empire) is probably absolute. He was also the head of the state religion. In addition to the king's powers, there were three administrative assemblies: the Senate, which acted as the king's advisory body; The Curiat Comet, which could approve and ratify the laws proposed by the king; and Comitia Calata, which was a collection of priestly colleges that could gather people to testify about some acts, hear proclamations, and announce the holiday and holiday schedule for the next month. Presentation of the Roman Senate: Cicero attacks Katilina, with a 19th-century mural of the Communist Party of the Roman Republic leading to an unusual mixture of democracy and oligarchy. The word republic comes from the Latin res publica, which literally translates as public business. Roman laws can traditionally be adopted only by a vote of the People's Assembly (Comitia Tributa). Similarly, candidates for public office had to run for election from the people. Nevertheless, the Roman Senate represented an oligarchic institution, acted as a Body. In the Republic, the Senate had actual powers (actoritas) but had no real legislative power; technically, it was just an advisory board. However, because the senators were individually very influential, it was difficult to do anything against the collective will of the Senate. The new senators were chosen from among the most experienced patricians by censors (Censor), who could also remove the senator from office if he was found to be morally corrupt; a charge that may include bribery or, as under Kato Elder, hugging his wife publicly. Later, in accordance with the reforms of dictator Sulla, the Kvaestors were automatically members of the Senate, although most of his reforms did not survive. There was no fixed bureaucracy in the republic, and taxes were collected through the practice of tax farming. Public positions such as quaestor, aedile, or praefect were financed by the office owner. In order for any citizen not to gain too much power, new magistrates are elected annually and must share power with a colleague. For example, under normal circumstances, two consuls occupied the highest authority. In an emergency, a temporary dictator may be appointed. Throughout the Republic, the administrative system has been revised several times in accordance with the new requirements. In the end, it proved ineffective for controlling the ever-expanding domination of Rome, contributing to the creation of the Roman Empire. At the beginning of the empire, the pretense of the republican form of government was preserved. The Roman emperor was portrayed only as a prince, or first citizen, and the Senate was given legislative power and all legal powers previously held by popular assemblies. However, the reign of the emperors became increasingly autocratic, and the Senate was reduced to an advisory body appointed by the emperor. The Empire did not inherit much bureaucracy from the Republic because the Republic did not have any permanent governmental structures other than the Senate. The emperor appointed aides and advisers, but the state lacked many institutions, such as a centrally planned budget. Some historians call this an important reason for the decline of the Roman Empire. Military main articles: Military History of Ancient Rome, Military of Ancient Rome, Structural History of the Roman Army, Roman Army and Roman Navy Part of the series of war-war Ancient Rome 753 BC - AD 476 Structural History Army Unit types and ranks Of Decoration and Punishment Legions Auxilia Generals Fleet Admirals campaign history of wars and battles of technological history Military-technical Castra Siege engines Triumphal Arches Roads Political strategy and infantry tactics of Antonin Wall Of Adrian Walls of the Saxon Coast Laims Germanicus Alms Lauter Valley limes Main Limes Nekar-Odenwald Top German-Rhaetian Lyms Wetterau Lyms Danube-Iller-Rhein Lymes Norican Lyms Claustra Alpium Iuliarum Pannon Lyms Laims Alutanus Lymes Moesiae Treya Wall Anastasian Wall Limes Sarmat The Lymes Arabis Limes Tripolitanus Isima used in conjunction with the popular chain mail after the 1st century AD Roman tower (reconstruction) in Limes - Taunus / Germany Early Roman Army (circa 500 BC) was, like other modern city-states under the influence of Greek civilization, citizen of the police, who practiced hop tactics. It was small (the population of free men of military age then was about 9000) and organized in five classes (parallel with comitia centuriata, the body of citizens organized politically), with three providing hoplites and two providing light infantry. The early Roman army was tactically limited, and its position during this period was essentially defensive. By the 3rd century BC, the Romans had abandoned the formation of hoplite in favor of a more flexible system in which smaller groups of 120 (and sometimes 60) people, called manips, could maneuver more independently on the battlefield. Thirty manips organized in three queues with auxiliary troops were a legion of 4,000 to 5,000 men. The early Republican Legion consisted of five sections, each of which was equipped differently and had different places in formation: three lines of manipular heavy infantry (hastati, principles and triaries), the force of light infantry (greats) and cavalry (equity). With the new organization, a new orientation on the offensive and a much more aggressive attitude towards the neighboring cities-states have emerged. In the full-time nominal number, the early Republican Legion consisted of between 4,000 and 5,000 men, from 3,600 to 4,800 heavy infantry, several hundred light infantrymen, and several hundred cavalrymen. Legions have often been significantly insured against recruitment failures or after periods of active service due to accidents, combat casualties, disease and desertion. During the Civil War, Pompey's legions in the east were in full force because they had recently been recruited, while Caesar's legions were often well below par after a long active service in Gaul. This model is also true of auxiliary forces. Until the late Republican period, the typical legionnaire was a farmer who owned property from the countryside (adiduus), who served for certain (often annual) campaigns, and who supplied his own equipment and, in the case of equivalents, his own mountain. Harris suggests that by 200 BC, the average rural farmer (who survived) could participate in six or seven campaigns. Freed and slaves (wherever they were) and the townspeople did not serve rare emergencies. Since 200 BC, economic conditions in rural areas have deteriorated as labour requirements have increased, resulting in a gradual decline in service ownership. Beginning with Gaius Marius in 107 BC, citizens without property and some citizens (proletarians) were enrolled and provided with equipment, although most legionnaires continued to come from rural areas. The lifespan was continuous and long- to twenty years if emergencies were required, although a six- or seven-year period was more typical. Beginning in the 3rd century BC, the Legionnaires were paid a scholarship (the sums are disputed, but Caesar famously doubled payments to his troops to 225 denaries per year), could have foreseen the extraction and donations (distribution of looting by commanders) from successful campaigns and, starting with Marius, was often granted the allocation of land after retirement. The cavalry and light infantry attached to the Legion (Auxil) were often recruited in areas where the Legion served. Caesar formed the Legion, the Fifth Alauda, from non-citizens in the Trans-Alpine Gaul to serve in his campaigns in Gaul. By Caesar Augustus, the ideal of a citizen soldier was abandoned, and the legions became fully professional. Legionnaires received 900 sisters a year and could count on 12,000 sisters to retire. At the end of the Civil War, Augustus reorganized the Roman armed forces, unloading soldiers and disbanding legions. He retained 28 legions distributed throughout the provinces of the Empire. During Principate, the tactical organization of the army continued to evolve. Auksilia remained an independent cohort, and legionnaire troops often acted as cohort groups rather than as full legions. The new universal type of unit - cohorts equitatae- combined cavalry and legionnaires in one formation. They can be deployed in garrisons or outposts and can fight independently as a balanced small force or in conjunction with other similar units as larger forces the size of a legion. This increase in organizational flexibility contributed to the long-term success of the Roman armed forces. Emperor Gallien (253-268 AD) began the reorganization that created the last military structure of the late Empire. By withdrawing some legionnaires from stationary bases on the border, Gallien created mobile forces (Komitenens or field armies) and placed them behind and some distance from the borders as a strategic reserve. Border troops (limiters) stationed at stationary bases were still the first line of defence. The main unit of the field army was a regiment, legions or auxilia for infantry and annoyance for the cavalry. Evidence suggests that the nominal strengths may have been 1,200 for infantry regiments and 600 for cavalry, although many records show lower (800 and 400). Many infantry and cavalry regiments operated in pairs under the command of coma. In addition to the Roman troops, the field armies included regiments of barbarians recruited from allied tribes and known as foederati. By 400 AD, the enemy regiments had become permanently created units of the Roman army, paid for and equipped by the Empire, led by a Roman tribune and used in the same way as the Roman parts used. In addition to the foederati, the Empire also used barbarian groups to fight alongside legions as allies without integration into the field army. Under the command of a senior Roman general, they were led at lower levels by their own officers. Military leadership has evolved throughout the history of Rome. Under the monarchy, heply armies were led by the kings of Rome. In the early and mid-Roman Republic, the armed forces were under the command of one of the two elected consuls for a year. During the later Republic, members of the Roman senatorial elite, as part of a normal sequence of elected government posts known as cursus honorum, would serve first as a alum (often published as deputy field commanders), then as a pretor. The most talented, effective and reliable subordinate in Gaul, Titus Labien, was recommended to him by Pompey. The altar of Domia Akhenobarbus, circa 122 BC; on the altar are two Roman infantrymen equipped with a long skuth, and a cavalryman with his horse. All of them are shown in chain mail armor. After the end of the term of the pretender or consul, the senator may be appointed by the Senate as a pro-proator or pro-consul (depending on which senior position was previously held) to manage a foreign province. The younger officers (up to the centurion level) were chosen by their commanders from their own clients or those recommended by political allies among the senatorial elite. Under Augustus, whose most important political priority was to bring the army under permanent and unitary command, the emperor was the rightful commander of each legion, but carried this command through the legate (legate), which he appointed from the senatorial elite. In a province with one legion, Legat commanded a legion (legatus legionis) and served as governor of the province, while in a province with more than one legion, each legion commanded the legate, and the Legates commanded the governor of the province (also a legitimate but higher rank). In the later stages of the imperial period (possibly with Diocellian), the Augusta model was abandoned. Provincial rulers were deprived of military power, and command of armies in a group of provinces was transferred to generals (duce) appointed by the emperor. These were no longer members of the Roman elite, but of the people who came through the ranks and saw a lot of practical soldiers. Increasingly, these people tried (sometimes successfully) to usurp the positions of their appointed emperors. Reduced resources, increased political chaos and civil war eventually left the Western Empire vulnerable to attacks and seizures by neighbouring barbarian states. Less is known about the Roman fleet than about the Roman army. Until the mid-3rd century BC, officials known as duumviri naval commanded a fleet of twenty ships used mainly to combat piracy. This fleet was surrendered in 278 AD and replaced by Allied forces. The First Punic War required Rome to build large fleets, and it did so mainly with the help and funding of the Allies. This reliance on the Allies continued until the end of the Roman Republic. He was the main warship on both sides of the Punic Wars and remained a pillar of the Roman navy until it was replaced by the time of Caesar Augustus with lighter and more maneuverable ships. Compared to the trireme, the quinkerem allowed the use of a mixture of experienced and inexperienced crew members (an advantage for mostly terrestrial power), and its less maneuverability allowed the Romans to adopt and improve landing tactics, using a detachment of about 40 Marines instead of a ram. The ships commanded navars, a rank equal to the centurion, which as a rule was not a citizen. Potter suggests that because the fleet was dominated by the Nery ibles, the fleet was considered non- Roman and allowed to atrophy in peacetime. The information indicates that by the time of the Late Empire (350 AD), the Roman fleet consisted of several fleets, including warships and merchant ships for transportation and supply. The warships were paddle-sailing galleys with three to five shore rowers. The fleet bases included ports such as Ravenna, Arle, Aquilia, Misenum and the mouth of the Somme River in the west and Alexandria and Rhodes in the East. A flotilla of small river ships (classes) were part of the border forces during this period, based in fortified river harbors along the Rhine and Danube. The fact that the eminent generals commanded both armies and navies suggests that the navy was regarded as an auxiliary force of the army and not as an independent service. Details of the command structure and the size of the fleet during this period are not well known, although the fleets were commanded by prefects. The main articles of the economy: Roman agriculture, Roman trade, Roman finance and the Roman currency The Night View of Trajan on the market of Trajan, built by Apollodor of Damascus Ancient Rome commanded a vast area of land, with huge natural and human resources. Thus, Rome's economy remains focused on agriculture and trade. Agricultural free trade changed the Italian landscape, and by the 1st century BC huge grape and estates supplanted by The South Korean in corresponds to the import price of grain. The annexation of Egypt, Sicily and Tunisia in North Africa ensured a continuous supply of grain. In turn, olive oil and wine were Italy's main exports. Two-level crop rotation was practiced, but the farm's productivity was low, about 1 ton per hectare. Industrial and manufacturing activity was smaller. The largest activities were the extraction and extraction of stones, which provided basic building materials for buildings of that period. Manufacturing production was relatively small and usually consisted of workshops and small factories with no more than a dozen workers. However, hundreds of workers worked at some brick factories. The economy of the early Republic was largely based on small and paid work. However, foreign wars and conquests have made slaves increasingly cheap and abundant, and by the late Republic the economy depended heavily on slave labour for both skilled and unskilled work. Slaves are estimated to have made up about 20% of the Roman Population at this time and 40% in the city of Rome. Only in the Roman Empire, when the conquests ceased and the price of slaves rose, the slave labor became more economical than the slave owner. Although barter was used in ancient Rome and was often used in tax collection, Rome had a very developed coinage system, with brass, bronze and precious metal coins in circulation throughout the Empire and beyond – some of them even found in India. Until the 3rd century BC, copper was traded by weight, measured in unmarked lumps, throughout central Italy. The original copper coins (as) had a denomination of one Roman pound of copper, but weighed less. Thus, the usefulness of Roman money as a unit of exchange invariably exceeded its internal value as metal. After Nero began debasing the silver denari, its legal value was estimated at one-third more than its internal value. Horses were expensive, and other veit animals were slower. Mass trade on Roman roads connected military posts, where Roman markets were concentrated. These roads were designed for wheels. As a result, goods were transported between the Roman regions, but with the growth of Roman maritime trade in the 2nd century BC increased. During this period, it took the merchant vessel less than a month to complete the trip from Gades to Alexandria via Ostia, covering the entire length of the Mediterranean Sea. Transport by sea was about 60 times cheaper than by land, so the volume of such trips was much greater. Some economists consider the Roman Empire a market economy similar to the practice of the Netherlands of the 17th and 18th centuries of England. The Family Golden Glass Portrait of a Family From Roman Egypt. Greek inscription on the medallion either the artist's name or In a portrait. The main units of Roman society were households and families. Households included the head (usually the father) of the household, the family of the pater (the father of the family), his wife, children and other relatives. In the upper classes, slaves and servants were also part of the household. The power of the head of the family was supreme (patria potestas, fatherly power) over those who lived with him: he could force marriage (usually for money) and divorce, sell his children into slavery, claim the property of his dependents as his own, and even had the right to punish or kill family members (although this last right, apparently, ceased to be exercised after the 1st century BC). Patria potestas even extended on adult sons with their own households: the man was not considered paterfamilias, and he could not truly own the property while his own father lived. In the early period of Rome's history, the daughter, when she married, came under the control (manus) of her husband's family, although in the late Republic it was out of fashion, as the woman could continue to recognize her father's family as her true family. However, since the Romans counted on the origin through the male line, all the children she belonged to her husband's family. A small affection was shown for the children of Rome. A mother or elderly relative often raised both boys and girls. Unwanted children were often sold into slavery. The children may have been waiting for the family on the tables, but they could not participate in the conversation. In noble families, a Greek nurse usually taught children Latin and Greek. Their father taught the boys to swim and skate, although sometimes he hired a slave to teach them instead. At the age of seven, the boy began his education. Not having a school building, classes were held on the roof (if it was dark, the boy had to carry a lantern to school). Wax-covered boards were used as paper, papyrus and parchment, or he could simply write on the sand. A loaf of bread to be eaten was also carried. Groups of related households formed a family (genes). Families are based on blood ties or adoption, but are also political and economic unions. Especially during the Roman Republic, some influential families, or Ghente Mayores, came to dominate political life. In ancient Rome, marriage was often seen as a financial and political union rather than a romantic association, especially in the upper classes (see marriage in ancient Rome). Fathers usually started looking for husbands for their daughters when they reached the age of twelve to fourteen. The husband is usually older than the bride. While upper-class girls married very young, there is evidence that lower-class women are often married in their late teens or early 20s. Culture Home article: Culture of the Ancient the hills of Roman life in ancient Rome revolved around a roman located on seven hills. The city had a huge number of monumental structures, such as the Colosseum, the Trajan Forum and the Pantheon. It had theatres, gymnasiums, markets, functional sewers, bath complexes with libraries and shops, as well as fountains with fresh drinking water supplied by hundreds of kilometers of aqueducts. Throughout the area controlled by Ancient Rome, residential architecture ranged from modest houses to country villas. In the capital of Rome, there were imperial residences on the elegant hill of Palatine, from which the word palace originates. Low plebeian and middle equestrian classes lived in the city center, packed into apartments, or Insulae, which were almost like modern ghettos. These areas, often built by high-end property owners for rent, were often concentrated on a college or a tabernacle. These people, provided with free grain supplies and entertained by gladiatorial games, were enlisted as clients of patrons from the upper class of patricians, whose help they sought and whose interests they supported. Language Main article: Latin Roman fresco blond maiden reading text, Pompeii Fourth style (60-79 AD), Pompeii, Italy The native language of the Romans was Latin, Italian, whose grammar relies little on the order of words, conveying meaning through a system of affixes attached to the word stems. His alphabet was based on the Etruscan alphabet, which in turn was based on the Greek alphabet. Although the surviving Latin literature is almost entirely composed of classical Latin, an artificial and heavily stylized and polished literary language from the 1st century BC, the spoken language of the Roman Empire was vulgar Latin, which differed significantly from classical Latin in grammar and lexicon, and eventually in pronunciation. Latin speakers could understand both until the 7th century, when colloquial Latin began to diverge so much that classic or good Latin was to be studied as a second language, while Latin remained the main written language of the Roman Empire, the Greek language became the language spoken by the well-educated elite, as much of the literature studied by the Romans was written in Greek. In the eastern half of the Roman Empire, which later became the Byzantine Empire, Latin could not replace the Greek, and after the death of Justinian Greek became the official language of the Byzantine government. The expansion of the Roman Empire spread throughout Europe, and vulgar Latin turned into dialects in different places, gradually moving into many different Romanesque languages. Religion Main Articles: Religion in Ancient Rome, Roman Mythology, and roman Temple Additional Information: Constantine the Great and Christianity and the State Church of the Roman Empire Mercury holds the kaduchia and on the right Juno sits on the throne. Iris stands behind her and gestures. On the left is a Vulcan (blonde figure) standing behind the wheel, manned by him, with Ixion already tied to him. Nefel sits at mercury's feet; Roman fresco from the eastern wall of the triclinium in the House of Vettia, Pompeii, Fourth Style (60-79 AD). The archaic Roman religion, at least in relation to the gods, was not composed of written stories, but rather of complex relationships between gods and people. Unlike Greek mythology, the gods were not personified, but were vaguely defined by sacred spirits called numina. The Romans also believed that every person, place or thing has his genius, or divine soul. During the Roman Republic, the Roman religion was organized under a strict system of priestly service, which was occupied by men of the senatorial rank. The Pontifical College was the upper body in this hierarchy, and its chief priest, Pontiff Maxim, was the head of the state religion. Flamen took care of the cults of various gods, while omens were entrusted with acceptance under the auspices. The holy king assumed the religious duties of the deposed kings. In the Roman Empire, the emperors were enticed, and the formalized imperial cult became increasingly visible. As contact with the Greeks increased, the old Roman gods became increasingly associated with the Greek gods. Thus, Jupiter was perceived as the same deity as zeus, Mars became associated with Arus, and Neptune - with Poseidon. The Roman gods also took on the trappings and mythologies of these Greek gods. Under the Empire, the Romans absorbed the mythology of their conquered subjects, often leading to situations where temples and priests of traditional Italian deities existed side by side with those foreign gods. Beginning with Emperor Nero in the 1st century AD, the official policy of the Roman Empire towards Christianity was negative, and in some moments simply being a Christian could be punished with death. Under Emperor Diofletian, the persecution of Christians reached its peak. However, it became an officially supported religion in the Roman state under Diofletian's successor, Constantine I, with the signing of the Milan decree in 313, and quickly became dominant. All religions except Christianity were banned in 391 AD by decree of Emperor Theodosius I. Since ancient civilizations such as Rome were under constant threat of attack by marauding tribes, their culture was necessarily militaristic, and combat skills were a valuable attribute. While modern societies regard compassion as a virtue, Roman society considers compassion a vice, a moral defect. Really of the main purpose of the gladiatorial games was to inoculate the Roman citizens from this weakness. The Romans instead valued virtues such as courage and conviction (virtus), a sense of duty to their people, moderation and avoidance of excess (moderatio), forgiveness and understanding (clementia), justice (northitas) and loyalty (pietas). Contrary to popular descriptions, Roman society had established and restrictive norms related to sexuality, although, as in many societies, the lion's share of responsibilities fell on women. Generally, women had to be monogamous, having only one husband during their lives (univira), although this was much less considered by the elite, especially under the empire. It was expected that women would be modest in public, avoiding any provocative speeches and demonstrating absolute loyalty to their husbands (pudition). Indeed, wearing a burqa was a common expectation of modesty. Sex outside marriage was generally frowned upon by men and women and was indeed declared illegal during the imperial period. However, prostitution was seen in a very different way and was indeed a common and regulated practice. Art, Music and Literature Main Articles: Roman Art, Latin Literature, Music of Ancient Rome, Roman Sculpture, and the Theatre of Ancient Rome Woman Plays Kithara, from Villa Boscoreale, 40-30 BC Roman painting styles show Greek influences, and surviving examples are primarily frescoes used to decorate the walls and ceilings of the country's villas, although Roman literature includes references to paintings on the ivory and other materials. Several examples of Roman painting were found in Pompeii, and art historians divided the history of Roman painting into four periods. The first style of Roman painting was practiced from the early 2nd century BC to the beginning or mid-1st century BC. It consisted mainly of imitations of marble and masonry, although sometimes including images of mythological characters. The second style of Roman painting began in the early 1st century BC, and tried to depict realistically three-dimensional architectural features and landscapes. The third style took place during the reign of August (27 BC - 14 AD), and rejected the realism of the second style in favor of a simple ornament. The center housed a small architectural stage, landscape or abstract design with a monochrome background. The fourth style, which began in the 1st century AD, depicted scenes from mythology, while preserving architectural details and abstract patterns. Portrait sculpture in this period used youthful and classical proportions, which later evolved into a mixture of realism and idealism. During the Antonina and Severan periods, ornate hair and warts, with deep cutting and drilling, became popular. Achieve also made in relief sculptures, usually depicting Roman victories. Latin literature was strongly influenced by Greek authors from the very beginning. Some of the earliest surviving works have historical epics, telling the early military history of Rome. As the republic expanded, the authors began to produce poems, comedies, history and tragedy. Roman music was largely based on Greek music, and played an important role in many aspects of Roman life. In the Roman armed forces, musical instruments such as tuba (long trumpet) or cornea (similar to the French horn) were used to give different commands, while bouchin (perhaps a trumpet or horn) and a lituus (probably an elongated J-shaped instrument) were used in ceremonial possibilities. Music was used in amphitheatres between battles and in odea, and in these conditions, as it is known, the cornea and hydraulis (a type of water organ) were shown. Most religious rituals included musical performances, from shins (double pipes) to sacrifices, plates and tambourines to orgiastic cults, and rattles and hymns across the spectrum. Some music historians believe that music was used in almost all public ceremonies. Music historians are unsure whether Roman musicians have made a significant contribution to the theory or practice of music. Graffiti, brothels, paintings and sculptures found in Pompeii and Herculaneum show that the Romans had a sex-rich culture. The main article of Cuisine Main: Ancient Roman cuisine ancient Roman cuisines have changed over the long time of this ancient civilization. Food habits were influenced by greek culture, political changes from kingdom to republic to empire, and the enormous expansion of the empire, which exposed the Romans to many new, provincial culinary habits and culinary techniques. At first, the differences between the social classes were relatively small, but inequality developed along with the growth of the empire. Men and women drank wine with their dishes, a tradition that has been held to this day. Games and Recreation This section needs additional quotes to check. Please help improve this article by adding quotes to reliable sources. Non-sources of materials can be challenged and removed. (September 2014) (Learn how and when to delete this message template) Jorgegos and theater actors, from the House of the Tragic Poet, Pompeii, Italy. Naples National Archaeological Museum bikini girls mosaic showing women playing sports, from Villa Romana del Casale, Romana del Casale, Roman province of Sicily (Sicily), 4th century AD Youth of Rome had several forms of sports games and exercise such as jumping, wrestling, boxing and racing. In rural areas, pastimes for the rich also included fishing and hunting. The Romans also played several forms of play in including one resembling handball. Cubes Cubes board games and gambling were a popular pastime. The women did not take part in these activities. For the rich, dinner parties presented an opportunity for entertainment, sometimes involving music, dance and poetry reading. Plebeians sometimes enjoyed similar parties through clubs or associations, but for most Romans recreational cuisine usually meant patronizing tavern food. Children had fun with toys and games such as Leap. Public games were sponsored by leading Romans who wanted to promote their generosity and court approval; in the imperial era, this usually meant the emperor. Several venues have been designed specifically for public games. The Colosseum was built in the imperial era for, among other things, gladiatorial battles. These battles began as funeral games around the 4th century BC, and became popular spectator events in the Late Republic and Empire. Gladiators had an exotic and inventive variety of weapons and armor. Sometimes they fought to the death, but most often before the referee's victory, depending on the decision of the judge. The result is usually in line with the mood of the watching crowd. Exotic animal shows were popular in themselves; but sometimes the animals confronted people, either armed professionals or unarmed criminals, who were sentenced to spectacular and theatrical public death in the arena. Some of these meetings were based on episodes from Roman or Greek mythology. Chariot racing was extremely popular among all classes. In Rome, these races were usually held in the Maximus Circus, which was specially built for chariots and horse racing and, as Rome's largest public venue, was also used for festivals and animal shows. He could replace 150,000 people; Chariots raced in teams identified by their colors. The track was divided along a barrier that contained obelisks, temples, statues and lap counters. The best seats were on the track side, next to the action; they were reserved for senators. Behind them sat equity (knights), and behind the knights were plebs (simplicity) and non-citizens. The game donor sat on a high platform in the stands next to images of the gods visible to all. Large sums were put on the outcome of the races. Some Romans offered prayers and sacrifices on behalf of their favorites, or laid curses on opposing teams, and some fans were members of the extremely, even brutally partisan circus factions. Technology Home article: Roman Technology This section needs additional quotes to test. Please help improve this article by adding quotes to reliable sources. Non-sources of materials can be challenged and removed. (September 2014) (Learn how and when to delete this message pattern) Pont du Garde in France is a Roman aqueduct built in 19 BC It World Heritage Site. Ancient Rome boasted of impressive technological feats, using many achievements that were lost in the Middle Ages and did not compete again until the 19th and 20th centuries. An example of this is isolated glazing, which was not invented again until the 1930s. Many practical Roman innovations were adopted from earlier Greek projects. Achievements were often divided and based on craft. Craftsmen protected technology as a trade secret. Roman civil engineering and military engineering constituted a significant part of Rome's technological superiority and heritage and contributed to the construction of hundreds of roads, bridges, aqueducts, baths, theatres and arenas. Many monuments, such as the Colosseum, Pont du Garde and the Pantheon, remain a testament to Roman engineering and culture. The Romans were famous for their architecture, which is grouped with Greek traditions into classical architecture. Although there were many differences from Greek architecture, Rome borrowed largely from Greece in compliance with the strict, formulaic designs of the building and proportions. Apart from the two new orders of columns, composite and Tuscan, and from the dome that was derived from the Etruscan arch, Rome had relatively little architectural innovation until the end of the Republic. The Via Appia, the road connecting the city of Rome with southern Italy, remains usable even today, in the 1st century BC, the Romans began to use concrete extensively. Concrete was invented in the late 3rd century BC It was a powerful cement derived from the zzolan, and soon supplanted marble as the main Roman building material and allowed many bold architectural forms. In addition, in the 1st century BC, Vitruvius wrote De architectura, perhaps the first complete treatise on architecture in history. In the late 1st century BC, Rome also began using a glass blower shortly after its invention in Syria around 50 BC Mosaics took the Empire by storm after samples were extracted during the Luzia Cornelius Sully campaign in Greece. The Romans are also largely built using wood, causing a rapid decline in forests surrounding Rome and much of the Apennine Mountains due to the demand for timber for construction, shipbuilding and fire. The first evidence of the long-distance timber trade comes from the discovery of wooden planks, which were laid between 40 and 60 AD, coming from the Jura Mountains in northeastern France and eventually more than 1,055 miles away, in the foundation of the lavish portico, which was part of a huge rich patrician villa, in central Rome. It is believed that the wood, about 4 meters long, approached Rome across the Tiber River on ships travelling across the Mediterranean from the confluence of the Sone and Rhone rivers in modern France. With a solid foundation and good drainage, the Roman roads were known for their and many segments of the Roman road system were still in use a thousand years after the fall of Rome. The construction of an extensive and efficient tourist network throughout the Empire dramatically increased rome's power and influence. They allowed the deployment of the Roman legions quickly, with a predictable time of marching between the key points of the empire, regardless of the season. These highways were also of great economic importance, reinforcing Rome's role as a trade crossroads - the origin of the saying all roads lead to Rome. The Roman government maintained a system of road stations known as cursus publicus, which provided soft drinks to couriers at regular intervals along the roads and installed a system of horse-drawn relays that allowed them to send up to 80 km (50 miles) per day. The Romans built numerous aqueducts to supply water to cities and industrial facilities and to assist in their agriculture. By the third century, the city of Rome was equipped with 11 aqueducts with a total length of 450 km .280 miles). Most aqueducts were built beneath the surface, and only small parts above the ground are supported by arches. Sometimes when valleys more than 500 m (1,640 feet) were to intersect, inverted siphons were used to transport water through the valley. The Romans also made significant advances in sanitation. The Romans were especially known for their public baths, called thermals, which were used for both hygienic and social purposes. Many Roman homes have come to flush toilets and indoor plumbing, and a sophisticated sewer system, Cloaca Maxima, has been used to drain local marshes and carry waste into the Tiber River. Some historians have suggested that lead pipes in sewer and plumbing systems led to mass lead poisoning, which contributed to a decline in fertility and a general decline in Roman society, leading to the fall of Rome. However, lead levels would be kept to a minimum as the flow of water from the aqueducts could not be turned off; it continuously passed through public and private outlets into the sewers, and only a few cranes were used. Other authors expressed similar objections to this theory, also pointing out that Roman water pipes were thickly covered with sediments that would prevent lead from leaching into the water. Legacy Main Articles: The Legacy of the Roman Empire and The Classics External Video of Ancient Rome (13:47), Smarthistory at the Khan Academy of Ancient Rome is the ancestor of Western civilization. Customs, religion, law, technology, architecture, political system, military, literature, languages, alphabet, government and many factors and aspects of Western civilization are all inherited from Roman achievements. The revival of Roman culture revived Western civilization, playing a role in the Renaissance and Age of Enlightenment. [250] See also: also: (Italian Tribe) - Genetic research, published in the journal Science in November 2019, studied the genetic history of Rome from Mesolithic to modern. Rome's Mesolithicists were determined to be Western hunter-gatherers (WHGs), which were almost entirely replaced by early European farmers (EEFs) around 6000 BC, coming from Anatolia and the Fertile Crescent. However, the authors note that the EEF farmers studied carry a small amount of other component that is at a high level among Iranian Neolithic farmers and Caucasian hunter-gatherers (CHG), assuming different or additional contributions from Middle Eastern farmers during the Neolithic transition, according to the authors. Between 2900 BC and 900 BC, the EEF/WHG descended the population of Rome was overwhelmed by peoples with steppe origins largely tracking their origins in the Pontico-Caspian steppe. The Latin population of the founders of the Iron Age of Rome, which later originated overwhelmingly, wore the paternal haplogroup R-M269 and was about 35% of the steppe origin. However, it was found that two of the six Latin graves were a mixture of the local origin of the Iron Age and the Middle Eastern population. In addition, it was found that one in four inhabitants of Etruscan graves, female, was a mixture of the local origin of the Iron Age and the North African population. In general, the genetic differentiation between Latins, Etruscans and the preceding proto-villanovan population of Italy was considered insignificant. The studied individuals from Rome during the Roman Empire (27 BC - 300 AD) had almost no genetic similarity with the population of the founders of Rome, and instead were moved towards the Eastern Mediterranean and the Middle East. It was found that the imperial population of Rome was extremely diverse, and almost none of the people surveyed were of predominantly European origin. It has been suggested that the observed genetic replacement of the populations of the founders of Rome was the result of an intensive migration of merchants and slaves from the densely populated urban centres of the Middle East. At the end of antiquity, the population of Rome declined dramatically as a result of political instability, epidemics and economic change. Repeated incursions by the barbarians returned European origin to Rome, resulting in the loss of genetic connection with the Eastern Mediterranean and the Middle East. By the Middle Ages, the people of Rome again genetically resembled European populations. Gistoriography Home article: Roman historiography This section needs additional quotes to verify. Please help improve this article by adding quotes to reliable sources. Non-sources of materials can be challenged and removed. (September 2014) how and when to delete this message template) Despite the variety of work on Roman history, many of them lost. As a result of this loss, there are gaps in Roman history that are filled with unreliable works such as the Story of Augustus and other books from obscure authors. However, a number of reliable reports on Roman history remain. In Roman times, the first historians used their works to extol Roman culture and customs. By the end of the Republic, some historians had distorted their history in order to flatter their patrons, especially during the collision between Marius and Sulla. Caesar wrote his own stories to make a full account of his military campaigns in Gaul and during the Civil War. The Empire flourished biographies of famous people and early emperors, exemplified by the Twelve Caesars of Suetonia and the Parallel Lives of Plutarch. Other major works of imperial times were the works of Livi and Tacitus. Polybius - Stories of Sallust - Bellum Catilinae and Bellum Jugurthinum Julius Caesar - De Bello Gallico and De Bello Civili Livi - Ab urbe condita Dionysius Halicarnassus - Roman Antiquities Pliny the Elder - Naturalistoria His Joseph - Jewish War SuTonius - Twelve Caesars (De Vita Caesarum) Tacitus - Annals and the Stories of Plutarch - Parallel Lives (series of biographies of famous Roman and Greek men) Cassius Dio - History of the Novels of Herodian - History of the Roman Empire since the time of Marcus Aurelius Ammian Marcellin - Rest Gesta in our time Part of the series on the history of Italy Early prehistoric Italy Etruscan civilization (12-6 BC) Magna Graecia (8-3rd C.C.B.) 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The first major work was The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire by Edward Gibbon, which covered Roman civilization from the end of the 2nd century until the fall of the Byzantine Empire in 1453. Like Montesquieu, Gibbon paid tribute to the virtues of Roman citizens. Barthold Georg Niebur was the founder of the study of ancient Roman history and wrote Roman History, tracing the period before the First Punic War. Nibur tried to determine how the Roman tradition developed. According to him, the Romans, like other people, had a historical spirit, preserved mainly in noble families. During the Napoleonic period, Victor Duduy's work The History of the Romans appeared. He stressed the C-section period was popular at the time. The history of Rome, Roman constitutional law and the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum, all of Theodore Mommsen, have become very important steps. Later, Guglielmo Ferrero's work The Greatness and Decline of Rome was published. The Russian work of Ivan Grevs contained information about the economy of Pomponius Atticus, one of the largest landowners at the end of the republic. Edward Gibbon (1737-1794) - The Story of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire by John Bagnell Bury (1861-1927) - The History of the Late Roman Empire by Michael Grant (1861-1927) 1914-2004) - Roman World by Barbara Levick (born 1932) - Claudius Barthold (1776-1831) michael Rostovtze (1870-1952) Howard Hayes Scullard (1903-1983) - History of the Roman World 264 by Ronald Syme (1903-31989) - Roman Revolution 265 Byrian Goldsworthy (born 1969) Caesar : the life of the Colossus and How Rome Fell » See also Civilization portal Ancient Roman portal ancient Roman architecture Daqin , Chinese name of the Roman Empire, see Chinese-Roman Relations Description of Classical Studies Description of the Roman Constitution of the Roman Republic History of Rome History The History of the Roman Empire Legacy of the Roman Empire Regions in the Greco-Roman Antiquity of Roman Agriculture List of Ancient Roman Emperors List of Roman Emperors Footnotes - This cleavage is a veer historians use to divide the ancient period of the Dark Ages. Although the citizens of the empire made no distinction, the empire is most often referred to as the Byzantine Empire by modern historians to distinguish between the state in antiquity and the state Middle ages. Citations : Ancient Rome Facts, Maps, and History. Encyclopedia Britannica. Received on September 5, 2017. There are several different estimates for the population of the Roman Empire. Sheidel (2006, p. 2) scores 60. Goldsmith (1984, p. 263) scores 55. Belokh (1886, p. 507) estimates 54. Maddison (2006, p. 51, 120) scores 48. The population of the Roman Empire is estimated at 65 (with a number of other estimates from 55 to 120). Shenlinn, Frank (2011). Mark Aurelius: Warrior, Philosopher, Emperor. It's a random house. page 3. ISBN 9781446449332. Most likely, the assessment of the board of Marcus Aurelius is somewhere between seventy and eighty million. 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Another important factor discussed by Goldsworthy was the lack of legionnaires in a separate service. Between 343 BC and 241 BC, the Roman army fought every year except for five. Oakley, Stephen. (2004). Early Republic. In Flower, Harriet I. (Cambridge Companion of the Roman Republic. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 27. ISBN 978-0-521-00390-2. - P.A. Brunt, Army and Land in the Roman Republic, in the Fall of the Roman Republic and related essays, Oxford University Publishing House (Oxford 1988) ISBN 0-19-814849-6, p. 253; William W. Harris, War and Imperialism in Republican Rome 327-70 BC, Oxford University Press (Oxford 1979) ISBN 0-19-814866-6, p. 44. Keegan, John (1993). The history of the war. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. 273-274. ISBN 978-0-394-58801-8. Brunt, page 259-265; Potter, page 80-83. Goldsworthy, Adrian (2008). Caesar: The Life of the Colossus. Yale University Press. page 391. ISBN 978- 0300126891. Carl Christ, Romans, University of California Press 74-76. 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Willis, Roy (2000). World mythology: An Illustrated Guide. Collingwood, Victoria: Ken Finn. ISBN 978-1-86458-089-1. Further reading by Coarelli, Filippo. Rome and the surrounding area: an archaeological guide. Berkeley: Univ. California Press, 2007. Tim J. Cornell The beginning of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars (c. 1000-264 BC). London: Routledge, 1995. Coulston, J.C., and Hazel Dodge, editors. Ancient Rome: Archaeology of the Eternal City. Oxford: Oxford University School of Archaeology, 2000. Forsyth, Gary. Critical history of early Rome. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005. Fox, Matthew. Roman historical myths: The regal period in Augustan literature. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996. Gabba, Emilio. Dionysius and the history of archaic Rome. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991. Holloway, R. Ross. Archaeology of early Rome and Latium. London: Routledge, 1994. Kiveney, Arthur. Rome and the unification of Italy. 2nd edition. Bristol: Bristol Phoenix, 2005. Kraus, Christina Shuttleworth and J.J. Woodman. Latin historians. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997. Mitchell, Richard E. Patricians and plebeians: Origin of the Roman state. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1990. Potter, T.W. Roman Italy. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987. Raaflaub, Kurt A., editors. Social struggle in archaic Rome: new views on the conflict of orders. 2nd edition. Oxford: Blackwell, 2004. Rosenstein, Nathan S. and Robert Morstein-Marx, editors. Satellite of the Roman Republic. Oxford: Blackwell, 2006. Scheidel, Walter, Richard P Saller, and Ian Morris. Cambridge economic history of the Greco-Roman world. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007. Christopher J. Smith Early Rome and The Lat into Latin: Economy and Society c. 1000-500 BC Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996. Stuart, Roberta. Public office at the beginning of Rome: Ritual procedure and political practice. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1998. Wolf, Greg. Rome: The History of the Empire. Oxford: Oxford University Publishing House, 2012. Wyke, Maria. Projecting the past: Ancient Rome, cinema and history. New York: Routledge, 1997. External Commons links has a media Ancient Rome. Library of Resources on Ancient Rome Online Books Resources in your Library Resources in other libraries of Ancient Rome resources for students from the Library of Courtenay High School. The history of Ancient Rome Is OpenCourseWare from the University of Notre Dame providing free resources including lectures, discussion questions, assignments and exams. Gallery of Ancient Art: Ancient Rome Lacus Courtius Livius.Org United Nations Roma Victrix (UNRV) History of Water and Sewage Systems in Imperial Rome Roman DNA Project History of Rome from the 8th century BC to the 5th century extracted from the history of ancient roman empire pdf. a brief history of education in ancient greek and roman empire. history of education in ancient greek and roman empire

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