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A Római Birodalom Gazdasága ELECTA Grüll Tibor A Római Birodalom gazdasága ELECTA Sorozatszerkesztő BÖRÖCZKI TAMÁS Grüll Tibor A Római Birodalom gazdasága Gondolat Kiadó Budapest, 2017 A kötet megjelentetését a Magyar Tudományos Akadémia támogatta. A kézirat korábbi változatát Bezeczky Tamás, a kötet alapjául szolgáló kéziratot Németh György és Torbágyi Melinda lektorálta. A kötetben szereplő ábrák magyar változatát Ágner Zsolt készítette. A címlapon Nero Kr. u. 64-ben vert sestertiusa Portus (Ostia) kikötőjének ábrázolásával (RIC 181, BMC 134) Minden jog fenntartva. Bármilyen másolás, sokszorosítás, illetve adatfeldolgozó rendszerben való tárolás a kiadó előzetes írásbeli hozzájárulásához van kötve. © Grüll Tibor, 2017 A kiadó könyvei nagy kedvezménnyel az interneten is megrendelhetők. www.gondolatkiado.hu facebook.com/gondolat A kiadásért felel Bácskai István Felelős szerkesztő Böröczki Tamás A borítót tervezte Kismarty-Lechner Zita Tördelő Lipót Éva ISBN 978 963 693 785 0 ISSN 1788-9553 TARTALOM RÖVIDÍTÉSEK 9 BEVEZETÉS 13 1. VITA A RÓMAI GAZDASÁG JELLEGÉRÔL 17 2. A RÓMAI GAZDASÁGTÖRTÉNET FORRÁSAI 25 2.1. Irodalmi szövegek 25 2.2. Feliratok 28 2.3. Viaszos- és fatáblák 32 2.4. Papiruszok és osztrakonok 34 2.5. Pénzek 37 2.6. Régészet 42 2.6.1. Településrégészet 42 2.6.2. Tárgyi régészet 45 2.6.2.1. Amphora 46 2.6.2.2. Terra sigillata 49 2.6.2.3. Bélyeges tégla 50 2.6.2.4. Firmamécses 51 2.6.2.5. Malomkô 53 2.6.3. A búvárrégészet fejlôdése 53 2.6.4. Környezeti régészet 54 3. ÖKOLÓGIAI ADOTTSÁGOK 59 3.1. Róma, a mediterrán világbirodalom 59 3.2. Klímaváltozások 64 3.3. Természeti katasztrófák 69 3.3.1. Földrengések 69 3.3.2. Vulkanizmus 73 3.3.3. Cunamik 77 3.3.4. Áradások 80 3.3.5. Eliszaposodás és tengerszint-változás 83 6 TARTALOM 3.4. Antropogén hatások 87 3.4.1. Erdôpusztulás 88 3.4.2. Mocsárlecsapolások 92 3.4.3. Levegô-, víz- és talajszennyezés 94 3.5. Járványok és endemikus betegségek 96 4. TÁRSADALMI KÖRNYEZET 103 4.1. Multietnikus társadalom – multietnikus gazdaság 103 4.2. Egyes társadalmi rétegek szerepe a gazdaságban 107 4.3. Közigazgatás 114 4.3.1. A provinciarendszer 114 4.3.2. Urbanizáció 118 4.4. Demográfiai becslések 122 4.5. Mobilitás és migráció 125 4.6. A lakosság egészségi állapota 128 5. A TERMÉSZETI ERÔFORRÁSOK FELTÁRÁSA ÉS KIAKNÁZÁSA 135 5.1. Talajfajták 135 5.2. Ásványkincsek 136 5.2.1. Fémek 137 5.2.2. Építési és malomkövek 142 5.2.3. Drága- és féldrágakövek 146 5.3. Sóbányászat és sópárlás 147 5.4. Erdõk 151 5.5. Energia 154 6. MEZÔGAZDASÁG ÉS ÁLLATTENYÉSZTÉS 159 6.1. A földbirtok 159 6.1.1. A földek tulajdonlása 159 6.1.2. A földbirtokok nagysága 162 6.1.3. Villagazdaságok 164 6.2. Növénytermesztés 171 6.2.1. Gabona 174 6.2.2. Olajfa 180 6.2.3. Szôlô 183 6.2.4. Haszonnövények 187 6.2.5. Gyümölcsfélék 190 6.3. Állattenyésztés 194 6.3.1. A pastio villatica 197 6.3.2. Transzhumáció és nomadizálás 199 6.4. Halászat és vadászat 201 TARTALOM 7 7. FELDOLGOZÓIPAR 209 7.1. Élelmiszeripar 209 7.1.1. Gabonafeldolgozás 209 7.1.1.1. Gabonatárolás 209 7.1.1.2. Gabonaőrlés 211 7.1.1.3. Pékségek 214 7.1.2. Olajfeldolgozás 217 7.1.3. Borkészítés 219 7.1.4. Halszószgyártás 223 7.1.5. Húsfeldolgozás 228 7.2. Kézműipar 229 7.2.1. Textilipar 230 7.2.2. Fémfeldolgozás 235 7.2.2.1. Vasércfeldolgozás 236 7.2.2.2. Réz- és bronzművesség 241 7.2.2.3. Ólomművesség 242 7.2.3. Kerámia építôanyagok 245 7.2.4. Üveggyártás 247 7.2.5. Faipar 250 7.3. Illatszergyártás 255 8. KERESKEDELEM 259 8.1. Kereskedelmi áruk 259 8.2. Kereskedôk és kereskedőcéhek 265 8.3. Kereskedelmi áruk szállítása 271 8.3.2. Kereskedelmi utak 271 8.3.2.1. Szárazföldi útvonalak 271 8.3.2.2. Folyami és tavi szállítási útvonalak 277 8.3.2.3. Tengeri kikötők és szállítási útvonalak 281 8.3.3. Szállítóeszközök 289 8.3.3.1. Szárazföldi szállítóeszközök 289 8.3.3.2. Vízi szállítóeszközök 292 8.4. A kereskedelmi áruk értékesítése 296 8.4.1. Piacok 297 8.4.1.1. Piachelyek 298 8.4.1.2. Városi piacok 298 8.4.1.3. Vidéki piacok 306 8.4.2. Vásárok 307 9. PÉNZÜGYEK 311 9.1. Egy monetizált gazdaság 311 9.1.1. Mi a pénz? 312 9.1.2. Bank- és hitelrendszer 315 8 TARTALOM 9.1.3. Pénzügyi válságok 321 9.1.4. A gazdaság monetizáltságának szintje 324 9.2. Adók és vámok 328 9.2.1. Adók 328 9.2.2. Vámok 331 9.3. Az államkincstár és egyéb kincstárak 334 9.4. A Római Birodalom GDP-je 338 RÖVIDÍTÉSEK AArchHung = Acta Archaeologica Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae AHR = American Historical Review AJ = Archaeological Journal AJA = American Journal of Archaeology AJAH = American Journal of Ancient History AJPh = American Journal of Philology AncSoc = Ancient Society AntAfr = Antiquités africaines AntTan = Antik Tanulmányok AOASH = Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae AÖAW = Anzeiger der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften Phil.-Hist. Klasse ArchCl = Archeologia classica ArchÉrt = Archeológiai Értesítő ArchEsp = Archivo Español de Arqueologia ArchS = Archäologie der Schweiz BACTH = Bulletin Archéologique du Comité des Travaux Historiques BASOR = Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research BASP = Bulletin of the American Society of Papyrologists BCACR = Bollettino della Commissione Archeologica Comunale di Roma BCH = Bulletin de Corréspondance Hellénique BICS = Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies of the University of London BTB = Biblical Theology Bulletin BullCom = Bullettino della Commissione Archeologica Comunale di Roma C&M = Classica et Mediaevalia CAS = Cahiers d’Archéologie Subaquatique CCGG = Cahiers du Centre Gustave Glotz 10 RÖVIDÍTÉSEK ClAnt = Classical Antiquity CRAI = Comptes rendus des séances de l’Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres DHA = Dialogues d’histoire ancienne DOP = Dumbarton Oaks Papers EA = Epigraphia Anatolica EHR = Economic History Review EPSL = Earth and Planetary Science Letters FArch = Forum Archaeologiae G&R = Greece & Rome GRBS = Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies IEJ = Israel Exploration Journal IJG = Italian Journal of Geosciences IJNA = International Journal for Nautical Archaeology JAAS = Journal of Analytical Atomic Spectrometry JAOS = Journal of Ancient Oriental Society JAS = Journal of Archaeological Science JEA = Journal of Egyptian Archaeology JEH = Journal of Economic History JESHO = Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient JFA = Journal of Field Archaeology JFH = Journal of Forest History JGS = Journal of Glass Studies JHB = Journal of the History of Biology JHS = Journal of Hellenic Studies JIH = Journal of Interdisciplinary History JJS = Journal of Jewish Studies JNES = Journal of Near Eastern Studies JÖAI = Jahreshefte des Österreichischen Archäologischen Instituts JQR = Jewish Quarterly Review JRA = Journal of Roman Archaeology JRGZM = Jahrbuch des römisch-germanischen Zentralmuseums Mainz JRS = Journal of Roman Studies JSeismol = Journal of Seismology KuBA = Kölner und Bonner Archaeologica LHR = Law and History Review MAAR = Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome MBAH = Münsterische (Marburger) Beiträge zur antiken Handelsgeschichte RÖVIDÍTÉSEK 11 MDAI(M) = Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts (Madrider Abteilung) MDAI(R) = Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts (Römische Abteilung) MEFRA = Mélanges de l’École française de Rome. Antiquité MHJ = Medieval History Journal MHR = Mediterranean Historical Review NumKözl = Numizmatikai Közlöny Offa = Berichte und Mitteilungen zur Urgeschichte, Frühgeschichte und Mittelalterarchäologie OJA = Oxford Journal of Archaeology PBSR = Papers of the British School at Rome PCPS = Proceedings of the Cambridge Philological Society PEQ = Palestine Exploration Quarterly QSR = Quaternary Science Reviews QuatInt = Quaternary International QuatRes = Quaternary Research RAAN = Rendiconti dell’Accademia di Archeologia, Lettere e Belle Arti di Napoli RACF = Revue archéologique du Centre de la France RAN = Revue Archéologique de Narbonnaise RBPh = Revue belge de philologie et d’histoire (Belgisch tijdschrift voor filologie en geschiedenis) RCRFA = Rei Cretariae Romane Favtorvm Acta RDH = Revue d’histoire du droit REA = Revue des Études Anciennes REG = Revue des Études Grecques RSL = Rivista Studi Liguri RST = Rivista di Studi Pompeiani TAPA = Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association VHA = Vegetation History and Archaeobotany WA = World Archaeology ZPE = Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik BEVEZETÉS Iugurtha numida király Rómában megölette egy riválisát, de a gyilkost elfogták, és kiderült, hogy a gaztett hátterében az uralkodó áll. Csak- hogy Iugurthát védte diplomáciai mentessége, ezért nem indítottak eljá- rást ellene, csak kiutasították Rómából. Igaz, a mentességet éppen azok hangsúlyozták leginkább, akik korábban a király bőkezűségének haszo- nélvezői voltak. Nem csoda, hogy a történetíró Sallustius szerint az örök városból távozó numida megjegyezte: Romae omnia venalia esse, vagyis Rómában minden eladó. Bár Iugurtha megjegyzése a korrupt római politikusokra vonatkozott, az is igaz, hogy a városban és két kikötőjében, Ostiában és Portusban az akkor ismert világ valamennyi áruja megtalálható volt a kínai selyemtől kezdve a brit ónig, az afrikai elefántcsonttól a jütlandi borostyánig. Az Indiából származó fűszereknek külön piaca volt Rómában. Vagyis a bi- rodalom központjában valóban minden kapható volt, és egyben minden eladó. A rómaiak azonban vitték magukkal az igényeiket a meghódított provinciákba, például Pannoniába is, ahol a zalalövői ásatáson osztriga- héjak kerültek elő egy 1. századi katonai táborból. Az osztriga az Alpok hegyi útjain keresztül érkezett Salla városába, és a hosszú úton biztosí- tani kellett
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