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Aarflot, Berthe Canutte (1795–1859), author, he foreshadows Christ or is the first citizen of the speaker, leader, counselor. Born in Sunnmøre, city∗ of God. Norway; married in 1817; six children. She wrote several collections of religious poetry, pub- Abelard, Peter (1079–1142), philosopher, the- lished in numerous editions, and a religious ologian, poet. Born in Brittany, Abelard stud- autobiography (1860); her collected writings ied logic in Anjou under Roscelin of Compiegne` were published in five volumes (1853–54, new (d1120/25) and in Paris under William of Cham- ed. 1868–70). She was the best known woman peaux (d1122), and briefly theology in Laon in the Hauge Movement, a lay Pietist∗ move- under Anselm∗ (d1117). Abelard relates the ment led by Hans Nielsen Hauge (1771–1824). controversy he provoked by arguing with teach- Her religious writings contributed to the dif- ers, and through his love affair with Heloise fusion of Pietism to a broader population and (1115–17), in his Historia calamitatum (1132/33). helped turn Pietism away from legalistic tenden- In his logical writings, Abelard promoted a cies and more in the direction of Evangelicalism. nominalist∗ understanding of linguistic terms. She recruited her husband and turned her home After Heloise gave birth to Astrolabe and osten- into a religious and cultural center. sibly secretly married Abelard, Abelard was cas- INGER FURSETH trated at her uncle’s behest. While she became a nun at Argenteuil, Abelard became a monk at Aaron, the older brother of Moses. Aaron speaks St. Denis and started writing about the Trinity∗, on Moses’ behalf (Exod 4, 7, 8). When Moses combining his linguistic interests with an under- is on Mount Sinai, Aaron yields to the people’s standing of God as the supreme good glimpsed request and makes the golden calf (Exod 32). by prophets and philosophers alike. Having The priesthood came to be limited to the de- escaped from St. Denis (1122), he constructed scendants of Aaron, the first high priest; among an oratory dedicated to the Paraclete∗, taken them, a special role was assigned to the descen- ∗ ∗ over by Heloise and her nuns in 1129. In the dants of Zadok .Hebrews 5:4 emphasizes 1130s, he corresponded much with Heloise, Aaron’s calling by God, but his priesthood is ∗ while reestablishing himself as a teacher in Paris. superseded by that of Melchizedek , who has He emphasized intention in his ethics and no genealogy and foreshadows Christ, himself a Christ’s redeeming example in commenting on descendant of Judah rather than of Aaron (Heb Paul (see Atonement #3). His theological writ- 7:11–14). Aaron later became a model for the ∗ ing was condemned at Soissons (1121) and Sens Christian bishop . (1141) at the instigation of Bernard∗ of Clair- Abba, Amma, Aramaic terms for “father” and vaux. CONSTANT J. MEWS “mother.” Jesus called God “Abba.” Title of the nd male or female superior of a monastic∗ commu- Abercius (2 c.), bishop of Hieropolis in Phry- nity. gia, whose epitaph, written in cryptic language, tells of his journey to Rome, as well as his travels Abbacy, the office, or term of office, of an abbot. through Syria as far as Nisibis∗, with Paul as his Abbess, Abbot, English designation (from Greek companion, finding a faith shared with people and Latin forms) for the female or male superior everywhere. ∗ of a monastic community. See also BENEDICT, ∗ a historic ruler (13–50 CE)ofEdessa, RULE OF; HIGUMEN. Abgar, a city-state between the Roman and Persian Abel, second son of Adam and Eve (Gen 4:1– Empires. He allegedly wrote a letter inviting 16), killed by his brother Cain∗ because Abel’s Jesus to continue his ministry in Mesopotamia. sacrifice as a shepherd was more satisfactory Eusebius∗ preserved Jesus’ answer, promising than that of Cain, a tiller of the soil. In the NT, an apostolic mission. Considered spurious in Abel is the first of many righteous persons (Matt the West, the correspondence played a signif- 23:35 = Luke 11:51; Heb 11:4); for the church, icant role in the East. The Syriac text Doctrine

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Abgar Abraham (in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam)

of Addai∗ (c400) described the apostle Thad- immoral sexual behavior. Until the 20th c., deus’s mission in Edessa. In the Syriac∗ and Christian theologians who believed procreation Armenian∗ churches, Thaddeus∗ (or Addai in to be the unique purpose of sexuality∗ con- Syriac) became the basis of apostolic succession, demned abortion and birth control, which they much as Peter did in Rome. The correspondence associated with prostitutes and adulterers. Yet mentions a portrait of Jesus painted on Abgar’s in popular practice, concerns for the pregnant request. ALEXANDER M IRKOVIC woman’s health and well-being (particularly in life-threatening situations) often moderated Abjuration, the formal renunciation of for- official attitudes. merly held beliefs, usually under pressure. In While contemporary Christian debates about Roman Catholic usage, the formal renunciation abortion continue to hinge on the question of of heretical ideas, persons, or practices. Abjura- “ensoulment” (when life begins), the debate tion could also mean the renunciation of the broadened beyond the morality of abortion “true faith” in order to avoid persecution, as to its legality. Historically, access to abortifa- the lapsed∗ did during the Decian∗ and other ∗ cients and women’s control over revealing early persecutions . The term also refers to the renun- pregnancies meant that many women obtained ciation of the devil∗ and the powers of evil as ∗ abortions within a certain veil of privacy. The part of baptism in the early church and today medicalization of pregnancy, birth control, and in some Protestant churches. abortion led to more public scrutiny of women’s Ablution, ceremonial washing of the hands for moral agency in reproductive decision mak- purification, especially by the priest after cele- ing. Many mainline Protestant denominations brating Communion∗. in the USA (United Church of Christ, Presbyte- rian Church [USA], Methodist, Episcopal) affirm Abortion refers to human action intentionally a woman’s legal and moral right to make repro- aimed at terminating a pregnancy∗. Historically, ductive decisions. The Roman Catholic Church women had three means of termination: inten- dropped the distinction between formed and tional blows to the abdomen to induce mis- unformed fetuses in 1869 (First Vatican∗ Coun- carriage, the administration of an abortifacient cil). In 1965 official Catholic teaching shifted the herbal mixture, or surgical removal. Scripture concern over abortion from the concealment of does not directly address abortion, and Chris- sexual sin to the protection of life. Regardless of tian statements about it are fragmentary until official church positions, evidence indicates that the 19th c. They reflect concerns for the fetus’s Christian women obtain abortions at the same ontological∗ status, sexuality∗, and the pregnant rate as women in the general population. woman’s health. REBECCA TODD PETERS In the rare references in Scripture and tradition, the moral status of a fetus is differ- Abraham (in Judaism, Christianity, and ent from that of an existing human. In Exod Islam). The significance of Abraham can per- 21:22–23, the punishment for causing a woman haps be summed up by two statements in the to miscarry is a compensatory payment to the Hebrew Scriptures. Abraham is the “friend of woman’s husband for his lost “property.” This God” (Isa 41:8) and the “ancestor of a multitude was consonant with Greco-Roman attitudes. In of nations” (Gen 17:4). In fact, the world’s two medieval penitentials, the penance for abor- largest faiths, Christianity and Islam∗, together tion was similar to that for stealing an ox, ra- with Judaism∗, out of which they grew, are ther than that for homicide. Furthermore, a dis- often called “the Abrahamic religions.” Abra- tinction was made between “unformed” fetuses ham is a foundational figure in all three. That and “formed” fetuses believed to possess a “soul∗.” he is the friend of God is cited with approval in Abortion was usually condemned only after a the NT (Jas 2:23) and in Islam, where he is called fetus was formed (Augustine∗,Aquinas∗). Aqui- Khalil Allah, “Friend of God.” nas (following Aristotle) established this date as The story of Abraham is told in Gen 12–25. 40 days (for males) or 90 days (for females) after What kind of material is this? First, these nar- conception. ratives were written many centuries later than Attitudes toward abortion and birth∗ control the events they depict, whose setting appears were closely associated with attitudes toward to be the second millennium BCE.Evenonthe sexual immorality. Poor women desiring abor- traditional assumption that Moses was the tion for economic reasons were considered less author, he would have been writing many sinful than women attempting to conceal generations later (Gen 15:13; 16:1–16 indicates

Abraham (in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam) Abuse as Pastoral Care Issue

a lengthy time between Abraham and the Exo- characteristic of that religion: Torah, faith, or dus); thus, the earliest modern pentateuchal surrender and obedience. Though it is some- criticism in the 18th c. attempted to detect within times proposed that Abraham could be an “ecu- Genesis the sources that Moses used. Since then, menical” or “normative” figure for the differing Gunkel, Van Seters, and Whybray have shown traditions (Kuschel), there simply is no “neu- that, in all likelihood, the material was initially tral” Abraham independent of the contours of passed on orally and was subsequently writ- each tradition (Levenson). Any attempt to reach ten by several different hands, all long after the behind Genesis to an “original” Abraham leads death of Moses, though dates and details cannot not to firm ground but only to unverifiable spec- be established with precision. ulations. The significant Abraham is the Abra- Second,vonRadandMoberlyhaveshown ham of particular traditions. that the stories presuppose aspects of Israel’s R. W. L. MOBERLY own history, which has been compressed into Abraham, Testament of, OT pseudepigraphon single episodes of depth and resonance, some- ∗ what as the stories of Robin Hood compress the recording how Abraham repeatedly manages to history and ideals of several centuries of English postpone the moment of his death, until he is experience into a fixed cast of characters and a finally outsmarted by God and the angels. In single historical context. The portrayal of Abra- a sequence of heavenly journeys, Abraham is enlightened about humanity’s sinfulness∗ and ham is inseparable from the impact he contin- ∗ ∗ ∗ ued to have in Israel. God’s justice , compassion , and mercy . Owing The famous story of the near sacrifice of to unsolved text-critical problems, questions of Isaac∗ (Gen 22:1–19; see Sacrifice of Isaac: The date and provenance remain unanswered. See Aqedah) illustrates these points. Its distinctive also PSEUDEPIGRAPHA OF THE OLD TESTA- character is marked by God’s requirement that MENT.JOHANNES TROMP Abraham sacrifice his son, an action prohibited Abram (Heb “the father is exalted”) was in Gen elsewhere (Jer 7:31). Yet God’s requirement has 12–25 the original name of Abraham∗,“the clearly been interpreted with language that else- ∗ father of a multitude” (Gen 17:5). The giving where characterizes Torah : God’s command is of a new name to the Patriarch as part of the a test (Gen 22:1) whose purpose is to estab- covenant confirmed God’s control even as it lish that Abraham fears God (22:12), terms that marked a new stage in Abraham’s story. recur in a prime interpretation of the purpose of God’s giving the Ten Commandments to Israel Absalom, third son of David∗. While he was (Exod 20:20). Moreover, the site of the sacri- attempting to usurp his father’s throne, his long fice is Moriah (Gen 22:2), elsewhere the site hair became entangled in an oak tree and he of the Jerusalem Temple (2 Chr 3:1); similarly was killed by David’s soldiers, despite David’s the “mountain of YHWH” (Gen 22:14b) sounds instructions. David’s mourning for Absalom like Jerusalem (Isa 2:3). This suggests that Abra- became legendary (2 Sam 18:33–19:8).

ham has been construed as a model for Israel’s ∗ appropriate responsiveness to God; his costly Absolution, the remission of sins by a priest or bishop on the basis of Christ’s promise (John relinquishment of Isaac interprets the mean- ∗ ing of Israel’s Torah obedience and sacriﬁcial 20:23), especially in connection with penance . Originally a prayer, it has been declaratory since worship. ∗ The NT sees Abraham’s action as that right the Fourth Lateran Council. responsiveness to God that Christians depict as ∗ ∗ Abstinence, refraining from certain things or faith (Heb 11:17–19; Jas 2:18–24), as Paul , ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ actions (1) because they are regarded as sinful Clement of Rome, Ambrose , and Augustine or harmful, (2) as penance∗, or (3) for the sake also emphasize, though Paul distances Abra- of self-discipline∗.Fasting∗ is a refusal of food ham’s faith from Torah obedience (obeying the more complete than abstinence. Law∗;Gal3;Rom4). The Qur’an∗ (37:83–113) sees Abraham as Abuse as Pastoral Care Issue. “Abuse” (from modeling surrender and obedience to God, old English, French, and Latin) means to Islam’s key concept, and retells the story in a “abuse,” i.e. “mis-use” or “mis-treat” someone way that led Muslims to identify the son with or something so as to cause harm. In the legal Ishmael∗ and the place with Mecca. area, “to abuse” means to mistreat persons in Thus in each Abrahamic religion, Abraham violation of their human∗ rights as deﬁned by a has been understood according to the categories particular culture∗. In the moral sense, it means

Abuse as Pastoral Care Issue Acosta de Samper, Soledad

to threaten the life and health of someone in Acacian Schism, the break of communion (see violation of religious law or tradition and to Schism) between Rome and Constantinople cause harm, including emotional trauma, physi- (482–519) because of the emperor Zeno’s Heno- cal injury, or death. In these definitions, “abuse” ticon∗. During this time, the popes became more describes the attitude of the one abusing, i.e. independent of Constantinople, capital of the intent to harm or reckless endangerment, as Byzantine Roman Empire; in 494 Gelasius diff- well as the consequences for the victim of abuse, erentiated the spiritual “authority” of the papacy the harm caused. and the temporal “power” of the Empire. In theology, the word “abuse” became promi- nent (mid-20th c.) in the development of three Accra Confession, a critique of the “neolib- ∗ theologies: Liberation∗ theologies arose from eral economics ” that has accompanied global- ∗ ∗ concern for the abuse of the poor through sys- ization , issued by the World Alliance of Refor- temic violence (see Poverty Cluster); Black∗ and med Churches in Accra, Ghana (2004), with Womanist∗ theologies arose from concern for statements beginning “We believe” and “We abuse during slavery∗ and afterward, especially condemn” (cf. the Barmen Declaration). It con- the sexual abuse of female slaves, and ongoing demns the spirit of competition, deregulation, racism∗; Feminist∗ theologies arose from con- and privatization that subordinates social obli- cern for the abuse of women in sexual and gations and the environment to capital accumu- domestic violence. Biblically, these theologies lation and economic growth. consider the abuse and death of Jesus as an the process of adopting the be- innocent victim to be the basis for Christian Acculturation, havior patterns of the culture in which one lives empathy for all victims of abuse. and/or the shared knowledge and values of a Pastoral care theory gradually shifted because society; the assimilation of new ideas into one’s of these theological trends. Pastoral caregivers culture; and ultimately, alienation from one’s began to expand their horizon beyond individ- ∗ original culture (contrast with Inculturation). ual sin as the primary cause of all human suffering to include a focus on care for the victims Acoemetae (Lat “Sleepless Ones”), name given of abusive agents and systems. Persons and fam- to a monastery outside Constantinople that spe- ilies seek care from churches not only because cialized in perpetual doxology and prayer, a of personal sin, but also because of oppression in forerunner in the organized monastic perfor- the form of family∗ violence∗, poverty, sexism∗, ∗ mance of laus perennis (perpetual prayer). Per- racism, and other ideological and socioeco- haps inspired by Syrian models, it was founded nomic systems. c410 near the Euphrates by an itinerant monk, Pastoral care practices shifted along with this Alexander, who was banished as a Messalian∗ change in theological perspective. Pastoral care- (427) because of his rigorous emphasis on givers have to sort out the internal and exter- prayer and poverty. Reformed under its third nal causes of human suffering. For victims, pas- leader, Marcellus, the monastery provided rules toral caregivers must develop a plan to cope and leaders for subsequent foundations (e.g. the with abusive systems, help victims to mourn Studios∗ Monastery) and became renowned for the losses they have sustained because of abuse, its library and staunch defense of the Council of ∗ and encourage them to reorganize a new life of Chalcedon .DANIEL F. CANER liberation from abuse. This three-stage healing process is based on a model of empowerment Acosta de Samper, Soledad (1833–1913, ∗ of victims of abuse rather than of confession , Colombia∗), historian, novelist, journalist. She ∗ ∗ repentance , and penance , which were charac- traveled extensively in Europe and the Amer- teristic of previous models. For abusers, pastoral icas while receiving a high level of educa- care requires sorting out the factors of sin, abu- tion, especially for a woman of that time. An sive attitudes, and behavior (inevitably part of active and devoted Roman Catholic, she married persons’ histories) and helping victims develop JoseMar´ ´ıa Samper, a liberal politician, and had another way of relating to persons nonviolently. three daughters. One of the most important and To exercise power over victims, abusers rely on prolific 19th-c. Colombian writers, she pub- deception, claim authority, and often maintain lished travel journals, romantic novels, plays, impunity afterward – issues difficult to resolve cultural studies, critical literary essays, and bi- in pastoral care and counseling. ographies, as well as letters and articles for six JAMES NEWTON POLING magazines (each of which she edited for a time).

Acosta de Samper, Soledad Acts of Supremacy

In all of her publications, she attempted to rec- The prototype was the account of the mar- oncile her Catholic faith with her quest for a tyrdom of Eleazar and of the mother and her more active role for women∗. seven sons in 2 Macc 6–7, who withstood all WILLIAM ELVIS PLATA threats and torture, and died bravely rather than allow themselves to be compromised by evil Volume 2 of Luke-Acts, Acts of the Apostles, rulers. Some of the earliest Christian accounts an anonymous narrative written post-70 and were written in the style of simple courtroom probably directed to Greek-speaking Christians ∗ trials (Justin , c155; the Scillitan martyrs, 180). throughout the Mediterranean world, telling of Others introduced the literary and theological a Jewish sect’s expansion from Jerusalem to embellishment that was to characterize later Rome within the context of Roman imperial ∗ accounts (Polycarp , c165; the martyrs of Lyon society (see Luke, Gospel of). Imperial values and Vienne, c170). The most popular 3rd-c. of order and stability, in a world with many ∗ acts were those of Perpetua and Felicitas in ethnic, cultural, and religious differences, aimed ∗ Carthage (c203) and of Cyprian (257). to unite the world under one justice system. While according to more objective historical Religious traditions’ fortunes depended on their accounts most magistrates who tried Christians compatibility with imperial norms. were not sadists, there are overtones in the The portrait of Acts’ hero, Paul∗ (Acts 7:58– martyr accounts of combating not political but 28:31), emerges in a period after his death ∗ demonic power. The martyrs do battle with evil when his legacy was contested. Was he a legit- in the form of magistrates and opponents. Only imate apostle, the apostle, or an apostle along- the power of God, acting through the martyrs, side the Twelve? Was he inferior or superior ∗ can overcome such evil power. Family , too, to them? Did Paul favor the established orders is sometimes part of the demonic power posed of society, like marriage, or was he a sexual against them (e.g. Perpetua and Felicitas). ascetic who destabilized the social order? Did The power of God acting through martyrs is Paul renounce Judaism∗, or was he a faithful demonstrated in several ways. The process of Jew still? Acts portrays Paul as a faithful Jew, martyrdom conforms to the Passion of Christ an apostle alongside but subordinate to Peter∗, (the Christ typology, as is the case in the pre- James∗, and the Twelve∗, who lived within the sentations of the martyrdom of Polycarp and established social order, appealing to Roman jus- of Blandina among the martyrs of Lyon). The tice and his Roman citizenship. He is depicted in ∗ power of the Holy Spirit is demonstrated in a positive light to people with imperial values prophecy and unusual courage (Perpetua and as a man of high status. He is a decisive man of Felicitas). The courage of the martyrs often con- action, with no mention being made of the let- verts others on the spot (Perpetua and Felic- ters he wrote. itas, 2Apologyof Justin). The beginnings of a Paul functioned as a model for Christians in cult of the martyrs can be seen in the gathering his cordial relations with both Jewish and Gen- and preservation of Polycarp’s remains. The seri- tile Christians, friendliness to authorities, will- ous question of perseverance is addressed; e.g. ingness to appeal to Roman justice for pro- Quintus the Phrygian in the Acts of Polycarp tection, courage in the face of difﬁculty, and ∗ at ﬁrst puts himself forward, then apostasizes ; unwavering zeal for spreading the message of Blandina’s mistress fears that her slave Blandina Christ to the ends of the earth. will not persevere, but she becomes the rallying Although split off from the Gospel of Luke point of the whole group. when the fourfold collection of the Gospels was By the 4th c., the cult of the martyrs was in made, Acts joined the NT as the introduction to ∗ full swing; every catacomb in Rome had its the “Apostles” section of the canon. Its story of own martyrs, and other martyrdom accounts the Twelve and Paul provided lenses for reading were produced, becoming more and more leg- Paul’s letters and the other epistles. endary. While these later accounts were writ- CHARLES H. TALBERT ten in times of peace to entertain and edify, the Acts of Martyrs. This literary genre, highly earlier accounts were written while the possibil- popular in the 3rd and 4th c., was based on ity of violent death for the faith was still real. historical events, enhanced especially by chris- See also MARTYRDOM.CAROLYN OSIEK tological typology∗; it was intended to rein- Acts of Philip. See PHILIP, ACTS OF. force memory, to provide encouragement, and to facilitate spiritual formation. Acts of Supremacy. See SUPREMACY, ACTS OF.

Adam and Eve Addams, Jane

Adam and Eve (Heb for “man” and “life”), the (4th c.), Theodore∗ of Mopsuestia, and Narsai first man and woman (Gen 2–3), thus the pro- (5th c.). It was the uniform liturgy through- genitors of the entire human race. Their eat- out Mesopotamia postulated by the Synod of ing of the fruit is said to have been the cause Seleucia-Ctesiphon (410), yet was subjected to of later hardships (Gen 3:16–19) and of human many reforms, especially that of Ishoyahb III sin∗ (Rom 5:12–14). Throughout Christian his- (647–57). tory, some emphasized that Eve, who alone had The Liturgy of Addai and Mari is distinguished contact with the tempting serpent, was first led by its primitive constitution and austere sim- astray (1 Tim 2:14); yet even patriarchal interpre- plicity. Three anaphoras∗ (eucharistic prayers) tation affirmed that Adam, the decision maker, are conventionally celebrated: the Anaphora of bore the chief responsibility. Both were affirmed the Apostles Addai and Mari; the Hallowing of to have been made in the image∗ of God (Gen Mar Nestorius∗; and the Hallowing of Theodore 1:27), and Paul asserted that there is no dif- of Mopsuestia. The ecclesiastical “menology” ference between male and female “in Christ” (liturgical calendar) has nine liturgical propers (1 Cor 11:11–12; Gal 3:28). Later Adam was often (texts changing from service to service). viewed as foreshadowing Christ, and Eve as Its liturgical cachet includes cantillation foreshadowing the church. Tatian∗ (late 2nd c.) (intoned liturgical recitation), a solemn doxol- was criticized for denying the salvation of ogy, and incensation∗. Its euchological hymnal, Adam and Eve. During the Pelagian∗ contro- To Thee, O Lord, uniquely integrates what other versy, it was debated whether their sin spread churches call “the words of eucharistic institu- to others through imitation (Pelagianism) or tion” into successive hymns of thanksgiving and through generation (see Original Sin). Since the praise, and in the intercession that precedes the Enlightenment∗, many theologians have pre- epiclesis∗ – the prayer through which, from an ferred to speak of “the first human beings,” Orthodox perspective, believers “ascend to” the without proper names, and to ask what features consecration (a mysterious, eternal reality, the of the human condition might give rise to sin. changing of the bread and the wine into the True Body and the True Blood of Christ, Adams, John (1735–1826), second president which Christ effected once and for all). of the USA. Adams initially considered going SHAWQI N. TALIA into the ministry, but instead studied law. He maintained lifelong beliefs in a ruling God, Addams, Jane (1859–1935), US reformer, edu- morality, and an afterlife of reward or punish- cator, pacifist, democratic theorist. A mem- ment. For Adams, a Deist∗, traditional Christian- ber of the first generation of college-educated ity perverted Jesus’ moral teachings by turning women, Addams called women to lead mean- them into confused doctrines about his divinity. ingful lives based on a “certain renascence” of Adams believed religion∗ was crucial because Christianity. Hull House, the pioneering set- it reinforced the morality that a free nation tlement that she and a co-worker founded required. He called the Bible “the most Republi- (1889), aimed at “mitigating” and “ameliorat- can Book in the World,” containing “the most ing” – Addams’s terms – the social, economic, profound philosophy” and “the most perfect and political upheavals triggered by the arrival Morality” ever, and yet he felt that misinter- of millions of immigrants in the USA from 1880 pretations of Scripture∗ had created tyrants and to 1915. Based on hospitality∗,charity∗,and inspired unjust wars. JAMES P. BYRD concern for the weak, poor, and stranger, Hull House was never denominational, yet a Chris- Addai and Mari, Liturgy of, the liturgical tian undercurrent permeated its many activi- rite of the Church∗ of the East (in classical ties, uniting women and men in a commu- Syriac) used by the Chaldean∗, Syriac∗,and nity life of service in a “congested immigrant Malabar∗ churches. It is linked to the apostolic quarter” in Chicago. Addams’s loosely Quaker age through the Syriac legend (c400) “Doctrine background helps to explain her later pacifism∗ of Addai” (Addai is the Syriac name for Thad- as the stance most consistent with the teach- deus, a 1st-c. disciple of the apostle Thomas∗). Its ings of Jesus, the great moral teacher. (Addams independent prototype, as historical and litur- doubted the Incarnation.) For Addams, democ- gical evidence shows, is Edessan∗ (c120–30), racy encompasses social justice and civic peace, not Antiochene∗ (as was believed), although as well as individual rights, although she did not it includes some Antiochene vestiges. The ear- neglect ethical duties and obligations. Addams liest commentaries are those of Aphrahat∗ envisioned a providential role for the USA, as

Addams, Jane Adventism

did Abraham Lincoln, who noted that “God’s Adventism (Lat Adventus, “coming; arrival”), a purposes are not our own,” even for Americans, movement within Protestantism, arising partic- “the almost chosen people.” However, Addams’s ularly in mid-19th-c. North America, focusing on sturdiest beliefs were in democracy, not in reli- the imminent second coming of Jesus to destroy gious creeds. JEAN BETHKE ELSHTAIN sin∗ and establish the everlasting Kingdom∗ of Heaven. Adiaphora, Adiaphorists. Adiaphorists hold some things or actions to be indifferent (Gk adi- Emergence. Throughout its history, Christian aphora), neither good nor evil in themselves. thought has regularly included the prospect During the Reformation, however, some held ∗ of the “second advent,” i.e. Jesus’ return to that in a situation of confession (status confes- earth to establish the Kingdom∗ of God. This sionis), acts that would otherwise be indiffer- prospect has periodically erupted into renewed ent might constitute an erroneous witness∗ to ∗ ∗ fervor in various Christian circles in connection the gospel .ThePietists typically held, against with prophesied cataclysmic events or milestones. other Lutherans, that worldly pleasures, espe- Such a resurgence marked the Second Great∗ cially dancing and the theater, were intrinsically Awakening, a revival in the northeastern USA sinful rather than indifferent. and Great Britain in the 1800s. The emergence of this popular religious movement was based Adivasis, “original dwellers of the land” in ∗ on Baptist and Methodist interpretations of the India , about 60–70 million indigenous people apocalyptic∗ books of Daniel∗ and Revelation∗. belonging to some 635 ethnocultural minority Central to the movement was William Miller∗ communities, which have been neither annihi- (1782–1849), a Baptist farmer and lay preacher lated nor integrated into Indian society; subal- ∗ in Low Hampton, New York. Miller and others tern communities called “tribal ”bytheIndian calculated and preached Jesus’ return in 1843– administration. Most Christians in India are ∗ 44 to as many as 100,000 followers from various either Dalits or Adivasis. Protestant denominations. When their strongest Adjuration, an urgent demand to do or stop prediction failed to materialize, in the “great dis- doing something, rendered more solemn by appointment” of October 22, 1844, most of their being coupled with the name of God, e.g. the adherents left the movement. A nucleus of “Mil- high priest saying to Jesus, “I adjure you by the lerites” convened in Albany, New York, in 1845 living God, tell us if you are the Christ, the Son to reafﬁrm their faith in an imminent, personal of God” (Matt 26:23) (contrast with Abjuration). return of Jesus – an enduring central element in Adventist thought and teaching. ∗ Adoptianism, a form of Adoptionism , advo- From this experience, the Adventist move- catedinSpainandFranceinthe8th c., which ment has evolved into several denominational ∗ ∗ Charlemagne rejected as a heresy . groups, including the Advent Christian Church, the Church of God General Conference, and the term given by historians to Adoptionism, the Church of God (Seventh Day). The largest any view that Jesus was a human being who denomination is the Seventh-day Adventist was adopted as the Son of God at his baptism Church (North America, 0.9 million [M] mem- (cf. Mark 1:11), perhaps even at his resurrection bers; and 11.9 M in 204 other countries, espe- (cf. Rom 1:4). The alternative understanding is cially in Central and South America [4.2 M], that Jesus is the incarnation∗ of the second per- ∗ Africa [4.2 M], and Asia [2.4 M]). Formative son of the Trinity . See also CHRISTOLOGIES in the history of this denomination were the CLUSTER. ∗ speaking and writing of Ellen White , a youth- Adoration, worship∗ of God; veneration∗ of ful follower of Miller whose lifelong guidance saints and of earthly authorities. regarding the church’s teachings and organiza- tion derived from visionary experiences. Advent (from Lat for “coming”). In the West- Adventists today embrace the core con- ern Church, the period of four Sundays before victions of Christianity (although the non- Christmas∗ or, in the Eastern Church, the period trinitarian views of some early Adventists con- of six weeks also called “Nativity Fast.” The tinue to be held by members of the Church of beginning of the church year, Advent is a time God General Conference). Characteristic beliefs, for commemorating Christ’s “ﬁrst coming” and in addition to the emphasis on the second anticipating his “second∗ coming.” See also advent, typically include conditional immortal- LITURGICAL YEAR. ity, according to which, at death, the individual

Adventism Aesthetics and Theology

abides in an unconscious condition until the nizations, their eschatological thrust does not eschatological resurrection. Most Adventists are exempt them from the challenges of routinized Premillennialists∗. corporate life. The question is then: how should An early subcurrent within the Adventist the vitality of Millennialist fervor be trans- movement was the observance of the seventh muted into a more settled and mature spiritu- day of the week (Saturday) as symbolizing ality? With the cultural diversity that accompa- God’s creatorship, the redemptive act at Cal- nies mission outreach, Adventists are increas- vary, and future re-creation. This Christian sab- ingly challenged to contextualize∗ thought and batarian practice continues in the Church of God expression while maintaining essential unity (Seventh Day) and the Seventh-day Adventist in doctrine and polity worldwide. See also Church, and among non-Adventist Christians SEVENTH-DAY ADVENTIST WORSHIP; WHITE, such as Seventh Day Baptists. ELLEN GOULD. JOHN R. JONES Seventh-day Adventist teachings uniquely emphasize a high-priestly ministry of Jesus in Advowson, the authority of a bishop to appoint the heavenly sanctuary. a member of the clergy to a parish; or the In keeping with their apocalyptic∗ heritage, authority of a layperson to “present” the nom- Adventists tend to regard the world as declin- inee for appointment. See also PATRONAGE. ing spiritually. Their conviction concerning the “shortness of the time” (i.e. the end of time is Aesthetics and Theology. The relationship near) translates into active evangelistic efforts to between Christian theology and aesthetics has “warn” their fellow humans of all faiths about been creatively re-explored by a number of con- a soon-coming Judgment∗ and restoration of temporary thinkers. Whereas traditional philo- all things. While this has led to rapid mem- sophical approaches to theology tended to bership growth, especially among Seventh-day privilege Western notions of knowledge (epis- Adventists, it has also in the past produced ten- temology∗), being (ontology∗), or the good sion with fellow Christians. Recent decades have (ethics∗), aesthetics opens Western theology to brought a more ecumenical spirit. a more accessible domain of imagination and Adventists’ pessimism regarding the fate of poetics. Whereas doctrinal theory tended to the present world does not deter them from en- hierarchize and exclude, aesthetic experience gaging in social activism. Many early Millerites tends to traverse and translate. worked to end slavery∗ and, later, to foster Though beauty was always considered one educational programs for Americans of African of the transcendental properties, going back to descent. Liberation∗ theologians in South Amer- Thomas Aquinas∗ and medieval Scholasticism∗, ica recognize Seventh-day Adventist mission- it was most emphatically in the 20th c. that aries as their precursors in working on behalf an aesthetic renewal of Christian theology of oppressed groups. Church-supported pub- came to fruition. This took various forms. lic health∗ programs and social work, as well Within Catholic thought, one finds Hans Urs as disaster relief and economic development von∗ Balthasar’s theological readings of literary projects, are common pursuits among Adven- and artistic works and Umberto Eco’s retrieval tists in many countries. Church-affiliated edu- of Thomistic poetics, in the wake of James cational institutions are disproportionately high Joyce. Within Jewish thinking, one witnesses among Adventists worldwide. These patterns a revival of mystical, Hasidic, and Kabbalistic derive from holistic attitudes that regard the writings on symbol, dream, and fable in such human condition in its physical, mental, social, influential authors as Martin Buber∗,Gershom and spiritual dimensions as subject to the divine Scholem, and Ernst Bloch (where the influ- program of renewal already in this life. ence of German romanticism is also evident). Disagreements today focus more on the ordi- Within the Orthodox tradition, one finds the nation of women∗ (favored in North America mystical strains of Dostoyevsky’s∗ poetics mix- and Europe, opposed in South America, Africa, ing with the semiotic musings of Julia Kris- and the Confucian cultures). teva on the Virgin Mary and the Song of Songs or of John Zizioulas on messianism and escha- Challenges. The Adventist experience sharp- tology. Finally, within the Protestant tradition ens the tension latent in all of Christianity, of of Bultmann∗ and Ricoeur∗, one sees a more living “between the times” – a challenge that hermeneutic retrieval of the hidden existential grows with time. As Adventist groups move meanings behind the great symbols, myths, and from sectarian to mainline church–type orga- metaphors of the Christian narrative.

Aesthetics and Theology African American Churches

But it is doubtless in the so-called religious the Old∗ Latin translation of the Bible. Early turn in contemporary Continental thought that major figures include Tertullian∗ (c197–c220); we find one of the most robust debates on Cyprian∗, who dealt with moral and eccle- the relationship between aesthetics and the- sial issues raised by the first major persecu- ology. Here we encounter a curious blend of tion (250–58); and Arnobius and Lactantius∗ the traditions of mystical and patristic theology (3rd c.). Donatism∗ grew out of the persecution with sophisticated phenomenological analyses under Diocletian (303–5), creating a schism (for- of icons∗, images, poems, paintings, and liturgi- mally ended in 411). Augustine∗ had a major cal acts. Perhaps the most influential figures to influence on the Western Church’s understand- date are French thinkers like Jean-Luc Marion, ing of the Trinity∗, Christology∗, evil∗,and Jean-Louis Chretien,´ and Jean-Yves Lacoste, grace∗. When the Vandals∗, who were Arians∗, who seek – after Heidegger∗ and Derrida – to invaded Africa (429), the Nicene Church contin- retrieve an aesthetics of religious intuition and ued, often under persecution. The reconquest of presence within the biblical and theological tra- Africa under Justinian (534) brought the region ditions. And in the English-speaking world, we back into contact with Constantinople; ironi- might also mention the work of David Tracy, cally, it became a center of opposition to the John Manoussakis, Kevin Hart, and Richard doctrinal policies of the emperors, first in the Kearney, thinkers who attempt to explore the Three∗ Chapters controversy (543–53) and then possibilities of a new poetics of religion in a post- in the monothelite∗ controversy (646–49). The modern age. Muslim Conquest (from 648) led to the end Aesthetics provides an opening up of the of the African Church, weakened by a succes- ∗ question of God from a common space of expe- sion of controversies. See also HISTORY OF rience, prior to issues of denominational doc- CHRISTIANITY CLUSTER: IN AFRICA: NORTH ∗ trine and dogma , systematic speculation, or AFRICA. EUGENE TESELLE Church dogmatics. As such it proposes a quasi- universal space where the Divine may present itself to peoples of very different cultures and AFRICAN AMERICAN CLUSTER religions. Thus it offers an ethic of intercon- fessional hospitality that readily accommodates African American Churches and non-Western perceptions of God and the sacred. Their Theologies The emergence of important work in compar- African American Holiness ative theology – notably by Christian scholars African American Literature and in dialogue with Hinduism (Francis Clooney) or Christianity Buddhism (Joseph O’Leary) – is promising in this regard. Where the traditional approach to African Americans and the Bible Christian theology was characterized by explic- African American Theologies itly Western notions of metaphysics and episte- mology, the approach of a new poetics of God is more open to peoples of diverse religious per- African American Churches and Their suasions and cultures. Where dogma divides, Theologies. Neither formal confessional art reconciles. See also ARTS AND THEOLOGY; statements nor lengthy and learned trea- HIEROTOPY, THE CREATION OF CHRISTIAN tises constituted the core of African Amer- SACRED SPACES. RICHARD KEARNEY ican theologies. Rather the experience ∗ ∗ of slavery , segregation, and other acts Aeterni Patris. The encyclical of Leo XIII of involuntary servitude became the ele- (1879) encouraging the study of “Christian phi- ∗ ments out of which black religious thought losophy,” specifically that of Thomas Aquinas , was forged. Although African Ameri- but not to the exclusion of other Christian cans accepted Catholicism, joined vari- thinkers, many of whom are named with appre- ous Protestant bodies, and developed their ciation. own separate denominations, the doc- Africa, Roman. Christianity came to Carthage trines of these diverse religious organi- and its region during the 2nd c.; there are zations blended with foundational ideas written records of the Scillitan martyrs (c180) that derived from their history as racially and Perpetua∗ (203). When Christians in Rome oppressed and economically marginalized were still using Greek, the African Church peoples. began using Latin in its liturgy and produced

African American Churches African American Churches

African Americans in the 18th to early the liberationist thrust of black religious 19th c. became Anglican, Dutch Reformed, thinking in the late 19th c. The search for Roman Catholic, Baptist, Methodist, Pres- a glorious African past discovered in Scrip- byterian, Congregational, and members of ture and biblical history provided evi- many other Christian movements. Each dence for contemporary claims of civic and group promulgated particular doctrines human equality. These perspectives were that distinguished them from the others. persuasively presented in Benjamin T. Hence African American Baptists, like Euro- Tanner’s exploration The Color of Solomon – American Baptists, argued for immersion What? (1895), Henry M. Turner’s decla- as the only mode of baptism∗,justas ration that “God is a Negro” (1898), and African Methodists, like Wesleyan whites, other Afrocentric texts. stressed the sequential importance of sal- Although 20th-c. African American vation∗ and sanctification∗. These alle- churches pursued the salvation∗ of souls giances, however, yielded to general Black and developed Social∗ Gospel programs, theologies that transcended the denomina- black religious intellectuals mainly in the tional affiliations of African Americans. 1930s and 1940s in both campus and Institutional Black religion before the church settings articulated a theology that Civil War existed mainly in the north- aimed morally to discredit legalized Jim eastern and midwestern areas of the USA. Crow. Mordecai W. Johnson, Benjamin E. Though slavery had largely disappeared, Mays, Howard Thurman∗, William Stuart African Americans in the North either Nelson, George Kelsey, and other scholars had been slaves or experienced racial dis- advanced critiques arguing that racial crimination and violence outside of the segregation and discrimination were sinful South. Hence, their churches espoused and immoral. Their pastoral counterparts, liberationist∗ themes in their theological William Holmes Borders, Archibald J. pronouncements. Henry Highland Garnet, Carey, Jr., Vernon Johns, Adam Clay- a Presbyterian pastor in 1843, called on ton Powell, Jr., and others in pulpits slaves to resist their masters and take their throughout the nation echoed the theme freedom. Frederick Douglass∗, a onetime that US apartheid was morally wrong. African∗ Methodist Episcopal (AME) Zion Inspired by Mahatma Gandhi and the exhorter, similarly stressed the urgency fight for India’s independence from Great of abolitionism. Christianity among slaves Britain, these black professors and preach- emphasized hermeneutic approaches to ers embraced satyagraha, or soul force, Scripture that affirmed the humanity of as a philosophical foundation for civil African Americans and expressed belief in disobedience and nonviolent direct action. divine deliverance from bondage. Martin Luther King∗,Jr.,JamesM.Law- The Civil War seemed a prophetic ful- son, and other activists in SCLC, CORE, fillment as black chaplains served black SNCC, the NAACP and other groups drew troops in the Union army and black sol- from these ideas, and discredited and diers viewed their service as ordained by destroyed legalized racial segregation and God. Theophilus G. Steward, an AME discrimination. These African American minister, best expressed the mindset of Christian and Gandhian ideas, however, black church leaders who evangelized in were engaged with the influential per- the defeated Confederacy and collectively spectives of the Nation of Islam, which declared that “I seek my brethren.” Some rejected the “beloved community” as an started churches and others simultane- objective for the civil rights movement and ously served as officeholders in Recon- nonviolence as a tactic to achieve black struction governments. One AME con- equality. gregation in Raleigh, North Carolina, The Black Theology Movement, which explicitly espoused the freedom theme by formally started in 1966 with the pub- calling itself the Lincoln Church because lication of James H. Cone’s classic Black it possessed a statue of the martyred Theology and Black Power, challenged white president and emancipator Abraham Lin- churches and US society to recognize that coln. Black Millennialism∗ supplemented authentic justice meant that the material