DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 463 848 PS 030 260

AUTHOR le Roux, Willemien TITLE The Challenges of Change: A Tracer Study of San Preschool Children in . Early Childhood Development: Practice and Reflections. Following Footsteps. INSTITUTION Bernard Van Leer Foundation, The Hague (Netherlands). REPORT NO No-15 ISBN ISBN-90-6195-062-7 ISSN ISSN-1382-4813 PUB DATE 2002-02-00 NOTE 115p.; Funding provided by UNICEF Botswana. For number 14 in this series, see ED 462 143. AVAILABLE FROM Bernard van Leer Foundation, P.O. Box 82334, 2508 EH, The Hague, Netherlands. Tel: 31-70-3512040; Fax: 31-70-3502373; e-mail: [email protected]; Web site: http://www.bernardvanleer.org. PUB TYPE Books (010)-- Reports Evaluative (142)-- Tests/Questionnaires (160) EDRS PRICE MF01/PC05 Plus Postage. DESCRIPTORS *Academic Achievement; Comparative Analysis; Corporal Punishment; *Culturally Relevant Education; Developing Nations; Dropouts; Followup Studies; Foreign Countries; Intervention; *Minority Groups; Outcomes of Education; Parent Attitudes; *Parents; *Primary Education; Program Descriptions; Social Change; Student Adjustment; Teacher Attitudes; *Young Children IDENTIFIERS Botswana; *

ABSTRACT This report details findings of a study undertaken during 1993-1995 in the District of Botswana to ascertain the progress of the San children in primary school, comparing children who attended preschool to those who did not. The report also describes the Bokamoso Preschool Programme, started in 1986. Data for the study were collected through interviews with San parents and questionnaires and interviews with primary school teachers. Findings focus attention on the difficulties of the San people in responding to current demands that they earn a livelihood through agriculture rather than through traditional hunting and gathering practices. San people have found it difficult to understand and adjust to the formal system of education in which children are often sent to boarding schools far from their parents. The main findings deal with the lack of mother-tongue teaching and materials in the primary schools, the lack of cultural understanding, and the system of corporal punishment in the schools. The report concludes with 13 recommendations for improving the chances of success for San children entering the formal education system. An epilogue adds further recommendations made by the San themselves and general recommendations for governments and nongovernmental organizations in the area of education. Two appendices contain the tracer study questionnaire and additional data tables. (Contains 26 references.) (KB)

Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made from the original document. 0 0 * 0

f I 0 0 : P

U S DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE AND Office of Educational Research and Improvement DISSEMINATE THIS MATERIAL HAS EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATION BEEN GRANTED BY CENTER (ERIC) yThis document has been reproduced as received from the person or organization originating it 13. Al OchePt El Minor changes have been made to improve reproduction quality

TO THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES Points of view or opinions stated in this INFORMATION CENTER (ERIC) document do not necessarily represent official OERI position or policy 1

trnar Van 4 About the Bernard van Leer Foundation The Bernard van Leer Foundation is a private foundation based in The Netherlands. It operates internationally.

The Foundation aims to enhance opportunities for children 0-8 years, growing up in circumstances of social and economic disadvantage, with the objective of developing their potential to the greatest extent possible. The Foundation concentrates on children 0-8 years because research findings have demonstrated that interventions in the early years of childhood are most effective in yielding lasting benefits to children and society.

The Foundation accomplishes its objectives through two interconnected strategies: oa grantmaking programme in selected countries aimed at developing culturally and contextually appropriate approaches to early childhood care and development; and othe sharing of knowledge and know-how in the domain of early childhood development that primarily draws on the experiences generated by the projects that the Foundation supports, with the aim of informing and influencing policy and practice.

The Foundation currently supports approximately 150 projects in 40 selected countries world wide, both developing and industrialised. Projects are implemented by project partner organisations that may be governmental or non-governmental. The lessons learned and the knowledge and know-how in the domain of early childhood development that are generated through these projects, are shared through a publications programme.

The Bernard van Leer Foundation was established in 1949. Its income is derived from the bequest of Bernard van Leer, a Dutch industrialist and philanthropist, who lived from 1883 to 1958.

CIP-DATA KONINKLLIKE BILBLIOTHEEK, DEN HAAG le Roux, Willemien The challenge of change: A tracer study San preschool children in Botswana Willemien le Roux

- The Hague : Bernard van Leer Foundation Ill. (Early childhood development: practice and reflections) ISSN 1382-4813 ISBN 90-6195-062-7

Subject headings: childcare, community development, early childhood project, preschool, primary school cover photo: by Coby Visser A ° 0 0 0 0 ' 0 I . 0 . 0 0 000 0. 0 A O 0 0 00 A0 . A '90 A . S. O 000 0

0 . 0 A 00 A 0 ft

00 0 0 A

A ID 00 . 00O A0 I .

A0 0 I. A 0 A

A0 09 0 . AO A .

0 0 0 A 0 0. 0 0 OSO

00 .

e see 0-- oe -

00 0 0 A 00 0 A0

0 0AA 09 0 . 0 II

0 0 0 A0 AO 0 0

O 0 .01 0 . . :0 0

- 0-o. I ' 010 . - De .

-1, eel, D-- es - 10 e -s op .1.0 -0

s 40-e -0 0 0

II* D-- op -

s

o - - . el e . o se e-

S. :e

5- G 0 . - :

. : .. -0 0 D . . -0.0 - 0

I- - - 0 5 A 0 0 A : . ' 0 .

0 . . 0A0O A . . .

00 0 . . oe . . o 0-- so - 0 AO

O 0 o -0 . 0

. 0 . . -0 .o : o 0.0 111 0 0 0.: Contents

Foreword 4 Acknowledgements 8 Glossary/abbreviations 9 Executive summary 11 Map of the area 12

Chapter one Introduction 14

Chapter two Early childhood in Botswana 20

Chapter three The people: a closer look 30

Chapter four The surveyhow it was done 42

Chapter five The survey results 48

Chapter six Discussions and conclusions 70

Chapter seven Recommendations 82

Epilogue 88

Bibliography 100

Appendix One Enrolments, repetition rates and dropouts in 104 Ghanzi District, 1997-2000

Appendix Two Survey questionnaire io8 rn'

arr' 74,71

A

".7 bfre

^ N.'*"

"7".

, - 01 44, r,r;42

,

4 , ; k -AO

41. rrrrr

1,.4".,k,

r. `. . , .- , e,!,,' 444, .'"' IZ'it ,d1.14 e.44'..4,... ' '.'fkr''' '''''"-. It. i .1A.'4 '''..;"' ;''Ir'"'" '' 4, ..,,, ' ^,;;irr.r. t''''s .!... 4 IA ' `rr ' t' ' ' 4" -.44,34...,..14",t4.''. -44 - -:^, 4 :,7," '' . .44.2::"-,,,..:',',,..','4,444,,,f4,-, Tr.."' :-- '' '"

, "rrCP rk ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,4",,,"..,44..:,, , - :.' t r ,,,,, r. '. i' 4.,1`,,, " ., ': 4: ,4.1,...... , r ,' ^- ' - 4.04 1rt . ...,,,,,,,rrk r ..... - 40,.....i r.' `r A ' ' ;,...,,,,-1,44.,,.re ,,,f A -, 1. .,- El..., (- .r...... ,...., P 7' r - '.r' -. r rr- r- f .' , . . ..., PO r',..,.. t..,4,--,,,.,..447:17.,...,`a,..."; ,.,'14.,1,..,,,,, ,,..r'r..,7:,''' 1,kk,k ,,,,,,..,..,tk,,, ktk1-1. I t f Foreword

The San (also called Bushman or Basarwa) population of Botswana is among the last groups of hunter-gatherers still surviving into the 21st century. Few of the San are now able to exist solely by hunting and gatheringmuch of the land they used to live from is now fenced and farmed, while most of the animals they hunted can now only be found in protected game reserves. The values and norms by which the San have lived for centuries are different in many respects to those of the majority of the Botswana population; thus, adaptation brings with it barriers that can seem insurmountable for both adults and children.

This report of a tracer study of the Bokamoso Preschool Programme describes very clearly, sometimes poignantly, how these differing values and norms affect the children of the San. In traditional society, San children were not kept apart nor confined to 'classes'. It was a society in which children were brought up as equals with adults. When small, they were in almost continual bodily contact with adults; they learned by listening, watching and practising; they were disciplined orally, not physically.

The Bokamoso Programme has its origins in a preschool that started in 1983 at a small farm in Ghanzi District. Over the years, it has grown to include a full-fledged preschool teacher training programme and preschools in the settlements of the Kalahari that have been established by the Government of Botswana to accommodate Remote Area Dwellerswho mainly comprise the San.

Despite the efforts of the people working in the programme, it was apparent to them that the San children were facing enormous difficulties in adjusting to primary school, and it was reported that many children were dropping out at an early stage. This is the background to the decision to trace as many preschool graduates as possible, to find out where they were and what they were doing, and to look for the reasons behind success or failure.

It is a sad reflection of how little has changed that we can now republish the report of the study that was carried out in 1993/1994 and first published by the Kuru Development Trust in 1995. Additional background material, and new findings from research on the situation of San children, is also included to help to bring the Bokamoso story up to date.

Against a background of a people forced to adopt a new lifestyle, the results are in some respects encouraging: children wiio had attended the preschools were mostly still in school, there were many instances of parents who were very supportive of the photo: Gerry Sa bole Bernard van Leer Foundation

preschools and of formal education in general, some head teachers were trying to adapt the school to the realities of the community, and many of the children believed to have dropped out were, in fact, still in school. What the report refers to as a 'statistical illusion' was mostly the result of inadequate record keeping.

Through a combination of interviews with children, parents and teachers, documentary research and observation, the report brings alive the problems of the language gap, differences of opinion on discipline, socio-cultural misunderstandings and factors in their home and family circumstances that affect the children.

Since the early 1980s, the Government of Botswana has made many efforts to reach out to the San with the provision of water, food, education, health and other services and, not least, trained workers. Yet 20 years of such efforts have still left many San families in desperate circumstances. While this report does not eXplain why this has happened, it gives us many hints and lessons that can be applied in other situations involving work with indigenous or other minority groups.

The tracer studies The early childhood interventions supported by the Foundation are action projects that are implemented by locally based partners in the field. Their objectives are concerned with developing and improving the lives of children and their families and communities in the here and now, based on the hypothesis that this will lay the foundations for improved opportunities in the future. These projects have not been conceived or implemented as research studies in which children/families have been randomly assigned to 'treatment' or 'control' groups, and they have not usually been subjected to tests or other research instruments.

Evidence exists on the longer term effects of early childhood interventions, much of it coming from longitudinal studies that have been implemented as research projects in industrialised countries. The outcomes are mixed, although usually fairly positive. Other evidence, mostly anecdotal, is available from early childhood projects such as those supported by the Foundation, and again, this is mostly positive.

In 1998, after more than 30 years of support for field projects, the Foundation decided to commission a number of studies that would trace former participants of projects to find out how they were faring a minimum of five years after they had left the programme. Although evaluation has been a major element in early childhood programmes supported by the Foundation, we had never gone back to find out how people are doing a number of years later.

9 Foreword

Other similar studies are taking place, or have been completed, in countries as widely spread as Jamaica and Kenya, Israel and India, the USA, Ireland, Colombia and Trinidad. Each of the programmes studied is different in its target group, in its context and in its strategies. This means that the methods used to trace former participants and discover their current status are almost as varied as the original programmes. We are emphasising an anthropological and qualitative approach that uses small samples of former participants, matching them where possible with individuals/families that share similar characteristics for the purpose of comparison.

The present tracer study from Botswana predates the Foundation's interest in such studies, and it was, in fact, one of the factors that inspired us to delve more deeply into the medium-term effects of early childhood programmes. Although it was carried out by the same people who implement the programme, and although there is no comparison group, it gives us a rich and varied picture of the very many factors that have an influence on children as they grow older. It shows us, among other things, that there is far more to child development than preschool, and that if the school system is not congruent with home circumstances, the children will have to make immense efforts to achieve any form of success.

Our intention is to share the results of the individual studies with as wide an audience as possible, as well as to undertake an analysis of a group of the studies to see what lessons can be learned in terms of both outcomes and methods.

We anticipate that each study report will be a source of learning and reflection in its own context and country as well as for a wider public. As a whole, we hope that these exercises in following footsteps will contribute to a better understanding of the effects, and effectiveness, of early childhood programmes.

Ruth N Cohen Bernard van Leer Foundation Bernard van Leer 6) Foundation

Acknowiled(0)evnents

This study was the product of a team effort by the Bokamoso Staff and several volunteers, people who generously shared their time and knowledge on a short term basis.

I would first like to thank the staff of the Bokamoso Preschool Programme who participated in the collection of information for this tracer study during 1994 and 1995, adding the extra work into their normal working day: Gaolatlhe Thupe, Maithamako Keakopa and Qgoma Qhomatcaa were the main interviewers. They were guided in the process by Nomtuse Mbere, then working with SNV Netherlands, who acted as consultant for Bokamoso. Members of the 1994-1995 Advisory Board of Bokamoso assisted in various ways, with practical assistance in the further collection and analysis of data as well as preparation of the report. Coby Visser and Beppie Wessels volunteered many hours in collecting additional data as needed.

UNICEF Botswana provided the funding for the extra field work and the printing of the initial report, and especially Philip Kgosana gave editorial assistance and general advice. Dan Chatman from Kuru Development Trust, my mother, Pollie Jerling, and Paul van Hoof (SNV Netherlands) gave editing and editorial assistance, and Jan Wessels helped to analyse the statistics. Frank van Bfissel (from SNV, then District Officer Lands, Ghanzi District Council) provided much demographic information for the background to the areas in which the study was done.

The Education Officer in Ghanzi in 1995, Mr Nkete, as well as all the teachers and principals at the various primary schools in the district, are commended for their patience and kind assistance in providing information about dropouts and school statistics.

I would also like to thank Mr Kelekwang at the Ministry of Education, Dr Lucy Mafela from the University of Botswana, and Mr Norman Motsoge, Education Officer in Ghanzi, for their assistance in providing information for the appendix.

Without the enthusiastic participation of various preschool teachers in the settlements, as well as the parents and children who were interviewed, this report would not have been possible and would not have been worthwhile. May their willingness to share their lives and information bring some dividends to them and their children.

Willemien le Roux

11 Bernard van Lee Foundation

Gilossary/abbreviations

ARADP Accelerated Remote Area Development Plan BDO Bushmen Development Office Bokamoso 'future' in Setswanathe name was chosen for the programme in the early 1990s by trainee teachers CKGR Central Kalahari Game Reserve ECD early childhood development ELRU Early Learning Resource Unit, Cape Town, South Africa KDT Kuru Development Trust Kgotla traditional Tswana judiciary system, place where things of importance are discussed and the chief addresses his people Kuru 'to do it (yourself)' in the Naro language LDTC Lobatse Day Care Training Centre Letloa 'net' in Setswana Mma Moruti wife of a minister of religion MLGL&H Ministry of Local Government, Lands and Housing NGO non-governmental organisation NPA National Plan of Action PTA parent-teacher association RADs Remote Area Dwellers RADO Remote Area Dwellers Office RADP Remote Area Development Programme RSEP Regional San Education Project S&CD Social and Community Development Office SNV Stichting Nederlandse Vrijwilligers (Netherlands Development Organisation) Std standard or grade level in school TCC Tirisanyo Catholic Commission UNICEF United Nations Children's Fund VDC village development committee WIMSA Working Group of Indigenous Minorities in Southern Africa WMA wildlife management area

I 2 Bernard van Leer Foundation

Types of landholdings in Botswana Game reserves: areas set aside as national parks for conservation of natural resources, managed by the Department of Wildlife and exploited for tourism.

Wildlife management areas: reserved areas set aside under the tribal grazing land policy of 1975 to ensure rural development and citizen participation in wildlife utilisation.

Farming blocks: a few freehold land sections set aside by government for commercial farming; areas are usually fenced and owned by individuals as opposed to communal grazing areas found over the largest part of Botswana under the Tribal Land Act.

10 Bernard van Leer Foundation

Executive summary

Based on a report published in 1995 by the Kuru Development Trust, this tracer study adds additional information gathered in 1998 as part of a three-phase educational programme on San education in Southern Africa.

The main focus of the report is on the progress of children in primary school, comparing those who attended preschool to those who did not. A brief description of the Bokamoso Preschool Programme, started in 1986, is given, along with three hypotheses fundamental to the development of the programme: (1) that San children who were gradually introduced to formal education through the preschools would do better and would be less likely to drop out than children who had not attended preschool, (2) that San parents would be more accepting of the educational process if their children were gradually introduced to it through the less formal structure of the preschool, where they could learn through play and be taught in their mother tongue, and (3) that introducing Setswana and English through games and rhymes would give the children a head start in primary school.

In looking at the education of San children, the situation of the San people in general comes into focus. One can not be considered without also considering the other.This report shows a people whose way of life was adapted to the harsh conditions of the , who subsisted through hunting and gathering over broad areas of land. The San no longer have access to their old territories but squat on the land of others. Hunting is forbidden almost everywhere, and they are expected to earn a livelihood through agriculturesomething with which they have no experience. They face this situation with a sense of hopelessness and despair; unemployment is high and alcoholism is a serious problem.

Coming from a culture where children and adults interacted freely, Where education was informal and a constant part of this interaction, and where physicalabuse of children or harsh corporal punishment was unheard of, the San find it hard to understand the formal system of education. Children have difficulty adjusting to rigid class schedules and being enclosed in a classroom with groups of people. Lessons are taught in Setswana and English by teachers who have no understanding or appreciation of San culture or language. Children are often sent to boarding schools, far from their parents, with the result that many of them run away from school to find their way home. Parents mistrust a system that 'steals' their children and beats them for childish misbehaviour, but feel powerless to make any changes. Bernard van Leerd.em Foundation

This study offers an important insight into the situation of minority cultures and the problems the children of these cultures face in trying to understand and cope with conflicting expectations and norms, and unfamiliar languages. The conclusions and recommendations presented here should be taken very seriously by those who hope to change the situation of the San peopleand, indeed, those who would hope to change the situation of any group in similar circumstances.

The main points, based on interviews with San parents, deal with the lack of mother- tongue teaching and materials in the primary schools, the lack of cultural

Mapripf therea 1995 ( --River Kuk0

Farms G rosttkra gte Tracks ... lykar Gravel-road . ,1"

Border Ghanzi N,' 5------'' ----- : ..--'-.. ----'.. West-Hairiabai. Xanagas : 0Tsobokwane 50East-Hanah4-., ...,.,;_. lialkfonteiri---, , New XacTe.0 . -- ...... - ---. -...-,-.--... Charleshill "--. .1._ --- --' - ...."..- mmmo. maMIM 11 MIN= 8 ..... --:" NeW Xanagas Xach , Ghaz Distrkt Bere 0 0 t Metiemantsho 0 ; Meksemantre

SS. Executive summary

understanding and the system of corporal punishment in the schools. The report concludes with 13 carefully considered recommendations for improving the chances of success for San children entering the formal education system.

In summarising the report of the most recent study in 1998, the Epilogue includes further recommendations made by the San themselves, and a set of general recommendations aimed at governments and NGOs working in the area of education.

Central( Kalahui Ga e Reserve pMolapo Botswana ...... Metseamanong

.Menatshe...Q:Zuma ....

1 r°

Bernard van Leer Foundation

Introduction One of the major problems experienced by the San, since they started living with other people and were forced to adapt to Why this study? a new lifestyle, has been the difficult The Remote Area Dwellers (RADs) of transition from the informal style of Botswana have been the focus of study traditional education to modern, formal from different angles for many years. education for their children. Since the This is the collective name chosen by the late 1960s, schools have been established Botswana Government for hunter- to bring education to them, but the great gatherers and other tribes that live majority of San children still drop out at together in the Kalahari Desert. Most of one stage or another and the authorities these people are from the San or Bushmen experience lack of participation from peoples, and are called San in Botswana. parents and communities in addressing As yet no inclusive name for all the these problems. groups has been chosen by themselves (different groups prefer to be called by This study reports the results of a survey their own names, for example, Ncoakhoe undertaken during 1993-1995 in the for the Naro), but according to a Ghanzi District of Botswana to ascertain 15 decision made in 1996 at an annual the progress of the so-called Remote general meeting of the Working Group Area Dweller children in the primary of Indigenous Minorities in Southern schools. Although five different language Africa (wimsA), the term San was groups are represented in the survey, the accepted as an interim word to describe children all share the common lifestyle all groups. of hunter-gatherer people in transition mobile people under pressure to settle. The San have been at the receiving end of several schemes and projects aimed to The main aim of the survey was to study develop or integrate them into the progress in primary school of those mainstream society. However, those who children who had completed preschool. are actively involved in the process often These preschools form part of the question the success and desirability of Bokamoso Preschool Programme, which, these development programmes. Much at the time, was operating as part of the has been done, much has still to be done, Kuru Development Trust based in and yet progress is often not evident. In D'Kar, about 32 kilometres northwest of many instances, the goal of such the town of Ghanzi. It was also hoped programmes is ill-defined and one-sided, that the survey would supplement and it could be asked whether the effects previous research done on the San are, in fact, the reverse of what was people's transition in the Ghanzi District, envisaged. and thus provide more information . _ . photo: Enjoying a new playground erected by parents in D'Kar, photo:Matthias Hofer 18 Bernard van Lee Foundation

regarding the progress of the San in curriculum for this programme, which is general. Simultaneously, it continues to at present the only in-service training serve as a measuring instrument for the programme for preschool teachers in Bokamoso Programme itself. Botswana.

Since 1995, the Kuru Development Trust The survey supplied enlightening has been restructured in order to make information on the cross-cultural the growing organisation more difficulties that teachers, parents and understandable to its owners and to children are presently experiencing. make the goals of the different activities Although, in the end, the statistics were more transparent. By the end of 2000, not as strongly supportive of the Kuru had once more become a hypotheses (see box) as was hoped, the community-based organisation for the report still highlights important issues San people in D'Kar only, as it was at the that have to be dealt with in regard to time of its formation in 1986. The the education of San children and other Bokamoso Programme has developed minorities in southern Africa. It also into an independent preschool teachers' supports the recommendations of the 1994 training programme, one of a family of Commission on Education in Botswana, nine organisations that has branched off which stressed the need for the Ministry from the former Kuru Development of Education to develop a policy on a Trust (for further details see Epilogue). national early childcare programme for Botswana, which would provide the Although some of the restructuring scope to develop alternatives for rural processes have changed the setting in children of minority groups as needed. which the survey was carried out, the realities in the communities around The main finding of the survey was that D'Kar remain largely the same: the basic the dropout figures in the early years of findings of the survey have not been primary school were lower than had affected and are presented largely as they been assumed when just class allocations were originally published. for each year were considered. However, dropouts continued all through primary The staff of the Bokamoso Programme and secondary school, and the reasons undertook this study themselves, hoping for dropping out were varied and that the outcome would help them complex. The survey also did not take evaluate their progress as well as convince into account the numbers of children donors and authorities of the continuing who were not reached. need for such initiatives. The findings were also to be used as background To form a fully scientific picture, a material for the development of a follow-up study tracing each individual

I 9 Chapter One:Intoduction

child should have been undertaken teaching and the importance of linking within the following few years. However, traditions with modern values. enough interesting broad lines were highlighted in this study to make this The report also points out the need for publication worthwhile as a snapshot of further research in certain areasand the situation at a specific period of time. for close monitoringif a responsible approach towards the education of The most important conclusions indicate children in transition and children from a wide gap in cultural understanding non-sedentary families is to be between parents and teachers. If the implemented in a country like Botswana. parents and the community are not At the same time, it is hoped that the considered when new processes are people and organisations involved in the introduced, the result may be lives of the San people on a wider front counterproductive and too costly to be in southern Africa will be alerted and worthwhile. It also points out the will gain a better understanding of the necessity for flexibility in transitional confrontations they are facing, so that

HYPOTHESES Certain hypotheses, which were presumed by the Bokamoso PrograMme and incorporated in its development, needed to be tested:

1. San children who have gone through preschoolwould be less likely to drop out of formal schools and Would 41ow better general, progress in primary,school, 'because of the gradual introductiOn tO the foreign environment of the fOrmal school system 'by means of the preschools.

2. San parents displayed mistrust in the education and other systems introduced for their sake.-Therefore the parents would participate more positively in the formal education process if their children were somehow 'lured' into, learning through play. It was hoped that San people would be 'sOftened' towards the, idea of formal education if their children were allowed more freedom in the institutional setting while learning some basic ideas in their mother tong.ue before they entered primary schdOl.

3. Introducing Setswana and English in an informal way, by means of games and rhymes through the mother tongue, would not only break through children's resistance towards the foreign languages, but would give them a head start in primary school, making communication with the teacher easier. Bernard van Leer Foundation

eventually all the information may influence correct choices and decisions regarding the progress and assimilation of the people involved.

This report covers the following areas:

O more information on the Bokamoso Programme;

o general background of the peoples' own educational practices;

O information about the survey: methodology, statistical findings and conclusions;

0 additional material regarding the study.

2 1 Bernard van Leer Foundation Bernard van Leer0 Foundation

Early childhood inotswana

Introduction to the Bokamoso are community preschools run by the programme village development committees (vDCs) and parent-teacher associations (PTAs) Unlike other more urbanised African of the various settlements in the district. countries, the concept of institutionalised They are assisted by the local district daycare in Botswana is a new one. Most council in collaboration with the existing daycare centres are in towns and Bokamoso Programme. have been started to help urban mothers who have joined the paid work force and Most of these settlements have been who no longer have the support of the developed since the late 1970s as a extended family, especially the support solution to the impoverishment of the of the maternal grandmothers, most of original inhabitantsthe San people whom remain in the rural areas. after they lost most of their land and opportunities for hunting and gathering Being sparsely populated (Botswana has (their original livelihood) to incoming just over one million inhabitants), the groups who were mostly cattle farmers. rural areas are vast,and distances great. The resettlement programme fell under Most daycare centres exist in the eastern the Remote Area Development part of the country, in places like Lobatse, Programme (RADP), and government , and Francistown. Some and overseas donors tried to introduce are privately run businesses and range projects and agricultural opportunities from groups in backyaids or garages to with the assistance of the remote area fairly sophisticated buildings operated by development office (RADO) and the entrepreneurs; others are subsidized social and community development centres run by non-governmental office (S&CD) in each district council. organisations (NG0s) and churches. The main purpose of these centres is to provide In spite of these efforts, and for many daycare, but they also provide social and complex reasons, most of the people in cognitive stimulation for children under these settlements, called 'Remote Area the age of six. Dwellers' or RADs, are still unemployed. These people are the parents of the The situation in Ghanzi District, in the children in these settlements, and northwestern part of Botswana, is quite daycare is not one of their top priorities. different. There are at present about 17, Daycare, therefore, is also not the main daycare centres, preschools and play purpose of the preschools and playgroups groups in the district. Thirteen of these in the settlements. Instead, they function _ . photo: Father and sons, photo: Matthias Hofer Bernard van Leer Foundation

as a bridging programme and have been malnutrition. Three women from the set up by outsiders with the objective of village (Mpotsang Gosiame, Xguka Krisjan assisting the children in their process of and the late Catherine Ngakayaeya) acculturation. Although the aim of these helped at different times, first as centres is not always fully understood by translators for the author, but later they the participating communities, they are were able to work independently. welcomed because of their relaxed time schedules and informal setting, and also After its first year, the D'Kar preschool because they offer part of a solution to came to the attention of UNICEF. This the problem of unemployment in the contact eventually resulted in a nominal villages. grant for basic outdoor equipment and some furniture from the Bernard van Leer Historical overview of the Foundation in the Netherlands. Through Bokamoso programme the years, the Bernard van Leer Foundation The first preschool for San children in has continued to assist with funds for the Ghanzi District started on the farm programme development, later providing a at D'Kar in 1983. This was not the result larger grant for the development of the of a preconceived plan, nor was it a Bokamoso Training Programme. developmental experiment; rather, it was started as an emergency solution to Initially the D'Kar preschool was open specific needs in a specific place. The from 9 a.m. to midday, and children aims and objectives of this first school, were allowed to experiment with art and of those that were started later, were materials, blocks and educational toys on formulated according to the practical a loosely organised basis. Outdoor needs of its own situation. games, songs and rhymes in English and Setswana were introduced. The language The first school started under the for teaching was Naro, the mother management of the local D'Kar Church tongue of the majority of the children. Council, as a diaconal project, and had almost no funding. Initially, parents From 1985 onwards, two more playgroups were not involved and for two or three were established in settlements where the years the little centre was run as part of a church of D'Kar had activities. These were practical solution to the problem of too and Grootlaagte, where many idle children in a village of parents built a shelter to use on the days unemployed, drifting parents whose last when the playgroups were active. concern was the formal education of their children. The D'Kar playgroup The establishment of settlements in Ghanzi soon expanded to include a feeding District was ridden with problems: the programme to address the problem of locations were remote and too far from

L4 Chapter Two: Early Childhood in Botswana

markets to aid the development of small- run or even start a daycare centre. scale businesses; the settlement areas Officials in the responsible departments were too small to sustain hunting and of local government and the Ghanzi gathering for large groups of people; and District Council were equally at a loss as the San had no experience with agriculture to how these centres should be run, as or animal husbandry. The drought in the there were very few examples of early 1980s forced the government to community daycare centres in Botswana introduce 'food-for-work' projects to at the time. help these resettled groups survive. Eventually, the preschool in D'Kar was Many communities in the so-called approached by the Ghanzi S&CD, with a government settlements for Remote Area request for assistance. The preschool Dwellers, especially those who knew staff in D'Kar were asked not only to about the preschools in D'Kar, East manage these settlement schools, but Hanahai and Grootlaagte, suggested that also to monitor the training of the they could erect preschools as drought teachers. They accepted, and this relief projects. cooperative effort resulted in the often strained but commendable cooperation 23 The settlements were still very young between an NGO and the local district (some less than three years) when the council. The Ghanzi District Council Drought Relief Programme was sent the first teachers to the Lobatse Day introduced, and the communities were Care Training Centre for training and still learning how to cope with the effects also agreed to provide a percentage of of resettlement and living in larger teacher salaries from VDC.grants, as well groups of 200 to 300 individuals, when as to supply food for the schools. small family bands of about 30 people had been the custom. The situation was The programme grew quickly, and as not conducive to a level of participation Botswana was favoured by donors and understanding about the consequences during the 1980s as being both stable of establishing these preschools that and democratic, the country had funding might have been desirable for future from several overseas development feelings of community ownership. agencies. The RADP programme was a natural choice for donors looking for It is unclear whether the preschools were projects to fund, and it was soon suggested by expatriates working for the apparent that the preschool project government, or whether the parents provided an excellent opportunity for chose to have them, but the fact is that addressing common problems. Therefore, the buildings were erected before the it was not difficult for Bokamoso to find communities had a real idea of how to funding support for the preschools. Bernard van Leer Foundation

The Unitarian Service Committee (UK) The assumption was made that the of Canada funded the programme for dropout rate of San children from school three years, after which time the Dutch could be minimized if the preschools organisation HIVOS, in collaboration addressed certain key problems in the with SNV, took over. In 1995, when this three years before primary school. These study was done, the training programme key problems were seen as such things as was funded by the Bernard van Leer children not understanding the language Foundation, while the management of of instruction, children having difficulty the schools, transport costs and salaries with adaptation to school routines and were jointly funded by Kinderpostzegels cultural differences, and more general (a Dutch charitable organization), the issues such as children's poor health and Mission Deputies of the Christian malnutrition. It was also concluded from Reformed Churches and SNV, all from the positive feelings towards the centre the Netherlands. in D'Kar, and later in the other

24 TEACHERS EXPERIENCES

In those early days, discussions with primary school teachers about the problems they experienced with the San children more or less directed the contents of the preschool curriculum. A programme was designed to address the following complaints of primary khool teachers:

. San,children did not understand Setswana. The teachers of Standards 1 and 2 were at a loss as to how to communicate the required material to these children so that they could pass up to the next standard.

2. Teachers had disciplinary Problems. They saw San children as unruly and undisciplined, and complained that the children did not know the basic requirements for- learning in a primary school, such as holding a pen, sitting on a chair or keeping quiet when an adult speaks. The children had no toilet routine or basic knowledge of hygiene.

3. There were many socio-cultural problems. Teachers complained that San children could riot sing like other people; they did not believe that it was necessary to come to school every day, or stay in school for a fixed period. The teachers had no means of making the children happy, as they did not understand their needs or their languages. Chapter Two:Early Childhood in Botswana

settlements, that parents would contribute. This role of Bokamoso had participate more positively in the a negative effect on the control and education process if their children were ownership of the centres and created successful in one learning environment. confusion as to the roles and It was hoped that the problem of the responsibilities of each party. parents' lack of participation in the formal education system could be Lately, considerable progress has been counteracted if their children were made. The services for distributing food instructed in the mother tongue, and if and salaries have been taken over by the their own culture was given a positive local district council, and some of the emphasis. VDCs have even started to pay the salaries of their own teachers from their The Bokamoso training VDC grants. However, Bokamoso still programme assists in finding extra funding when The Bokamoso training programme, needed, as well as facilitating training. begun in 1991, is built up around a two- year in-service training course for village The Bokamoso Programme functions as teachers, people who have been selected an in-service teaching programme for as suitable candidates by their communities. rural community schools that have a Fieldworkers visit the schools on an problem with financial support, focusing ongoing basis, following up the two-week on people in transition like the San and workshops that are held three times per other minorities. year. At the time of the study, the preschools were also used to provide a In 1995, nine settlement schools were basic feeding programme in cooperation added to Bokamoso's training with the RADO, and Bokamoso was programme: East and , administering a grant to the VDCs from Bere, New Xanagas, Tshobokwane, Xade the Social and Community Development (at that time still inside the Central Office in Ghanzi, to be used towards Kalahari Game Reserve), Grootlaagte, salaries for the teachers. The village D'Kar and a private school in Ghanzi. In development committees are the addition, playgroups for children were managing bodies and actual owners of formed by the Bokamoso team in the schools at each settlement. Since the Ghanzi township, two in the Central grants were also supposed to cover Kalahari Game Reserve and one on a building maintenance and other needs farm near Kuke. the VDCs may have, Bokamoso assisted with topping up these funds with donor Non-San communities starting up money. However, the salaries remained preschools, such as at Karakubis and scant, since the parents were unable to Charleshill, were visited for community 2 7 Bernard van Leer Foundation

training, since the realities of most rural Because of the emphasis on mother- people in the area, such as the tongue education, emotional security, Bakgalagadi, were very similar to those and the concept that learning should be of the San communities. The same fun, the Bokamoso Preschool Programme support from the local council was has been seen by San communities all extended to such communities. over Botswana as a very positive Bokamoso also assisted the Tirisanyo contribution to their process of Catholic Commission (TCc) with development. At the same time, the training of preschool teachers (three) in preschools have provided some solution the . Other districts in for the unemployment of the villagers. Botswana, such as the San communities For these reasons, Bokamoso is often of Mababe and Boteti in Ngamiland and requested to provide services over a very the Hambukushu communities of Etsha, wide area, beyond its own capacity and also sent teachers for training and were resources. assisted by Bokamoso. There were also a few teachers from Serowe and Sefare in The realisation that Kuru, as well as the the east of the country. other community development programmes, would not always be able In D'Kar, the local community preschool to rely on outside funding or support, a runs under the supervision of the campaign towards community awareness Bokamoso trainers in order to serve as a and parent interaction in the settlement practical training venue for the teachers preschools was started, aiming at the when they come to D'Kar for workshops. long-term sustainability of these projects. The D'Kar preschool teachers are then This was an additional task on the incorporated as temporary trainers. shoulders of the trainers, which resulted in the formation of a parallel Parent Training applied to community Workshop Programme alongside the realities teacher training. The need for The original aim of the training community ownership and participation programme for preschool teachers was in early childhood development (ECD) to build a cultural bridge to the primary was stressed at all events and remains a schools. The strategies were to use constant reality in the absence of ongoing mother-tongue speakers who would act government support for such community as teachers/role models/facilitators; assist efforts and the lack of income in these the communities with change in such a settlements. way that there would be informed involvement; and sensitise other players In spite of the lack of an official to the children's needs and the government-supported ECD programme, uniqueness of their culture. a fair amount of support came through 28 Chapter Two: Early Childhood in Botswana

government aid programmes intended to communities for long periods. They also eliminate poverty in the remote areas. The found it difficult to work completely on existing preschools had been built during their own after training, which was the the late 1980s under the government's model within the Lobatse training LG 17 Drought Relief Scheme. In 1995, programme. five of the then 29 preschool teachers supported by Bokamoso had been Teacher training programme trained at the Lobatse Day Care Training The first eight teachers who completed Centre, under the Ministry of Local their training with the Bokamoso Government, Lands and Housing. Their Programme received certificates at the training was continued with Bokamoso end of 1994. These certificates were not for the sake of cultural adaptation of recognised by the government because learning materials. Apart from the fact there was no policy on daycare or criteria that only one person per district could for training; nevertheless, some of these go to Lobatse for training each year, teachers left the preschools after their Bokamoso training was favoured by training and acquired better-paid jobs in communities because teachers from the district on the basis of these these areas had difficulty leaving their certificates.

In 1995, the Bokamoso in-service training was structured as follows:

oJanuary: Introductory workshop one week;

O April: Training workshoptwo weeks;

o August: Training workshoptwo weeks;

O November: Evaluationone week.

In between these training sessions, the trainers and fieldworkers visited the schools regularly for practical assistance and observation. In 1995, a system of community motivators, paid by Bokamoso, was introduced in Ghanzi District. A local

2_9 Bernard van Leer Foundation

person with more knowledge and contact 0to enable parents to understand the with the communities was appointed to importance of their role in live and move between three or more supporting their children in formal adjacent communities, to visit the education and to help them develop preschools more regularly and to mediate pride in their own traditions and between parents, government workers and values. the preschool trainers. During training workshops, these community motivators Bokamoso training of trainers acted as assistant trainers. Bokamoso has always tried to extend the training of its staff members and trainers Training parents as widely as possible, promoting linking As the VDCs are the owners of the and networking with related preschools, the Bokamoso Programme programmes all over Southern Africa as runs a parallel training programme for well as among other indigenous people parents and community members during in the world who might be in similar short workshops and village meetings. situations. The training supervisor 1, These training sessions are held about Goalatlhe Eirene Thupe, attended a six- 28 twice a year per settlement, on average, month training course at the Kenya and have the following objectives: Institute of Education, in addition to her training as a primary school teacher and 0to enable parents to take over the her prior experience as headmistress of a responsibility of ownership, and to primary school. She was originally train the VDC in its duties. VDC seconded to the programme by the responsibilities include appointing Netherlands Development Organisation and dismissing teachers and (sNv). Her assistant trainers were trained supervising work attitudes. All at the Early Learning Resource Unit conflicts, practical issues and policies (ELRU) in Cape Town, South Africa, are referred to the VDC in while the fieldworkers/community collaboration with the S&CD in motivators visited the Ntataise Training Ghanzi, but evaluation of teaching Programme in South Africa, and their performance is still monitored by the knowledge was supplemented by courses Bokamoso field team; at ELRu. In 1997 Ms Thupe went on an extended tour of indigenous ECD 0to enrich the learning content of the programmes in Canada and the USA. Bokamoso Programme by including traditional material such as songs, Parents and trainers, as well as teachers, stories and dances, as well as have been taken to visit preschool promoting discussions on traditional programmes in , Lesotho and concepts of education; Zimbabwe and have visited other

1: Ms Thupe is now (2001) Coordinator of the Bokamoso programme 3 0 Chapter Two: Early Childhood in Botswana

daycare centres in Botswana to give them wider exposure, enhance their understanding and inspire their participation in forming an appropriate learning programme for children in the remote areas of Botswana.

29

31 Chapter threp Bernard van Leer Foundation

The peoplea closer look

By 1995, the first handful of San children in the Ghanzi District (UNICEF, 1991: p. who had completed either primary or 54). Due to teenage pregnancies, health secondary school had started to work reasons or poverty, a large percentage of here and there as teachers and children also dropped out from the government extension workers. In the second half of primary, and even Ghanzi District, a fairly large group of secondary, school. Consequently, San people worked as farm labourers. members of the older generation began Some families had been living on the to lose their trust in the education farms for generations, forming a kind of system and in development efforts in symbiotic existence with the mostly general. For this reason, and to understand white, mostly ex-South African farmers. the dynamics of the situation, it is necessary to look into the past living Over a period of 20 years, varied efforts circumstances and educational practices had been made to bring San children of the San people. into contact with formal education, and as part of the government of Botswana's A fast changing lifeeffects Remote Area Development Policy, of acculturation primary schools had been built in even For many centuries, the San had the the remotest of places. However, by Kalahari Desert largely to themselves, going to school, the younger generation although they had contact with hunters, lost contact with the activities of their pastoralist trekkers and other passers-by. parents; they lacked knowledge of the They were the only ones, however, who veld and their elders' hunting and knew how to survive in this arid region survival skills. The older generation had during the long dry season, when the enormous concerns about the future of land turns into the merciless, windswept the youth, and it was becoming clear sand face from which even most of the that, in spite of improving educational larger animals migrate. Out of necessity, opportunities, employment in the they knew everything about their district had not kept up with the surroundings and each individual, numbers of children finishing school, to including the smallest child, was say nothing of those who dropped out. constantly being schooled in the subject of survival. In the age group 7 to 13 years, the dropout rate from primary schools, as This situation has changed dramatically. well as the non-attendance rate, amounted The San of today find themselves living to almost one-third of the RADs children with about seven other language groups, . . photo: Children inBere, photo: Matthias Hofer 3 3 Bernard van Leer Foundation

most of whom are socially and Most people have gradually been economically more powerful than they relocated onto government settlements. are. The division of land in the Ghanzi Now, not only have they lost their source District into private ranches, communal of food to a great extent, but their farms (cattle posts) and wildlife culture is under pressure. Many people management areas means that the San suffer from despair and apathy, and can no longer migrate freely, following social problems like alcoholism and the patterns of rain and abundance of poverty leave the majority of the San food in the veld. Even if they were still destitute. They are extremely vulnerable allowed to roam over the whole area, the to modern diseases, such as tuberculosis resources of the veld are shared by so and HIV/AIDS. Many are uninformed many other users that there is no longer about the destructive nature of modern enough for everyone. substances like tobacco, caffeine and alcohol, and much abuse therefore takes For many years, their migrations, and place. their lack of permanent settlements, led anthropologists to believe that they were In a mobile lifestyle, their material true nomads, and studies stating this possessions were defined by what they enhanced the idea that the San did not could carry. In modern society, wealth is 'own' any land. This could be one of the measured in tangible possessions, and reasons that the people were dispossessed wealth means power. The San have and left out when land allocations were ended up at the bottom of the social made during and shortly after Botswana's ladder, which has had a disastrous effect independence in the early 1960s. Today, on their self-esteem and on their attitude it has become more evident that the San towards working for change. They have always moved within specific territories found that their knowledge of the veld is and that the different groups or bands no longer useful or in demand. If they knew their boundaries very well. When want to survive, they have to join the farm fences cut across their traditional mainstream, where formal education is territories, starting from 1951 in the one of the most important social Ghanzi District, there was confusion as institutions. to where these people belonged, and thousands found themselves considered In the Ghanzi and Kgalagadi districts of to be squatters on other people's land. Botswana, many San have one of two Older people can still point out the typical points of view about their socio- borders of their territories today and economic situation. They have either mourn the loss of free access to the land chosen to take a passive, spectator's role, of their ancestors (interview with expecting others to alleviate their poverty Qhomatcaa Qace, 1989). and social distress, or they have become Chapter Three: The peoplea closer look

angry and have developed a desire to can still be seen against the backdrop of regain what they have lost. The latter San traditional practices, whether still viewpoint is sometimes irrational and intact or just living in the minds of the highly emotional but has the advantage people. of being a source of energya challenge that can be used by those in power and The book Namkwa, Life among the those who try to support them in this Bushmen, written by the late Dr H.J. transition period. This factor, however, Heinz(1978)about his experiences has caused many misunderstandings and living at Kacgae and Bere in the1960s, conflicts. has many descriptions of interactions between children and adults. He Education - the school of life observed that children learned by versus the school of today listening: at night by the fires, where the Despite the numerous efforts that have San had their most pronounced social been made towards integrating San interactions, and during the day while children in the schools, the present doing different duties. No subject was picture is not very positive. Although censored, and the child could listen to all

many children start school, they seldom kinds of vulgar talk, gossip and quarrels. 3 3 finish, in spite of several support systems Other anthropologists have reported that available. Some of the factors involved education in the traditional context are the languages of tuition, lack of self- taught children the tools and workings esteem, lack of parental support and of their society at a very early age cultural insecurity. Because of extreme (Tanaka,1980: p. 101). poverty, the parents are busy with life- and-death struggles of their own. A According to Heinz, children of the !Xtio major concern for development workers were perceived to go through three and government extension workers is the stages before they were considered seeming lack of cooperation and real adults. From birth to about six years, concern from the parents about their they were seen as almost not fully human children's formal education. and were not held responsible for their behaviour. From the age of six to Childrearing practices of the San puberty, they were described as being in Much has been written about the 'their first sense', and from puberty traditional educational methods of the onwards, in their 'second sense' (Heinz, San. A lot has changed with the influence 1978: p. 106). of other cultures and the subsequent social disruption for the San, but the The way children were taught to socialise resistance of parents to school discipline, and have respect for others was to let and the strict order of formal education them go through the first two 'senses' jJ Bernard van Leer Foundation

without restrictions, while exposing by the older women. According to the them to all the aspects of adulthood. women in D'Kar, the most important Peer pressure and group ridicule aspects of this information focus on the controlled any behaviour that was need for respect between people and the considered out of fine. Taboos existed to requirements for harmonious living with control behaviour and teach discipline, others. especially regarding certain foods. These taboos changed with the age of a person Before and during their puberty years (Heinz, 1978: p. 115). the boys are put through tests that teach them to endure and to control their One way of making sure a person knew aggression (Heinz, 1978: p. 115). Only when s/he had done wrong, was to after the children have gone through discuss the bad behaviour in public, these stages are they considered to be within hearing distance of the culprit. adults and held totally responsible for Sometimes a parent would scold a child their behaviour. The boys, for instance, severely, but the child was allowed to were not allowed to play with real scowl back, and the parents saw this as a hunting weapons before this time and 34 way in which the child could vent from then on were supposed to become emotions, while simultaneously grasping good hunters and to help provide food the nature of the offence. for the group.

There is some controversy as to the Emotional security and the process existence of male and female initiation, of learning especially as today only female initiation San children enjoy a lot of emotional is still practised here and there. Puberty security, even today. Like many other rites around the first menstruation are African babies, they are constantly on still intact in some settlements and their mothers' backs, suckling whenever farms. During these rites, the girl is kept they ask for it. For the first few months, in a hut in the company of older women they are seldom taken off the mother's for a period that could range from a back, becoming almost a part of her body. weekend to a month. (The length of time As babies grow older, they are continually has been adapted under pressure of in bodily contact with adults, being change, so that children can return to passed from hand to hand, kissed and school after the weekend.) During this cuddled constantly (Heinz, 1978: p. 89). time, the women do a special dance for the initiate and apply veld medicines and During hunting-gathering, the child ointment to her body, while information knew that s/he would be carried when about food taboos and the reasons for unable to keep up with the adults, and in them, sex and childbirth is given to her addition to the parents, the mother's Chapter Three:The people a closer look

older brother was responsible for carrying Learninggaining knowledge about her children long distances. This might their surroundings and their way of life be the reason the maternal uncle always was transferred until the time when played a very important role in the children were expected to help with any child's life, and even today is seen as the task, such as gathering food and making final authority in disciplining the child. things.

In the past, transmission of knowledge The gathering process took many hours was principally done by exposing the on foot in the hot sun, and mothers children to tales and narratives, leaving found it easier to leave the children at them free to make their own interpretation. home under the care of elderly people or This was the most important way of older children (Shostak, 1981: p. 105). learning. The theory of life would be No specific duties were expected of the played out each night around the fire, children, except the occasional fetching and each tale retold would be a revision of water in small containers if they lived of what they had already heard. From near a water source. Real involvement in the narratives, and from being allowed to daily tasks only started in their mid-

watch adult behaviour at all times, teens. Although small bows and arrows, 35 practice and theory came together, and playful hunting, for example of playing off right in front of their eyes, birds and mice, were allowed, real leaving no doubt about what would be hunting, and working with poisonous acceptable behaviour in their society. arrows were restricted to the period after puberty, and seen as a privilege for those who had 'passed' the school of life (Tanaka, 1980: p. 101). According to Shostak (1981: p. 106), the total lack of responsibility expected from the San child, compared to European children and even other African children, was striking. Some researchers have concluded that San children did not help their parents unless the children themselves wanted to.

Litho by Sobe Sobe, courtesy Kuru Development Trust Bernard van Lee Foundation

Boys seemed to have even less seriously affected areas of modern San responsibility than girl's. A girl picked up society will be children and their enough about domestic chores, food education. This survey was intended to gathering and childcare by being with measure the effect of the preschool her mother, that by the time she was intervention as a bridge, keeping in mind seen as a 'big girl', she would be ready that against the culture described above, for marriage. The boys, on the other even the friendliest, most lenient hand, would be allowed to roam around educational structure will be alien to all day, setting snares, shooting with these children, and will require a certain bows and arrows and, in modern days, amount of adjustment from both riding donkeys (Guenther, 1986: p. 211). teachers and children. Children played all day long, mostly games that imitated what they were Present circumstances of the allowed to witness and watch. San: Life in the settlements Most people in the Ghanzi District are This freedom results in inventive and living in government-owned (state-land) energetic play, which characterizes settlements, although a large percentage

most of their day. ...Because little still live on private farms as labourers, or formal teaching is doneobservation as 'squatters'. and practice are the basis of all learningin these groups children The survey took place at all settlements acquire many of the skills that will having a preschool supported by the Kuru make them productive adults. Development Trust. The following schools (Shostak, 1981: p. 107) were included during 1993/1994: Xade, East Hanahai, West Hanahai, New Xanagas, In the settlements in Ghanzi today, it is Bere, Grootlaagte and D'Kar. Most of these still observed that although children are settlements were established as part of the not obliged to do work, they are left free Botswana Government's Land and Water to experiment with grown-up activities. Development Scheme for Ghanzi San, a Children are often seen working with sub-project of LG 32San Development dangerously sharp knives and, as in the (Ghanzi District Land Use Planning Unit, past, are allowed to play near the fire, 1992: p. 119). The information presented although bad burns occasionally do here was obtained from respondents, as well occur. as from other studies and reports.

It is therefore understandable that with To underline the gap the people have all the sudden changes of acculturation had to bridge during the past 30 years, they are undergoing, one of the most and to help give an idea of the situation Chapter Three: The peoplea closer look

of the San people in the Ghanzi District The settlement was established by the in 1995, three of the settlements are government as a central point to which described here: Xade, a traditional the inhabitants of about 15 small villages settlement; Grootlaagte, a more recent in theCKGRwere encouraged to move, government settlement; and D'Kar, a since basic services could only be private farm settlement. Today, the provided in one place. Xade was different settlement of Xade no longer exists from other settlements in the survey in because of the removal of people from that the people had been living in the the Central Kalahari Game Reserve surrounding areas, whereas in the other (CKGR)to a settlement outside the communities, people had been moved to reserve, called . Because of this areas not traditionally their own. move, some of the demographic data below is no longer relevant, but the There were six other occupiedRAD information is important as Xade was, in settlements in theCKGR,with an 1995, one of the last traditional areas in estimated total population of 462. This the district where people still continued included places like Menatshe, Molapo seasonal hunting and gathering. and Kikao, but since permanent water and government services were available 37 XADE only at Xade, several tribes settled there in the dry season, going out on trips for Established: Traditional settlement hunting or food collection as they had established 1958 done for centuries. Population in 1991: 528 San, of whom 49 percent were under 15 years of age The situation of the preschool differed (the total population in the game reserve from others because Xade settlement was was 990 in 1991) considered temporary by the government, and all development activities had been Infrastructure: Health post and vehicle, frozen. In fact, by 1995, the government cooperative shop, primary school and had announced that the inhabitants teachers' quarters, water reticulation would be given a new settlement outside (standpipes) the game reserve, where water and other services would be provided and the Social institutions:VDC,chief, tribal inhabitants would be eligible for office and traditional judiciary (kgotla) development projects and state funding schemes as in other resettlement areas.2 Location: Inside theCKGR,approximately 180 kilometres from Ghanzi For these reasons, prior to 1996 the

preschool had to be housed in a .

_ 2: This resettlement had taken place by 1999 and was very controversial. The inhabitants contested the compensation they received, and the fairness of the cokution process was questioned in the international press, especially after it became clear tha Vgovernment intended to develop the Gopi 39 Bernard van Leer Fa u n da t io It

temporary structure inside the primary participation in educational facilities school yard. The school children came and a mistrust of the extension workers not only from Xade, but were also posted there. Another reason for the brought by their parents from the five unstable climate was that the Naro- other villages in the game reserve. Those speaking segment of the community children boarded with other families, had drawn up a letter to the who were not necessarily related to them government supporting the idea of and who often felt burdened with extra moving the settlement, claiming that mouths to feed and with the problems they wanted to start cattle farming the children had in adapting. (interview, Xade 1993). The Naro people have had more exposure to cattle Families considered destitute were given farming, since they were originally food. Parents and relatives who had grouped more to the north and the been identified by the RADO as non- west, where they interacted with cattle destitute and non-recipients of livestock farmers for more than a century. The were given special licences for hunting. original villagers from Xade felt that the These allowed limited killing of 'newcomers' were influencing their 38 steenbok and duiker (30 each) but only destiny by forming pressure groups, two gemsbok and one kudu per year. even though they had moved to Xade However, they were allowed varying much later than the other people there. numbers of more than 11 kinds of non- (interview, Xade 1993). edible species and almost all birds (Department of Wildlife and National To illustrate their point and their right to Parks, 1992: Part VII, 30). No livestock permanent residence in the CKGR, one were allowed inside the game reserve old man from the Dxanakhoe (majority) except goats, horses and donkeys. The tribe told the survey team that they were hunter-gatherer lifestyle remained strong the first people who were granted in this area but diminished radically in permission to live in that area; the father the late 1990s, with drastic social, health of the present headman in Xade had and cultural consequences. asked the late President, Sir Seretse Kgama, to supply permanent water in People from Metsi-a-Manong and order to settle in one village. Kikao, who had moved to Xade prior to 1995 at the request of the government, In the dry season, the people from Xade felt insecure and unsettled at the time of used to move north, towards the Rakops the survey because there was already area, and in the wet season, they roamed much talk about moving the settlement through the CKGR area, but they saw the out of the CKGR. This restlessness in the area around Xade as their main base. community contributed to a lack of The Dcuikhoe tribe originally came from

4 0 Chapter Three: The peoplea closer look

around the Kacgae area, but also from the people who were supposed to regarded part of the game reserve as move there because the water was their traditional home area. brackish and had a high mineral content, which was blamed for many diseases. In GROOTLAAGTE 1988, however, relatively sweet water was found, and people could use the saline Established: 1976-1982 water for their animals.

Population: 345, of whom 50 percent One of the characteristics of Grootlaagte are below 15 years of age is that it does not have many large trees, with the result that firewood has always Infrastructure: Primary school, Stds 1-4; been a problem. This has become teachers' quarters; clinic and vehicle; increasingly difficult lately. Many cooperative shop; water reticulation households still find most of their food four village fenced standpipes, 2 in the veld, and some households are equipped boreholes even reported to earn an income selling resources of veld products, such as Social institutions: VDC and chief, tribal morama (a tuber with vines bearing pods police and kgotla with a very nutritious nut) and sengaparile (devil's claw), as food and Size and location: an enclosed area of medicine, as well as thatching grass. 3,900 square km, it lies in an ancient There has, however, been a significant river bed in the southwestern corner of decline in the abundance of wild plants, the Grootlaagte Wildlife Management the scarcity being attributed to Area and is fenced in by the veterinary overgrazing, drought and intensity of use cordon fence on the northern side, the (Kalahari Conservation Society, 1991). Namibian border on the west, and the farming block on the south. Originally people were discouraged from having cattle inside the wildlife The situation in this settlement is quite management area (wMA), but in 1987, similar today to what it was during the more than 500 cattle were reported in survey in 1995. It was primarily the hunting the settlement. Under the cattle scheme ground of the Makaukau (Qung) people, of the Accelerated Remote Area who seasonally occupied the area before Development Plan (ARADP), many they started working on farms or squatting people obtained livestock, with in Ghanzi behind the Kalahari Arms Hotel. subsequent rapid depletion of the grazing and veld food reserves in the Water was found at the settlement in vicinity of the settlement. Possibilities of 1982, but there was still some resistance providing an alternative farm for the Bernard van Leer Foundation

residents of Grootlaagte have been Social institutions: The church council, proposed. comprised of village members, owns the land and therefore replaces the VDCs of The fact that many people from other communities; however, in spite of Grootlaagte claim this area as their the farm being private land, a Tswana traditional hunting grounds contributes chief has been appointed by the district to the present scarcity of game. Before administration the survey, larger species like eland and kudu could frequently be seen on trips to Size and location: 2,700 hectares the settlement, but not any more. In situated about 32 kilometres from 1995, many people still held special Ghanzi. hunting licences and hunted with dogs and spears, using snares and traps. This The informal village of D'Kar is not privilege has since been removed. This officially acknowledged as a settlement enclave was also used for casual hunting because it is situated on private land by many residents from the Ghanzi owned by the D'Kar congregation of the farming block, which caused a further Reformed Churches in Botswana. decline in the number of wildlife reported in the area since the inception The farm is very small compared to the of the settlement. The Huiku 8,000 hectares (80 km2) of an average Community Trust has recently been freehold farm in the district. This makes established with the help of the Kuru D'Kar one of the largest settlements in Development Trust, and one of its the district on the smallest piece of land. proposed projects is to re-establish game Resources on this farm, such as in the area for tourism and controlled firewood, grazing and veld food, have hunting. been almost totally depleted. In spite of several people having an income, some D'KAR people are extremely marginalized because a hunter-gatherer economy is Population: 380 in 1981, 700 in 1993; in hardly possible. In addition, because of 1997, a survey brought the figure up to overpopulation, the health situation in 1,500; an estimated 50 percent are under D'Kar has been a cause for concern for 15 years of age many years.

Infrastructure: Health post, boarding In 1980 the D'Kar congregation became school and teachers' quarters are independent and, in 1986, formed the provided on 6 hectares of government Kuru Development Trust (KDT). This is land; water for the villagers is pumped an organisation for self-development, from the church's borehole run by a board of San people. The Trust

4 2 Chapter Three: The peoplea closer look

tries to assist in the process of economic the people the church council would like survival, as well as to provide adult to move, but have no power to do so. education, alternative agricultural Many non-RADs are also settling here for a'ctivities and cultural development the sake of boarding their school-age programmes (see Epilogue). The children, since most of the government presence of the KDT has made a schemes are for RAD children only. pronounced economic difference between the situation in D'Kar and that Before the farm was given to the San of other settlements in Ghanzi. congregation in 1964, plots on its borders were sold to individuals who D'Kar's problems are similar to other have since set up businesses such as squatter areas in Botswana but different general dealers, a garage and butcher from those of the other settlements. The shop, as well as two liquor stores. It is almost complete lack of natural therefore one of the best-supplied resources, and the reluctance of the centres in the district and resembles a church council to use force to drive small town rather than a farm excess animals and 'illegal settlers' away, community. has resulted in overcrowding. The government does not support efforts to Because of the shortage of land, the evict people, since this encourages the district council has offered the residents destitute to move to other settlements. of D'Kar alternative space at a new There is also no support provided in the settlement called . However, Qabo form of municipal or other services, is far away and people were reluctant to which leads to extreme cases of lose their foothold in D'Kar. D'Kar is malnutrition, disease and povertyin also comfortably close to Ghanzi stark contrast to a fairly large group of township, with its services, transport and people within the settlement whose social activities, and therefore preferable average incomes are among the highest to the remote settlement. in the district.

The majority of people in D'Kar are San, although large numbers of Bahehero, Bakgalagadi, Batswana and even Humbukushu people from the northern, southern and western parts of the country, including Ghanzi, are illegally settling there for economic reasons and the prospect of fringe benefits from income-generating projects. These are 4 3 Bernard van Leer (3 Fondalinn

Chapter four

t., " 447f73?0,

At:0 46

' ,

; 4 , ;

, 'J

:2.4

'

n'

,1,:4

44" ft IN, , ,,,,'. '',, , r t V , n" ,y.

,t g- 3/=..,-.4S?!.. , :1 0 "" '''Uit.47;", -rt "1.4 40, ,

, -

.cr.

4 +0, ,:rntn Bernard van Leer Foundation

The survey how it was done

programme. It was important to prove The realities of the people's present life, to other concerned parties, including the highlighted by knowledge about their primary schools and local government, traditions, could not leave the that the Bokamoso programme had development of the Bokamoso become an irreplaceable link in the Programme untouched. As the education of the children of this area, programme grew, the advisors decided bridging the gap between the home and to maintain the link with the Kuru the formal school system. Development Trust for the sake of better infrastructure and the interaction of The donors and resource organisations developmental issues, since these are the involved were approached and agreed to daily concern of the Kuru Board. Recent support the study.SNVGaborone changes have resulted in complete approachedUNICEFon behalf of autonomy of Bokamoso again, with its Bokamoso, and the latter agreed to fund own Board. (See Epilogue) the survey.

The Bokamoso Programme has, since its Given the complexity of issues surrounding inception, constantly had to justify its the preschools and primary schools in existence, not only to donors, but also to the Ghanzi District, the Bokamoso team the primary schools. The latter expected wanted to be instrumental in the study. faster results, such as that children Researchers were chosen who already should be taught to read and write. knew much about the situation through However, contact with other programmes their daily experience, so that the survey in Southern Africa gave the Bokamoso would not be based only on theoretical programme confidence to persist with its concepts. The Bokamoso Board first specific focus and to continue to clarify wanted to clarify for itself whether the the difference between these schools and work had had any effect, and second, it other daycare centres that were beginning wanted to assess the success or failure of to start up all over Botswana. the preschools based on statistical information. It also wanted to document Reasons for the survey the situation as a reference for teachers, Partly to justify its strategies, a officials andNGOsworking in the same comprehensive study of the programme field. was needed not only as a tool for the Bokamoso staff to evaluate their work Bokamoso also wanted to use the study over the past years, but also as a means to verify the contents of its own of redirecting the contents of the curriculum and to monitor changes that photo: Lunchtime at Tshobokwane preschool, for some thiii irtheir only real meal of the day, photo: Matthias Hofer Bernard van Leer Foundation

should be made in the programme Naro, the most commonly spoken of the policy. San languages in the district, Mr Qhomatcaa could also represent the In order to balance the research team insider's perspective where parent issues and to avoid the possibility of biased were concerned. Maithamako Keakopa findings, the Bokamoso Board included was also born in the district and had the services of an outsider, members of worked with Bokamoso for two years. different ethnic groups and members of the advisory board, as well as one parent Willemien le Roux was responsible for who also acted as the driver. interpretation of field notes, anecdotal data and research of relevant studies, as Methodology well as the final writing of the study. The team Over a period of three months during Constraints and difficulties to 1993, the research team travelled to eight overcome settlements in the Ghanzi District. From the very beginning, the Bokamoso staff believed that the use of questioimaires 44 Nomtuse Mbere, a social scientist, and formal interviews alone would not guided the collection of data. She drew be sufficient as a research approach in up the questionnaire and directed the the settlements. Certain elements of data collection, as well as analysed the cultural importance had to be borne in findings. Although she was well mind. informed about the work of Bokamoso through her position as deputy director In non-literate societies, the inaccessibility of SNV at the time, she was not involved of the written word can contribute in the day-to-day relationships and towards feelings of exclusion from (and physical circumstances. mistrust of) people who represent literate societies. The Bokamoso staff There were three data collectors: therefore recognized that people might Gaolatlhe Thupe had been the be reluctant to contribute information to headmistress of the primary school in a format to which, by virtue of their Xade before she joined the Bokamoso non-literacy, they did not have access. Programme. She had therefore personally dealt with the problems of Another cultural element is a truism in dropouts and cultural conflicts, and the San culture: people tend to be polite knew most of the parents of preschoolers towards strangers, and are likely to give well. Born in the district, Qgoma questioners the kind of answer that is Qhomatcaa had worked with Bokamoso perceived as expected or desired. for four years. Being a native speaker of Additionally, in the Ghanzi District, Chapter Four:The surveyhow it was done

interviewers from KDT who had tried to officer of the Ghanzi District. To keep do village surveys in the past had had the communication channels open, the team experience that respondents often gave announced the purpose of their research answers that portrayed their living to the Village Development Committees circumstances in a far more negative light (vDcs) in advance. During their regular than reality would suggest, in case the visits, team members held meetings with interviewer could be of material or other the preschool staff, the parents of current assistance. This is particularly likely to and former preschoolers and the occur when a questioner is perceived as headmaster of each primary school. being from 'outside' Botswana, since During the meetings, they discussed the foreign status often evokes expectations reasons for the survey and possible ways of material aid due to the history of aid of conducting it. programmes in the district. Methods used In order to avoid these kinds of The team initially relied only on the misunderstandings and other undesirable questionnaire and interviews. However, reactions typically elicited by interviewers for better interaction and to address unfamiliar with local culture, the survey deficits in information arising from the was conducted by team members of the ineffectiveness of the questionnaire and Bokamoso Programme who could interviews, the team also used other interpret such responses and who knew more culturally acceptable forms of how to be creative in avoiding such information gathering. misinformation. They found that respondents were fairly relaxed in their After completing the initial series of presence and seemed to understand the introductions at all the settlements purpose of the questions. Not only were studied, the team members divided they able to interpret discussions in the themselves into groups, each taking a light of their cultural knowledge, but pile of questionnaires, and camped at the throughout the study period, they preschool for between two and three continued to visit the areas selected for days. They first interviewed the teachers the survey in the course of their regular and thereafter the parents of children fieldwork, which enabled them to fill in who had dropped out of school. During missing bits of information as time went these interviews, the Naro-speaking team by. member frequently acted as a translator.

Permission and right of entry Meeting with primary school teachers, Before starting the research, permission the team members asked to view was obtained from the Office of the attendance registers and other records to President as well as from the education compare them with old preschool

4 7 Bernard van Leer 0 Foundation

attendance registers. In this way, they to the settlements. At each settlement, could ascertain which current and the team attempted to gather the missing former pupils of an individual teacher information during informal discussions had been in preschool. with parents over a period of days, while ostensibly focusing on other activities After this information was determined, relating to the preschool. the team members interviewed the primary school teachers individually, in As anticipated, the gaps indicated order to get their personal opinion about weaknesses in the use of a questionnaire the preschools and the performance of to gather information. In order to avoid children who had attended them. creating mistrust and to elicit informative answers, the team had to fall In the case of dropouts, the team back on creative approaches. For members tried to find the parents and example, while assisting parents in contacted their relatives to locate them. activities such as clothes-making for The parents were questioned about the their children, the team were able to reasons for their children dropping out unobtrusively ask questions from the 46 of school and about their own questionnaire. Similar opportunities perceptions of formal education. presented themselves during informal field trips and on the long journeys to On returning to D'Kar with information, and from the settlements, during which the team held group discussions. Field the team often picked up hitchhiking notes were interpreted, and areas where parents. more study was needed were pointed out. The surveyors kept notes of their Second round of information findings and Willemien le Roux collected gathering:1994/1995 all their impressions, from either the Due to many weaknesses in the statistics team's recollections or from their notes. of both the Education Department in The questionnaires were sent to Ms Ghanzi and the primary schools, more Mbere in Gaborone. information was needed to clarify the statistical data, and two more rounds Throughout the study period, research were made to the settlements. was also done on the childrearing practices of the San, which led to further Preschool registers questions that had to be verified. At the end of 1994, all the attendance registers from the preschools in the The team meetings held in D'Kar brought Bokamoso Programme were brought to to light a number of information gaps D'Kar and were studied to find the that resulted in a second round of visits names of children who had passed on to Chapter Four:The surveyhow it was done

primary school during the previous four o Group discussions were held with years. However, many registers were parents from the communities on missing and the teachers had not divided their perceptions of the preschools, as children into age groups. This well as childrearing practices and any necessitated another round to the other relevant information, with settlements to obtain the information some questions based on previous from the primary schools instead. research. This information was recorded in notes. Names of dropouts and ex- preschoolers in primary schools o In-depth discussions with primary Coby Visser and her husband visited all school teachers, individually or in primary schools to discuss the writing of groups, supplemented the the click symbols and tonal differences in questionnaire. Notes were taken and the San languages (mainly Naro) and analysed by the team and compared simultaneously checked all the school with other data. registers to find the names of children who had dropped out of school. All the O Impromptu discussions were held names of children in the first four with parents, individually and in standards were noted down in order to groups, as the opportunity arose. The check if they had been in preschool or impressions from these discussions not. These names were then checked were later noted down and analysed. with the preschool teachers during a normal round to the preschools. O Excerpts from literature relevant to the research were read to stimulate Summary of survey techniques specific questions regarding used childrearing practices and the (See questionnaire in Appendix 2.) educational philosophy of other San groups. This helped to guide o A questionnaire was administered to discussions and clarify cultural primary school teachers, comparing references. the performance of preschool finishers with other students.

O The same questionnaire, with an additional section intended for preschool finishers who later dropped out of primary school, was administered to parents or relatives.

4 9 Bernard van Leer Foundation

''' ',,. ..,,, '',',.''',4 ' '0,`-'; !,`114iirW '.'"' ' ,i "q ^

%Skt4, 1 ' ; '' i41' . ,, -, ,',, ,,rii in ' ,. ,1 9 I,, ,:f41 NA., b 4, ,4:..1":', iwr,41 -c0 h d

i 4 . ,9,.Ad.,,,

9 ","` r r '' '' 4, rt , 1 , 4 0

0,

- Bernard van Leer Foundation

The survey results Examples of these factors include the effect of health problems on performance, the effects of poverty and alcoholism, the In this chapter, we present the results of significance of parent support, and the the survey in three sections. The first mobility of the parents. contains the statistics that summarise the findings from the questionnaires and Information about the general dropout interviews with teachers regarding the rate for each school was available from performance of ex-preschool children in only a limited number of schools. These primary schools. The second section is figures were checked with and compared drawn from interviews with parents and to the class allocation figures at the Ghanzi teachers regarding the reasons for Education Office, but as schools were children dropping out, as well as the not consistent in supplying them, it was perceptions of parents and teachers difficult to form a clear picture. regarding the education process. In the third section, a summary of an interview The records of both preschools and with a group of parents is presented. primary schools were not well kept, so it was difficult to derive the numbers of The figures preschool leavers from each community In general, the number of preschool in each year. The assumption was that a leavers traced in each primary school was small number of ex-preschoolers very small. One reason for this was that 'disappeared' between preschool and the vast majority of children in the primary, but the reasons given in the district do not yet attend preschool. This cases known were mostly related to the meant that no statistically significant mobility of the parents and the lack of findings can be inferred. However, the aim facilities on farms and remote areas was to follow the progress of individual where parents relocated. Other reasons children, rather than to make comparisons. included insufficient care due to social problems such as alcohol abuse, but the There are a host of factors that could percentage of children affected was too have an influence on the experience of small to make a difference in the study. preschool leavers, which make it difficult In most cases, it was clear that children to draw specific conclusions. During the coming from preschools in the district course of the study, these factors became were keen to make the transition to clearerthey need to be followed up primary school. The fact that they made before any real conclusions can be drarn it as an already bonded little group made about the effect of preschools on the it easier for the parents to know what educational progress of the San children. was expected and to follow the right photo: Eating veld food, photo: Matthias Hofer 51 Bernard van Le Foundnaon

procedures, as well as to provide schools. Of these schools, only D'Kar has emotional security for the children. boarding facilities. It should be noted that more children were traced in the The information about the performance lower standards (1 and 2) than in the of children was obtained from the higher ones (3 and 4). questionnaires and from interviews with the teachers. Only those schools from which Standard 4 sufficient information could be obtained In Std 4, former preschool children were through the questionnaires are represented, found in two primary schools: D'Kar and and in most cases, schools were combined Grootlaagte. The children in D'Kar to give substance to the figures. started primary school in 1990 when they were seven or eight years old. The The information collected during the children in Grootlaagte started primary survey is tabulated according to the school when they were six, seven, or primary school level of the ex-preschool eight years old. All the children had children in 1993 and 1994, showing the entered preschool during the year they situation at each individual settlement. turned five; thus, some children had For the sake of consistency in all schools, spent a longer time in the preschool than only standards 1 to 4 were researched. others. Grootlaagte, D'Kar and East Hanahai had ex-preschool children in the higher It should be noted that children in standards as well, but the numbers were Botswana start primary school between too small to be included. the ages of six and eight, depending on parental decision, distance from school Table 5.1 gives a summary of the total and other reasons. The Bokamoso number of children traced in the seven preschools are advised to take children

TABLE 5.1: SUMMARY OF EX-PRESCHOOL CHILDREN TRACED IN PRIMARY SCHOOLS

School Std 1 std2 Std 3- Std 4 Total - boys girls boys girls boys girls boys girls boys gids

D'Kar 10 16 6 12 4 2 3 3 23 33

E. Hanahai 10 8 5 10 3 3 18 21

W. Hanahai 3 5 4 6 7 11

New Xanagas 6 5 5 10 4 3 15 18

Xade 6 6 6 6 Grootlaagte 2 6 4 2 6 8

Totals 29 34 26 44 13 14 7 5 75 97

5 2 Chapter Five: The survey results

only from age three up and to divide the meetings at both preschool and primary classes into groups containing three to school. The teachers indicated that the four year olds, and five to six year olds. parents of one boy and one girl were poorer than average, while three other In D'Kar all the children had the same parents were alcoholics. It was therefore preschool teacher throughout. This significant that these children were still teacher was trained both at the Lobatse at school in spite of below average Day Care Training Centre and by support at home. Bokamoso. In Grootlaagte, all the children except for one boy and one girl, Figure 5.1 summarises the teachers' had the same preschool teacher, trained assessments of the children's by Bokamoso. performance and parental support in Std 4 in both schools. Parents were reported as helping to make preschool materials and cleaning Performance indicators were monitored school premises, and parents attended in the preschool as well as the primary parent teacher association (PTA) school, using selected developmental and

FIGURE 5.1: STANDARD 4, PERFORMANCE OF FORMER PRESCHOOL CHILDREN

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

1 0 L. AA A BA AA A BA

girls boys

LiSetswana social behaviour leadership

English parent support physical development Notetofigure 5.1: AA = above average; A = average; BA = below average. Bernard van Leer Foundation,

educational criteria (for example, ability These children interacted well with in scribbling, drawing, classifying, others and were showing some sorting, and speech, hearing and sight leadership qualities. development, according to age). The class teacher was the main informant Standard 3 regarding performance in the primary In Std 3 a total of 27 former preschool schools, and in some instances, teachers children (14 girls and 13 boys) were could produce observation records. found in primary schools in four settlements: D'Kar, New Xanagas, In D'Kar, teachers noted that the girls Grootlaagte and East Hanahai. These seemed to out-perform the boys in children started preschool in the year English (reading, writing, speech and that they turned five and transferred to communication). According to the primary school in 1991 when they were questionnaire, all the girls were rated as between the ages of six and eight. One consistently doing well. Although, in girl had dropped out of preschool in general, the boys understood Setswana D'Kar and one boy in New Xanagas. slightly better than the girls, both girls These children followed their parents to 52 and boys seemed to do well in both the farms; according to their parents, languages. It should be noted that by this there was no problem with the preschool stage the children had spent more than or in attending PTA meetings. three years in a Setswana learning environment and could have been The preschool teachers had all been expected to understand Setswana. trained by Bokamoso while one in D'Kar However, the boys had more difficulties and one in East Hanahai had also in writing and communication in received training at LDTC. English. Those boys who had reading disabilities in English also had them in The teachers attributed support by the Setswana, which could indicate the parents in a few cases to religious reasons, influence of other factors, such as genetic naming the parents of two boys and one ability, rather than environmental girl. They found that people who have influence. accepted some form of organised religion were less likely to be alcoholic In Grootlaagte, 1994 was the first year a and more likely to take responsibility for Std 4 class was included at the their children. The parents of one boy in settlement. All the children there were D'Kar were not known to the teachers. reported to be fairly good in communication and participation in In Grootlaagte, parents in general were class. They seemed to have mastered the supportive. The teachers assessed the required writing skills for this level. situation with the non-supportive 54 Chapter Five:The survey results

parents as follows: parents of three girls In D'Kar two boys and two girls performed were alcoholic and for one child they fairly well on the indicators used. One were poorer than average. In East boy, however, had difficulty in English Hanahai, all parents, except for those of writing and communication. Three boys one boy and one girl, were supportive. performed badly in writing, reading and The parents of one girl were reported to communication in Setswana (a notable be alcoholic. In both these settlements, difference compared to the Standard 4 parental support was demonstrated by boys in the same settlement). parents making materials and cleaning school premises. All parents, except In New Xanagas, the girls seemed to be those of one boy in Grootlaagte, attended doing well on these indicators compared PTAmeetings. One parent in Grootlaagte to the boys, who did badly in writing, was not known to the teacher. reading and communication in both English and Setswana. Figure 5.2 summarises the teachers' assessments of children's performance and The children in D'Kar showed leadership parental support in Std 3 in all four schools. initiative and took an active part in

FIGURE 5.2: STANDARD 3, PERFORMANCE OF FORMER PRESCHOOL CHILDREN

girls boys

sociar Setswana !behaviour leadership English parent support 11 physical development Note to figure 5.1: AA = above average; A = average; BA = below average. Not all children were assessed in all areas. Bernard van Lee Foundation

singing rhymes, communication, and participated in class. The teachers socialising and sharing. In New Xanagas, believed that (except for the two girls in girls seemed to show more leadership Grootlaagte who had problems with potential than boys. However, both boys Setswana) all the children had benefited and girls were reported to have reached from the preschool, and this was the expected development levels; manifested in their interaction, indicators of motor skills showed equal leadership and communication skills. progress among boys and girls. The two girls who were an exception seemed to perform poorly in general and Most of the primary school teachers in could hardly interact, write properly, or both D'Kar and New Xanagas believed communicate. that the children had benefited from the preschool, pointing to better interaction Standard 2 skills and the ability to write and draw, In Standard 2 a total of 70 ex-preschool as indicators. They reported that they children (44 girls and 26 boys) were used these children to encourage those found in five settlements: West Hanahai, who had not been to preschool, using East Hanahai, D'Kar, Xade and New 54 the ex-preschoolers as translators and Xanagas. Table 5.2 shows the year of assistants in class. birth of these children. Note that the age range is quite wide. All the children In both Grootlaagte and East Hanahai, transferred to primary school in 1992 the children performed well on physical except in Xade, where they transferred in indicators. All the children did well in 1991. English, but two girls from Grootlaagte were indicated to have problems with Except in Grootlaagte, all the children Setswana. In both settlements, the had the same preschool teachers. At teachers stated that children were doing Grootlaagte and East Hanahai, the fine in general. They all shared, socialised teachers had been trained at bothLDTC

TABLE 5.2: YEAR OF BIRTH OF CHILDREN IN STANDARD 2

West kinahai East Hanehel .:"CcaK. jtide N. Xenagas ' 'toey's i.is boys girls "lboy HOr's .bois boys girls

1982 1 1

1983 1 1 1 2 1

1984 2 4 4 5 4 2 1 3 2 3

1985 2 4 1 8 4 3 3 3 1986 4 Chapter Five:The survey results

and Bokamoso, while teachers from the At primary school, the children in all the other settlements were trained at settlements seemed to do well on Bokamoso only. physical indicators, and the girls performed exceptionally well. Children in West Hanahai and Xade all had supportive parents. In the other The children also performed well on settlements, the picture was more mixed development criteria but appeared to in that there were non-supportive struggle with the two languages: parents in D'Kar (two boys, six girls), Setswana and English. This may have New Xanagas (three girls), Groodaagte been because this was only their second (two girls) and in East Hanahai (four year at school and they might not have boys and three girls). It seemed that, mustered enough confidence to try the compared to the higher grade levels, in languages. However, in most cases, the Std 2 there were more girls with non- children participated well in class and felt supportive parents. free and confident. They were defined as bold, in spite of the language problem. Parental support was measured by attendance at PTA meetings, cleaning Standard 1 school premises and making materials. In Standard 1, although information was Non-supportive parents were indicated collected from six settlementsWest as not undertaking these activities and Hanahai, East Hanahai, D'Kar, Xade, not being known to the teachers. Bere and Groodaagtethe information Surprisingly high numbers of parents from Xade and Bere was insufficient, so were unknown to teachers, namely, the they are not included here in detail. parents of three boys and eight girls in Table 5.3 gives the years of birth of D'Kar, of three boys and four girls in children from the four settlements for West Hanahai, and of five boys and five which there was complete information. girls in New Xanagas. All children from all six settlements All the children had completed preschool entered primary school in 1993, and all except for three boys and two girls in had had the same preschool teachers D'Kar, one boy and three girls in New during their years of attendance. The Xanagas, and one girl in East Hanahai. preschool teachers in D'Kar, Grootlaagte According to the teachers, the nomadic and East Hanahai had LDTC and KDT lifestyle of the parents was the cause for training, while the others were trained by children dropping out of preschool. KDT only. These same children were taken to primary school later when the parents All children were reported to have done returned to the settlements. well at preschool and, with the exception Bernard van Leer 0Foundation

TABLE 5.3: YEAR OF BIRTH OF CHILDREN IN STANDARD 1

D'Kar gast,Hapana( West Hanahai N. Xanagas oys girls boys ghis bois " grIs boys girls

1983 1 1

1984 1 1 2

1985 1 1 2 1 1

1986 7 14 7 2 3 3 5 4

1987 1 5

of one girl in D'Kar and three boys and More girls in Grootlaagte performed well two girls in New Xanagas, they all on the indicators, compared to the boys; completed preschool. The reason for in Bere, both boys and girls did well. In dropping out of preschool was that Xade, there were only boys in Std 1 and their parents had moved from the they were all reported to be doing well. In settlement. Bere, teachers were satisfied with children's progress in reading and writing in both There was positive support from English and Setswana. All children parents except for one boy each in seemed keen to learn, and in Grootlaagte, D'Kar and New Xanagas, five girls in the girls were said to work especially hard. D'Kar, three girls in West Hanahai, and two girls in Grootlaagte. Support was The children also performed well by measured by the parents' participation leading in singing, rhyming, and on in material making, attendance atPTA indicators of physical development such meetings and assistance in cleaning the as being able to handle pens and crayons, premises. as well as doing well in sharing and socialising. The parents of three girls and one boy in Grootlaagte, as well as the parents of two The boys in Xade seemed to be able to boys in East Hanahai were defined as communicate well in Setswana. The alcoholic and therefore irresponsible. children were perceived by the teachers as having benefited from preschool Only one boy and two girls from D'Kar they interacted well, could hold pencils had dropped out of primary school. well and were leading others. The teacher Reasons given were that one boy and one reported that she used their skills as of the girls had school-related problems encouragement to others and also used and the other girl had family problems. these children to assist her in class. Chapter Five:The survey results

The dropout factor preschool. Table 5.4 compares the Taking the above findings into account, number of dropouts from seven primary a second round of information gathering schools during 1993 and 1994. was carried out. This was done to try to establish whether there was a pattern The following points should be noted among the children who dropped out when looking at the figures in Table 5.4: from primary school, and to try to measure how many of them had been to o Because the enrolment numbers do preschools. The aim of this round was to not distinguish between those draw some conclusions regarding the children who had attended a influence of preschools and to preschool and those who did not, no substantiate the personal opinions of the firm conclusions should be drawn teachers interviewed in round one. from these figures. In any case, the ex-preschool children would always As explained above, there were too many be in the minority. The size of the administrative obstacles to allow final younger classes varied between 15 conclusions to be drawn, but from the and 30 children, depending on the figures that were available, it became size of the schools, and it was apparent that children who had attended assumed that the average number of preschool were less likely to drop out of preschool children every year would primary school than were their be between 6 and 12, depending on counterparts who had not attended the situation in each area.

TABLE 5.4: DROPOUTS FROM SEVEN PRIMARY SCHOOLS IN 1993, 1994 -pro.po'ttts Settlement Total enrolthentNon.-preschOol Oiescilo.of Totalnum6ei.s% of enrolment. 1993 1994 1993 1994 1993 1994 1993 1994 1993 1994

Bere 50 47 7 7 0 0 7 7 14 14.9

East Hanahai 89 80 1 2 0 0 1 2 1.1 2.5

West Hanahai 77 66 0 5 0 0 0 5 0 7.6

Xade 115 136 4 14 1 1 5 15 4.3 11 D'Kar 263 365 60 92 12 8 72 100 27.4 27.4 New Xanagas 68 72 0 3 12 3 12 6 17.6 8.3 Grootlaagte 133 88 37 23 2 4 39 27 29.3 30.7

Total 795 854 109 146 27 16 136 162 17.1 19 percent of total 13.7 17.1 3.4 1.9 17.1 19 enrolment Bernard van Leer Foundation

0The enrolment numbers are the sent, and who, in many cases, find their totals for all classes, not only Stds own way home almost immediately. 1-4. It was not possible to obtain the numbers broken down according to This higher dropout rate in boarding class; these are the figures in the schools should indicate that boarding records of the district education children at school is not a feasible administration. approach for the RADs children. Unfortunately, no figures could be 0The dropouts represent the total obtained from other schools that have number of dropouts from the school. hostels. D'Kar is an example of a The numbers could not be broken boarding situation where children come down by grade level; however, it from farms and villages inside the should be noted that there are fewer Central Kalahari Game Reserve, they dropouts from the higher levels, and would not have been to preschool and most of the schools had only four to would see their parents only once every six levels in 1995. The exception was three months. D'Kar, which is a boarding school 58 and goes up to Std 7. In addition, many school registers start afresh each term, making a list of The fact that the percentage of dropouts children without referring to the names was higher in schools with higher numbers from the previous term. Dropouts of children, indicated to us that the San during the term would be recorded children find it difficult to make the under the code `A6', many times with a transition from living in small family short description of reasons, but the groups to functioning in large, organised registers did not explain what had groups of people. happened to the children from the previous terms who had not come back The most important aspect to be after school holidays, and who were no followed up in a future study would be longer recorded. This seems to be the to find the children who quietly drop reason the dropout numbers derived out, without being recorded by the from the class figures at the beginning teachers. Class allocations are only done and end of the year were different than about two weeks after the start of the the numbers drawn from the attendance first term, and it seems that many registers. children run away from school at this early stage and are therefore not Preschool teachers do not register which registered as dropouts. This phenomenon children have moved on to primary takes place mostly at the boarding school each year, so the primary children schools, where children from farms are who had been to preschool could only be 60 Chapter Five: The survey results

traced from what the preschool teacher the Education Office in Ghanzi were also remembered, which could not be not representative. The education officer considered completely reliable. complained that he had no way of Additional problems include the fact that enforcing the schools to supply class preschool children are not registered allocation figures. He had designed a according to age group, and in most new standard form requesting more cases no birth date was given, which information at the end of 1994, which made tracing the children according to would hopefully alleviate the problem the preschool registers too time for 1995. consuming. Following children from preschool to primary was further Perceptions complicated by the inconsistent spelling In addition to the tracking exercise to see of San names. As there has been no whether preschool had made any consistent use of the symbols for clicks difference to the general performance of and other characteristics, each teacher these children in primary school, the gives his/her own interpretation of what fieldworkers made notes during and after the child says, which sometimes leads to discussions, which supported the incomprehensible variations. questionnaire with anecdotal information. This resulted in The only way to ascertain if a specific information regarding the perceptions of child had been in preschool was to parents and teachers that add meaning record the names of dropouts from to the statistics. At some settlements, primary schools and check those names people were more cooperative than at with the preschool teachers of that others, therefore the amount of data is specific settlement, to see if they not consistent, but represents reactions remembered them having been to over the whole area. preschool. There were several disadvantages to this system, one being Gender and the question of parental that it was not possible to tell if a child support at preschool had been transferred to another school If parental support can be measured by or to be sure that all the ex-preschool parental involvement in PTA meetings, children of a specific year had been the making of educational materials, followed. The other disappointing factor cleaning school premises and so on, it in trying to accumulate this information appeared from the questionnaires that was that many schools had lost some of there seems to be more parental support their registers, and gaps in information for girls in school than for boys. Only one at crucial points made it impossible to boy had this kind of parental support. In draw a full picture. This was especially a most cases, the parent who gives this problem in the preschools, but files at support is the mother. As both mothers 61 Bernard van Leer 1% Foundation

and fathers are largely unemployed in surrounding them increasingly being the settlements, the question is open as copied, while San women tend to to whether this might reflect the changing become more marginalized. However, it gender roles of parents, influenced by was interesting to find several cases of the society they are moving into. equal responsibility between genders in the raising of children. The observation It was difficult to measure the impact of of the research team was that many San lack of parental support on the boys. In fathers were not copying other tribes' general, according to some teachers' traditions so far as fathers' roles are personal observations, it seemed as if concerned. Although it did seem as if the girls did better than boys in all the mother's role was becoming stronger schools. in matters regarding school attendance, for examplethe father still played an Some teachers pointed out that boys important role. often had a better command of Setswana than the girls. In present day San society, oSeveral fathers were reported to walk men speak better Setswana than women, their children to school every 60 as observed in kgotla meetings. Men are morning in order to encourage them exposed to work environments where to go or to make sure that they did Setswana is spoken, such as farms, cattle get there. (D'Kar, New Xanagas, East posts, tracking for safari companies, Hanahai) cattle treks and similar activities. Some individuals have even been to the South o In one instance the fieldworker African mines. The phenomenon of boys offended a child in the way she being more fluent in Setswana than girls addressed him, and he ran home, therefore suggests that in 1995 fathers coming back with his father, who still played an important role, especially then gave the teacher a lecture on in the upbringing of boys, in spite of how to talk to children. (D'Kar) their changing lifestyles. It would appear

that because boys often accompany their o One father who was interviewed fathers, they are more able to pick up about a dropout child, put all the some rudimentary Setswana than the blame on the mother, saying that she girls. had decided that the child should no longer attend school and that he had The question of the father's role in no authority over that decision. (East modern San society brought forth some Hanahai) noteworthy data. Economic changes often favour the men, with the authoritative oIt has been observed that fathers walk position of the men in the cultures their truant children all the way to Chapter Five: The survey results

school, beating them with a stick extension workers. It was noticeable that about the legs. When asked about the teachers knew the village people by this, a father said that he was their names and that they encouraged instructed by his wife to do it. He was the participation of parents in the seen as the disciplinary figure, but the survey. A healthy interaction existed initiative came from his wife. (D'Kar) between all the government departments and NGOs. For example, the primary Parents from both sexes took an school teachers offered to supervise a active part in discussions during feeding scheme introduced by group interviews, and it came as a Bokamoso, a relief project for old people surprise to the fieldworkers that some and children during the drought of 1993. fathers came along when they had a parent meeting to assist the parents Both the former and present in making clothes for their children. headteachers of Xade supported the idea These fathers unselfconsciously of a survey like this to help teachers participated in the sewing! It understand the underlying reasons for appeared there as if the tendency to the high dropout rate in primary schools adopt role divisions between the in the RAD settlements, and to make sexes (a phenomenon in other changes in education practices settlements closer to town centres accordingly. and farms) had not yet reached this community, and the fathers saw Outstanding examples of cooperation themselves as being equally involved included the Std 1 teacher in New in the upbringing of their children. Xanagas, who immediately presented (Bere) and discussed progress reports on each of the ex-preschool pupils with the team. Reactions from the primary school One teacher in Grootlaagte spent his free teachers hours in the afternoon going through the About the survey records with a team member, and the Teachers in some schools provided very headmistress of Bere was exceptionally helpful progress reports showing the helpful in explaining the dropout pattern performance of the ex-preschool child in of individual children, going through the all subjects, as well as the general records term after term. behaviour of each child. At the schools that reacted negatively Xade, in the CKGR, had the most positive towards the survey, the team observed response to the survey. The settlement that some teachers felt threatened by the has a history of good cooperation questionnaire. The teachers initially between the school, parents, and thought that they would have to do the

u Bernard van Leer Foundation

questionnaires by themselves, which for transport and few services such as would mean extra work, and they also shopping centres or health facilities. felt 'inspected' or criticised by the questions. The majority of teachers are Batswana, although during the past few years a It took more time convincing the D'Kar small number of San-speaking teachers teachers to support the survey than it did have qualified. Their knowledge of their at the other settlements. This surprised language and culture is not taken into the survey team, since the D'Kar primary account when they are posted, so their school has always been close to the heart training is often wasted on an area where of the Bokamoso Programme, from they do not know the language and which information has always been easily culture. available. About the preschools In spite of their initial suspicion, after With the exception of three settlements, the teachers at all the schools understood namely D'Kar, West Hanahai and East the purpose of the survey, most of them Hanahai, in general all the teachers 62 agreed that it would contribute to progress interviewed felt that the existence of in early childhood education in general, preschools has enhanced their and that it would assist teachers in their communication with the children in the understanding of cultural influences on first years of primary school. Teachers the children's behaviour and performance. from New Xanagas approved of the preschool's existence, although the It should be noted that the teachers in headmaster was outspokenly negative, these settlements are usually from other saying that mother-tongue education districts, mostly the more developed east was the main reason the preschool was and south, and are posted by government, ineffective. without choice, for a minimum of two to five years. This is in accordance with the The following are extracts and policy that all Batswana should mix as summaries from comments by primary much as possible to break down tribal school teachers at different settlements prejudices and to enhance nationhood. regarding the success or failure of the Family relationships are not taken into preschools from their perspective: account in this policy, so husbands and wives may be transferred to different 0 The fact that preschools bring children of posts. The result is that many teachers different cultures together at an early age are miserable and feel punished. In the builds strong relationships in an remotest areas, where most of the San increasingly multicultural society. people live, there are few opportunities (West Hanahai)

6 4 Chapter Five:The survey results

O Preschools, by trying to introduce their lifestyle. The parents find it Setswana, make it easier for the San inconvenient to stay in one place for children to communicate with long periods for the sake of their children from other tribes in primary children's schooling. Lodging them school. This assists them in competing with others also creates problems, so more fairly. (East Hanahai) they prefer to take them along when they travel. (Bere Primary School)

O Although San as a people are capable of achieving, they are handicapped by O These children (ex-preschool) are their lack of Setswana, and preschools just as useless as the others. It would provide an important empowerment be better if you could take them all tool for the future. (Xade) back to preschool again, and teach them to read and write. (D'Kar

O Xade School also had no recent Primary School) dropouts from the younger classes, which emphasised the success of the o The children should be taught to preschool, since the Xade Preschool speak Setswana and English. The was only two years old in 1995. mother-tongue education given in Dropouts from the older groups were the preschool causes them to lag either due to pregnancies or to the behind, compared to other preschools mobile lifestyle of the parents. (the like Kalkfontein where there are former headmistress of Xade) predominantly Bakgaladadi people. I see no difference between the children

O Preschools eliminate some of the of this village who have gone to initial fear that San children have for preschool and those who have not. the foreign environment of formal (Headmaster, New Xanagas) education because it eases them playfully into a learning situation. o The preschools enhance two-way There is a clear difference in accepting communication between teacher and routine, personal management, etc., child, which is a problem with in children who have gone through children who are not used to any preschool, compared to those who formal system. Preschools help them come straight from home. (New to be less shy to talk in the beginning Xanagas Primary School) of their school years. (East Hanahai)

O The low number of children in the Reasons for children dropping out of school does not convey a negative school attitude from the parents towards Most teachers ascribed dropout to be the this service, but can be attributed to fault of the parents, implying that 65 Bernard van Leer 4W Foundation

preschools would not have much of an general, parents seemed to feel pressured effect as long as the problems of the and did not understand why they should parents were not addressed. Some seemed be involved in the survey. Informal to imply that there is not much hope for information-gathering sessions with San education in general: groups of parents had the best response, and the team fell back on these when

O Parents drink too much. Alcohol there were information gaps from the abuse has the effect that the parents questionnaires. do not take up their responsibilities towards the school. (Grootlaagte) Some parents were visited at their homes, due to their children having

O The parents are not cooperative, do dropped out of school. Interviews about not attend parent teacher association the reasons for dropping out were not meetings and are not dependable. easy. Parents showed apathy towards the (D'Kar) situation and did not want to verbalise their concerns. Two typical answers were O The effects of poverty and cultural that the children were beaten at school 64 transition result in poor or that they (the parents) were helpless communication. Children drop out because their children did not want to because the parents and teachers listen to them. Another reason given was cannot communicate. (West Hanahai) that they did not have proper clothes for the children.

O Jealousy and tribal conflict make all efforts at educating children worthless. The question about hunting in the (Grootlaagte) questionnaire (see Appendix Two) was sensitive, and parents were reluctant to

O The dropout problem is the fault of answer for fear of getting into trouble. the parents. They should take total During the two years preceding the responsibility for this. You should survey the relationship with the inform them. (D'Kar.) Wildlife Department had deteriorated, through accusations of torture made in

O They do not drop out because they the press. People regarded these are unhappy at school. They just do questions as political and did not want not want to be left behind when their to discuss their hunting habits. The parents move. (Bere) same reaction applied to questions about ownership of livestock, which The parents people did not want to disclose for fear In all settlements, interviewing the of losing out on potential aid schemes parents required special efforts. In to the needy. Chapter Five: The survey results

The following are typical questions asked o Why do you think that your child is in the group information-gathering suffering at primary school? sessions: Do San people ever use corporal punishment themselves?

O If you feel that your children are beaten excessively, why do you not O Why do your children not have clothes? talk to the teachers? Can't you be helped by the school/ social welfare department/RADO? o What do you see as the difference between preschool and primary O When your child dropped out of school? school, why did you not take him/her back to school? o How would you like your child to be disciplined when s/he is naughty?

Collecting veld food, litho by Coexae Bob, courtesy Kuru Development Trust.% 0 I Bernard van Leer

Group discussion with parents However, those children are being hit from East Hanahai, D'Kar, West over the palms of the hand, or even Hanahi and Xade given the cane on their behind, after A discussion was held with parents who talking to them about the particular attended a dancing workshop at D'Kar misbehaviour. San are willing to accept concerning their views on education for this form of corporal punishment. But their children. Although people from nowadays in the schools it is getting D'Kar were generally bolder and more increasingly worse. They hit my child outspoken, their comments were later on his chest with the fist, and this kind checked in smaller groups with other of behaviour is humiliating and parents, and they all agreed on what was intolerable. said during this interview. The following are extracts from the [At this point, other examples from discussions. several settlements were given in support of this statement.] Question: A lot of people complain that their children suffer at school. Why is Question: Do you as parents follow up 66 this? these reports from the children, and have you addressed this behaviour of the Group answer: San children, in general, teachers at PTA meetings? fear school. Even if bad things have not been done to them, they hear stories Group answer: We are just powerless, about what is being done to other because if you complain, they laugh at children. Parents really have to put a lot you or mark you as a trouble maker, and of pressure on their children to attend the teachers group themselves in a block school. The parents then cannot stand against that parent. They do not admit the disappointment when the child the wrongs that others have done. They comes home beaten over the head with a refuse to hear that parents do not want to thick stick, or a blackboard ruler, or hit be scolded like children by the teachers. over the back and chest, mostly for They do not want to hear what we say; reasons the child does not understand, they just want to tell us what to do. without an explanation as to what he/she has done wrong. Meriam: Children who have gone to school sometimes come back very Qhomataia: The D'Kar people accept naughty, and we do not know how to that beating is a fair way of inducing deal with them any more. If our children discipline because they grew up with the stay at home with us, we feel more in farmers and heard that it also happened control and we know how to handle to white children in their schools. them. The big children at school, and 6 3 Chapter Five: The survey results

especially in the hostel, teach them very Question: Do San ever use corporal bad things. Putting children in a hostel is punishment? not a good plan. If I talk to my children well, I am used to them answering me Dada: I beat my children when they well. were small because I knew others were later going to beat them, and it helped Habe: We were five children in the them to get used to that. But I hit them house. Two went to school, and the in the right way, never with the fist. When others stayed at home. Today we are a child is small, and he/she touches working and assisting our parents, while something dangerous, we would pinch the two who went to school are drinking the child on the back of his hand or slap and living a useless life. him lightly on the hands, to teach him.

Question: Are there any other reasons to X'aega: We talk to our children. We talk make you believe that your children to them a lot, and everybody talks. If a suffer at school? little one does something wrong, we hit him on the hand softly. When I was Group answer: Food. The children are little, and I used to be naughty, I was not fed properly. The parents are expected disciplined by my older uncle. My to come and cook at school for free, and father would not discipline me, but the if they do Rot find a cook, the parents elders would get together to discuss are expected to rotate. The result is that about me, and then my uncle would do the food is undercooked, for example the talking. beans, which gives the children stomach problems. [Comment: This system of consultation would only be for things like stealing, Dada: RADO tells us they will look after breaking other peoples' possessions, or children and provide them with antisocial behaviour. This was checked uniforms, but many times the children, with the people from Xade and West especially those sent to boarding Hanahai, and they agreed to the same schools, have no soap, no hand cream system.] [very important for modern day San] and often no tunics. We try to buy these X'aega: I have sent my two children to things, but the children are far from us. preschool, and I have had to beat them Many times they write letters to us on their behind to force them to go. I parents who cannot read, and we only walk with them all the way to school, see them when the school closes again. beating them if they want to turn back. If someone takes my child away, that But then, once they have accepted that person is responsible for the child. they should go, I talk to them every day

6 Bernard van Leer Foundation

about what they have done at school. Question: I have seen small children That way they know that I am interested. hitting their parents in the face, even But they also like the preschool. They are with a stick and people just laugh. Why? not scared. Qhomatcaa: People know that children Habe: If you beat a child too much, they still do not know everything, and if you become stubborn, and you cannot win are too forceful with children, you can that child over again. make that child very weak. It is important to let the child feel strong. Question: Is there a way in which you can change the behaviour of a very naughty Xguka: Sometimes I have tried to beat child to become disciplined? What if the my child, then she tells me not to do it. child does not listen any more? She also says to me when I tell her to do something: 'I will only cooperate if you Dada: It is better to give the child a do not beat me.' reward if she/he has done something right, than to beat him/her when doing Dada: We teach children to have respect, 68 something wrong. You can always bribe but it takes time. Respect is something a child to do something, if he knows he very important. If you have respect, you will get something afterwards. do not laugh at people with disabilities, or at weak people. People should not X'aega: My oldest child left school, and laugh at others. refused to go to the hostel. She has no more clothes left to wear and I will not Response from other parents force her to go. I do not have the money There was a remarkable similarity in to pay for the food they eat at school group responses between the different anyway. If a child refuses something, let settlements. Typical answers, additional him go. Never force a child. to those from the group discussion above, were as follows. Dada: If the child has done something wrong to you, and you complain to me, I oIf the government wants my child to will go with the child to your house, and go to school, they should look after explain the wrong doing. I will then give him/her. the child a beating there, or I can ask you to beat her for me. My sisters, or my oMy child was taken to boarding school mother, are also responsible to take care three months ago. They did not give of these things. my child shoes/food/clothes/blankets. Chapter Five: The survey results

o Those people are being paid to look after my child. They should do the work. Why do they ask me to help with cooking/cleaning the yard? o Why is it necessary to beat my child at primary school? He had finished preschool successfully, and he was not beaten there. o I want my child to be taught by someone with a good heart towards me and my child. If a person hates somebody, s/he will carry that same feeling towards the child of that person. o The children who go to school are not better off. They no longer respect their parents, they cannot work for us, and they also do not find work elsewhere. Bernard van Leer

C Ater_s[ix

f.ofka.,

sf

4,5 , , < ° 4

A "V r, -ti-e;':'' ,

; * 4 P s' ,

,

,

,t !, i ' 4' .,,'' T 5,'''

,1!:,

? ,

.

, Bernard van Leer Foundation

Discussion and conclusions

From the statistical information, and Factors that could have an from interpretations drawn from the influence interviews, it was clear that the preschools Preschool attendance indicates had fulfilled their purpose as much as parental support could be expected at this stage of their Certain schools, like D'Kar, seemed to development. have very positive statistics regarding the effect of the preschools. But it must be Information from the questionnaires borne in mind that because of more than confirmed that parental support of 30 years of development work, the children who had been in preschool settlement has quite a few progressive corresponded consistently with parents who were already committed to information given by primary school the idea of formal education for their teachers regarding average parental children. The hypothesis can be made support for primary students. that children who attend preschool are Furthermore, the factors related to the already a step ahead of their peers and food situation, the deterioration of social are less likely to drop out later because structures, and the other results of their presence in preschool suggests their cultural transition applied to all the parents' convictions about the need for children. Yet it seemed as if the children modern education. This is even more who had attended preschool were not as apparent if it is noted that in each harshly affected. settlement there are still many children who do not yet attend preschool, even However, it is clear that more study is though the services are free. A follow-up needed to take into account the variables study should also look into why some that might be affecting the dropout rate. parents do not take advantage of any In spite of the consistent factors that services, not even of preschool. could influence the attendance rate of primary school children, those who had Separation from parents been in preschool were mostly still in The D'Kar primary school has boarding school, compared to the large numbers facilities, where a large number of of children who are still dropping out of children are boarded and are separated primary school. However, the different from their parents at a very young age. background circumstances of each Many of them return to the farms after school have to be taken into account the first few weeks or even days, or do before reaching conclusions. not return to school after the first term.

fr'71 photo: A preschool teacher helps a child to glue paper, D'Kar preschool, photo: Matthias Hofer Bernard van Leer Foundation

One way the government has tried to circumstances of teaching as it did with counteract the dropout rate among these not wanting to be separated from their children has been to send them to boarding parents. schools so far from home that they will not be able to fmd their own way back. The Bere school accepted such children, This means that boarding schools like returning from a 'migration', back in D'Kar have many children from the school and into the same group they Central Kalahari Game Reserve (from started with, for the sake of social Xade in 1995about 200 km by road acceptance. The school then considered and now even from New Xade and three them as 'special children', and encouraged or four settlements inside the Reserve). the teachers to try and let the children These children are then transported in catch up on lost time without having to trucks to and from home each term. This be humiliated by joining a younger group. system operates with the consent of the parents, who are often at a loss as to how Although such children cannot be seen to prevent the children from running as true dropouts, further research is away from school and coming home. needed on the effect of this practice on 72 The emotional effect of this kind of their further progress, as many might separation on the general progress of the find themselves left too far behind to child deserves further research. catch up. They would then probably never go further than primary school The system of separating children from because of the age gap or other pressures of parents described above is in stark early adulthood, such as teenage pregnancy. contrast to the attitudes of teachers in schools such as Bere, where in 1995 a Statistical illusion very sympathetic headmistress seemed to It became evident during the study that have accepted the lifestyle of the parents many children who were registered as and had tried to adapt the school to the dropouts actually returned to school the realities of the community. Although following year. The class allocation figures, quite a few children still dropped out in the school registers and the other records the course of a year in Bere, the registers used in this survey were therefore not showed most of these children returning always reliable. However, the information to school the next year, or even two years allowed us to draw a preliminary set of later. In 1995, many of the parents in conclusions. Bere, mostly !Xi 5o people, were still seasonal hunters and gatherers, and it Conclusions concerning the can be deduced from this that the dropout situation children's reason for leaving school did Although not the main aim of the not have as much to do with the survey, it was impossible to ignore the Chapter Six: Discussion and conclusions

prominent factors that still contribute to Although not many of the traditional problems of San children in the preschool childrearing practices are still in as well as the primary school. The basic operation, the belief in them is still very problem areas, which are shown clearly prevalent (see interview, Chapter Five). by the statistical information and the Therefore, it is understandable that the interviews, correspond to the three original Setswana-speaking teachers, who are problems pointed out by primary school mostly from the east of the country and teachers in 1983. Conclusions about the who are placed at the settlement schools study results are therefore given in relation without any choice, would be frustrated. to the teachers' complaints from that time. Communication is very difficult because of language differences and other Problems regarding discipline and cultural factors, and teachers are not language formally prepared or informed about the cultural reasons for what they perceive as San children do not understand, Setswana. bad behaviour or lack of parental control. The teachers of Stds 1 :and ,2 are at a loss as Teachers often resort to excessive beating to how to communicate :the required as the only way to control the large learning m'aterial to these children in time groups of children they are supposed to 73 for their being passed on to the hext level: handle, especially when they have no way of interpreting the child's behaviour Teichers have, problerns'disciplining:the from their own background or training. children. Sari children are unruly, (One teacher reported that it took two undisciPlined, and do not knoW,the basic years before the children fully understood requirements for learning in a prilhary her anyway, so she could not use any school, e.g:, bolding a pen, sitting-on a alternative disciplinary methods.) chair, keeping quiet when an aduli speaks.

They have no toilet eoutine:orbasic. Interest in the phenomenon of second knowledge,of hygiene. language learning, and how learning in a foreign language influences progress, has Considering the culture of the San, in grown during the past years, and recent which children are brought up as equals studies have pointed out the effect of with adults, and where corporal such education on children who have no punishment is very rare, the team other choice: concluded that although spanking was still an acceptable form of discipline in Specifically, the persistent educational Botswana primary schools in 1995, it Was under-achievement of students from understandable that the practice is still certain minority groups in western regarded very negatively by most San societies, and the consequent lower parents and children. literacy levels and economic status 75 Bernard van Lee Fo u nd a t ion

among the adult members of these The Kuru Development Trust works groups, raise questions in regard to closely with the Naro Language Team, appropriate educational programs and working alongside the D'Kar Reformed policies needed to reverse the historical Churcha team led by missionaries pattern of underachievement. from the Christian Reformed Churches (Cummins, 1993: p. 52) in the Netherlands. Literacy classes for San, as well as non-San, and a dictionary, Several studies prove that the names manual and Naro primer are now development of minority students' first available to everyone, as are a regular language can positively influence the newsletter and several booklets on learning of additional languages. If educational and health issues. literacy in the home language can be achieved first, the development of For the sake of counteracting the academic skills in other languages and resistance against the click languages as even other subjects are significantly 'impossible to write', the Naro better (Cummins, 1993: p. 56). orthography was developed according to the symbols for clicks accepted by the The language issue in the settlements in Nguni languages. These symbols were Ghanzi does not only concern the already used by Setswana speakers to children's lack of Setswana, but it also write the San languages, which has made reflects the teachers' lack of interest in the new Naro dictionary and name lists the local languages of the area, and the easier for Setswana speakers to accept importance of nurturing knowledge and implement. Although many schools about the different languages as well as do not have Naro speakers, there are wider cultural understanding. The random enough similarities between the San spelling of click languages without languages in the Ghanzi District proper knowledge of how to apply regarding clicks, tones and nasalisation symbols correctly highlights two things: to enable people working with other language groups to use this orthography, 0People working with the San do not at least where the names of children are regard it as important to gain enough concerned. knowledge about the people and their culture/language. Each year the Naro team does a round trip to the schools in the district to teach This gives the children the perception primary school staff how to interpret that their own cultural goods are and write clicks, nasalisation, tonal inferior, and it affects their self- differences, the correct spelling of Naro esteem. names and so on. This has had quite a

t.10 Chapter Six: Discussion and conclusions

positive effect, and some individuals in Problems regarding emotional various schools try to follow the manuals security and the learning process provided. 3. Sodo-cultural misunderstandings' are The following conclusions were drawn in a serious problem:-'San children cannot 1995 and, when compared to the ,sing like other children; they do not findings of the report Torn ApartSan believe that it is necessary to come to children as change agents in a process of school every day or to stay in school acculturation (Le Roux, 1999), they are 'for a fixed period. The teachers dci not still mostly valid today. know how to make the children happy, as they cannot understand their Conclusion 1: needs.' The probleins with regard to the language gap in the schools are still Because of the culture and language gap, some of the main reasons San children the primary school teachers have no way ,leave school too early. As language of forming a relationship with the child, and culture are intertwined, and the two drift further and further recojnising the signifiCance of a apart, which has a negative effect on the 75 comrhoh language in the early school learning process. The preschool, on the years, or an alternative method, of other hand, corresponds more with the answering this need, rerriain§ one of San's educational traditions of free group the most important recommendations activity and experimenting. The fact that towards a more successfui approach in the mother tongue is spoken in each education. preschool alongside Setswana, and that the teachers are mostly chosen from Conclusion 2: their own community, adds emotional Corporal punWiment in schools in the security. Ghanzi District, often administered by desPerate teachers, is counterProductive It is important to note, however, that there tO the progress of the children and , might be a downside to the perceived 'was shoWn by the survey as ',the single success of preschools in San settlements. Most direct reason fOr children leaving The fact that the preschool system seems -school. The practice is'perceived as more to the liking of the San children derogatory and oppressive bY both and to their parents may even aggravate ParentS and children. Therefore, negative feelings towards the primary parents and teachers should cooperate school. The preschool has now become to find a more culturally accepted the 'model' against which the primary form of discipline for San children. school is judged. If parents learn from Bernard van Leer02FOrindation

these preschools that there are other highlighted by comparison and create ways of practising 'modern' education, animosity and tension. Whereas this without spanking the children, for example, should have put pressure on the primary they might more readily accept the schools to work towards change and to reasons children give for dropping out of enhance understanding between the primary school and, by their consent and different systems, the rivalry between withdrawal of participation, weaken the them is sometimes detrimental, and chances of change in the primary schools. parents and children are confused by it. This would benefit neither the two To strengthen the bridge-building task institutions nor the children. of the preschools, much more attention should be given to communicate the San However, in most cases, San parents feel parents' traditional perceptions with that once they have 'given' their children regard to education, as well as to to the school, they have lost control over explain the aims and advantages of them (see also Le Roux, 1999). When the early learning programmes to both children go to school, they enter a ,parents and primary schools. different world, and the parents sometimes 76 even feel inferior to their own children. Conclusion 4: Their lack of understanding creates There is a serious lack of cultural mistrust that many times turns into understanding. The survey showed excessively aggressive behaviour towards that parents have given up trying to the teachers when parents suspect them communicate their viewpoints on of mistreatment or favouritism. education because they are aware of the wide gap of understanding and Most schools reported very poorly the negative attitudes of most attended and sometimes chaoticPTA teachers towards the San culture. True meetings and unreasonable demands educational progress for the San from parents. Teachers generally felt that children will only be possible if parents PTAmeetings were worthless. Parents felt and communities are respected by the that the meetings were used by teachers schools as valuableresources and as only to vent their frustrations towards partners in the development and the parents, so they stopped going. education of the child in his/her own environment. Conclusion 3: It might be that one of the original Problems of the children at aims of the preschools, namely tO home that affect their prepare children for primary school, education has had the effect that some of the Several factors of change in the problems in primary schools are communities are related to the issues

photo: Gerry Salole T

^ Bernard van Leer Foundation

discussed above, but are not necessarily Forced sedentary living connected directly to the school The various San clans used to have situation. These factors may have an enough land to sustain their family bands, influence on other difficulties, however. while being able to respect territorial borders and to avoid conflict with Materialism versus the tradition of neighbours. Resettlement of families into sharing larger and mostly unrelated groups who Jealousy has corroded most efforts now have to share a far smaller area has towards teamwork in the communities. As brought new challenges. Because of a San were previously virtually egalitarian, lack of unity in the settlements, the San, although it has been debated whether who are now living together, do not see this has not been overly romanticized themselves as a community but, rather, (Loermans, 1993: P. 12), it is clear that have formed new factions or grouped nowadays people are confused about how themselves into smaller family clusters. to handle the progress of some individuals The result is that very few constructive in a changing society, especially since it is no kgotla and PTA meetings can be held, longer obligatory to share all possessions. since people do not see it as important to 78 This is especially evident in a settlement take part in the village political system. like D'Kar, where a cash economy has been This has hindered most of the development introduced and vast inequalities have efforts in the settlements and has made it developed. The jealousy factor often almost impossible for the school tests, and even destroys, the development authorities to obtain unanimous decisions of local leadership in the community. from parents, or for the parents to form pressure groups unified against injustices An example of this from the survey was or bad practices. at a meeting when mothers were making clothes for their preschool children in Health and social deterioration West Hanahai. The fieldworkers knew A high degree of alcohol and other that at least two of the women had been substance abuse exists among the San on sewing courses organized by the people everywhere, female as well as Integrated Field Services, but these women male. Some settlements in Ghanzi are refused to show any skills, or to lead the more notorious for this than others, for other mothers in cutting patterns. The example: D'Kar, Grootlaagte and Bere. conclusion was that knowledge and Such abuse can be ascribed to poverty, modern skills are also considered as the stress of cultural transition and loss wealth that separates some people from of hope, as has been reported among all others. Harmony is achieved when all are groups in transition in the world. But it equal, and preferably when all share seems even more prevalent among equal hardships. indigenous peoples, for whom the gap 8 0 Chapter Six: Discussion and conclusions

between their own circumstances and been made, and either the Bokamoso the surrounding society is even wider.. team or the local council authorities are Consequences can be family structures responsible for payments. that no longer support the child, and which can actually become a threat to Traditional role changes his or her emotional development. If the The previously egalitarian gender roles school does not provide sympathetic in San culture have undergone rapid avenues of communication and change, especially during the past 20 assistance, the child may perceive years. An excellent example of the dropping out of school as the only traditional situation could once again be means of survival in order to go in seen in Bere during the survey, where search of emotional support from the the questionnaires were well responded wider community or his or her peers. to by both parents. This was in stark contrast to other settlements closer to Dependency Ghanzi, where the mother was reported In the 1995 study, the lack of ownership to carry more responsibility and low of the preschools, which were supposed father support was reported. to be community projects, stood out more clearly in some settlements than tonclusion 5: others. The first preschool in D'Kar was ,Education touches the heart of a started as a church diaconal project, culture. The people who are being which could be the reason this particular served in this district are undergoing preschool has not been able to get a enormous and overpowering processes really active PTA off the ground. Even of cultural transitron, and it is natural though the school is no longer run by that the effects spill over into the the church, most people's historical schools. Th'e,refore, the educational perception of the church as provider ,system has to adapt to the specific causes a strong dependency, which situation at each place; and take into makes them see the school as a church consideration the fact thatthe welfare project. However, in 1995 the educational methods and practiCal Bokamoso team was at the height of its arrangements that work for one area struggle to ensure parental ownership of will not necessrjly be appreciated the preschools. Some progress can be elsewhere. The school Curriculum reported in 2001, since certain schools should address the realities, of the are now responsible for administrating Children's lives, and support systems the salaries of their own teachers with .should be developed at schools to the money provided to the vDCs by the assist children in distress. district council. In most settlements, however, this breakthrough has still not

81 Bernard van Leer Fa u n da t ion

Problems regarding practical coming home to find that they have life circumstances missed out on the day's harvest, children Lack of food was given by both teachers prefer to follow their mother to the veld. and parents as a major reason for children dropping out of school. The fact The lack of regular meal times at home that in the early 1990s, the Bokamoso creates a dilemma for children who have Programme organised meals at each to keep to school hours; the home school in collaboration with the RADO in situation does not change to accommodate Ghanzi was considered by many as one their new needs. Therefore, many San of the reasons children stayed in the children go to school without having had preschools. breakfast.

While all primary schools provide for In 1995 in the CKGR, most of the cooking meals at school for children, in children who had absconded from 1995, in order to involve parents, the school were those who had been placed schools shifted the responsibility to the with other families in Xade, while their parents who were expected to take turns parents continued living in areas such as 8o cooking the food. This resulted in bitter Molapo and Metsiamanong. Some conflict in some areas, such as D'Kar. If parents tried to stay with their children the parents' feelings towards the school in Xade, but since most of the families system are taken into account, their were registered in their home villages, reluctance to take part in preparing the they were not entitled to receive food food can be explained: many still believe through the social and community that they are doing the government a welfare departments in any other area. favour by allowing their children to go to Trying to bring enough food along to school in the first place. When they are sustain the child for a lengthy period is also expected to cook for the children, also difficult, because of the tradition of they feel exploited. sharing and the long distances that need to be travelled on foot. For children staying with their parents, the traditional lack of a daily routine for It was also obvious from the reactions to meals, bed time and other activities the questionnaire that hunting can no creates problems when they have to longer be done extensively enough to attend school. San, as a rule, never had supply all families. In 1995 there were organized meal times, but would often only a few places, like Bere, Xade and walk and eat while gathering food, or eat maybe Grootlaagte, where any possibility in the veld where they found food. This of hunting still existed, while in 2001 pattern is still quite prevalent as far as restrictions have been imposed on gathering is concerned. Instead of 0. 1.1 hunting in all areas. Chapter Six: Discussions and conclusions

Although all NGOs and government The reasons for these difficulties are that workers agree that, in general, development in a semi-desert environment, efforts should try to avoid creating agriculture and horticulture remain a dependency or introducing practices that task for the very committed and skilful. cannot be maintained in the long run, It is a practice that is alien to a culture drought-relief projects have taken priority that has always been able to harvest over many other development efforts as without planting, and the San need more a short-term solution to providing food time to make this transition. Organisations without creating permanent job like Gantsicraft and KDT have continued opportunities. People by now are used to to provide excellent services for marketing interventions of one kind or another that traditional crafts, but without international have short-term outcomes. In the trade and back-up services, craft making meantime, people have to eat. In remains an isolated economic activity comparison with other poor communities, and cannot be seen as a permanent the San are even worse off, since there is solution. very little possibility of producing food consistently in a very dry and harsh 'Conclusion desert environment without any surface :5ince,the.survey was':done,, soMe 81 water and minimal average annual ,feeding schemes ha've been intrOduCed rainfall. Sedentary life has also caused a to the primarysChoOls in the ,Ohanii decrease of veld food in many areas. "Distria. The research teem believes 'that thit'can be the Only good interim There is little hope of an economic soldtion'in the area. BOtSWana.can solution within the next 10 to 20 years. folloW the example Of countrieS like NGOs like Permaculture and the Kuru SoUth ,Africa and .NaMibia, vVhereell Development Trust, as well as Thusano children of poorer- cOMMunities are fed Lefatsheng, have tried several projects to throUgh the schools, Often WithoUt'any enhance food production, and there have contribution from the patents bespite been some hopeful beginnings for the danger of increOng.dependency, vegetable gardens in places like New if such relief 'aid Could remoVe a Xanagas and East and West Hanahai. stumbling block towards education for Kuru Development Trust has started a ell in,'the'shOtt -term, the,dividends of.a large-scale production project for better education would re-establish cochineal dye in several settlements, but the balancin the long terrti. It.yyoUldi because of several natural disasters and be fatal for any coUntry's futUre to lack of commitment and knowledge of lose their youth by assuming -thet agriculture, only a few people in the withholding relief services woUld force district are still involved, and they are parents to step in with full understanding dependent on KDT for marketing. and responsibility:.

83 Bernard van Leer

Chapter seven,

s

'Ss s ^

kt.r

4d4,,k

C) A Bernard van Leer 41) Foundaaon

Recommendations have been adapted to circumstances as they are in 2001.

Through the Accelerated Remote Area 1. More serious attempts to improve Development Programme (ARADP) of the relationship between parents, the 1980s and early 1990s, a tremendous extension workers and the schools on effort has been made by the government the settlements are crucial. Anti-bias to reach out to even the remotest of training methods should be introduced communities regarding services, including to the primary school teachers' education. Nonetheless, during the training curriculum, and should also survey, the research team and other be included in parent training Bokamoso staff again became aware of programmes, to enhance cultural the enormity of the problems facing San understanding between groups. education and the mammoth task that Development theories should be lies ahead for anyone trying to offer added to the curriculum of teachers solutions. Although it is clear among and extension workers to enhance government and extension workers that understanding and strengthen there are people with favourable participatory decision-making attitudes and skills who could help practices in communities. alleviate the problems, joint action by all available sources, including NGos and 2. Most primary school teachers still government, is necessary to reach all. have an erroneous perception of preschools. Their expectations of The research team deemed it necessary preschool children's achievements by to mention outstanding areas of concern graduation age are often unreasonable, and to recommend changes that could and their lack of knowledge contributed have very positive effects on the to their hesitant response to the education of a large group of Botswana questionnaires. An effort should be citizens in the long run. Even though made to include information about some of the suggestions require a change early learning in the primary school of policy and outlook and have fallen teacher training curriculum. Since into the court of the politicians, the team the responsibility for early learning felt it worthwhile to mention these was passed on to the Ministry of suggestions in order to raise awareness Education in 1994 (Government of and simultaneously to offer assistance Botswana, 1994: p. 7) the development from the NGO side. of a new approach to daycare has been in the pipeline, opening avenues The following recommendations were for introducing such concepts in the made by the research team in 1995 and training of primary school teachers. photo: This boy, a patient in the TB ward of Gbanzi hospital, is using a paintbrush for the first time in his life, photo: Matthias Hofer U. Bernard van Leer el Foundation

Unfortunately, at the time of writing improved, provision should be made this report, the new early childcare for feeding children at all schools and development policies of the Ministry preschools, and possibly even had not yet been fmalised. supplying food for boarders at private homes. 3. The Bokamoso Programme should also actively seek opportunities to 6. Although this recommendation has increase understanding and to been made in almost every report remove mistrust among the different written about the RADs, there stakeholders involved in daycare and continues to be an urgent need for early childhood development. establishing sustainable income- Cultural workshops at the Kuru generating activities. The government Training Centre should be offered for should not only establish such Std 1 and 2 teachers, especially, but industries, but should also commit also for extension workers. itself to subsidizing or purchasing from them for a fixed period. This 4. More effort should be made by the would assist people in getting used to 84 Bokamoso field staff to befriend and a capitalist economy, as well as involve primary school teachers in stimulating the economy in this part order to counteract the division and of the country. The new trans- to nurture an understanding of the Kalahari road to Namibia did open parents' point of view. The new job opportunities, but it requires Bokamoso Programme should try to specific planning and affirmative let its curriculum feed into the action in order for these primary schools' bridging communities to take part in the programme, called 'Break Through'. developments in the region. In this way, the child's transition could be eased even more, and the 7. Much more should be done to primary schools could be convinced support parents in the process of of the benefit and goodwill of the understanding their role, not only in preschools. (See the Epilogue for an early childhood development, but update on these activities.) also in formal education in general. Bokamoso has annually taken some 5. The lack of food should be seen as a parents to similar projects in serious impediment to the learning neighbouring countries, but these process of the Remote Area Dwellers efforts could be extended to also (RADs). Until people have fully given enhance the understanding of up their mobile lifestyle, or until primary school teachers about employment opportunities have respectful interchange on the matter n .0 Chapter Seven: Recommendations

of cultural differences and the value research is needed, as the following of pride in one's identity. The report quote indicates: by Kann, Mbere and Hitchcock (1990: p.23) commented on the The current situation also demands assumption of some people that action beyond research. Present children will more easily adopt a education policies and practices in 'normal sedentary lifestyle' if they are this country [the USA] are creating put in boarding schools away from a serious problem for language their parents. It seems that this idea is minority children, one that goes far still prevalent in the minds of many beyond how well they learn teachers, who want the children (to English. The consequences of losing become like us' instead of having the a primary language not only affect opportunity to get to know who they children's education development; want to be. they also affect their social and emotional adjustment, as well as 8. More research is needed on the the integrity of the families and the educational and childrearing society they live in. traditions of the San, and the (Fillmore, 1992: pp. 6-7) possibility of using traditional knowledge as a part of the primary 9. In 1995, government policies were school curriculum. This would not still very much against the concept of only enhance the attitudes of parents mother-tongue education, and all towards the primary schools, but instruction was in Setswana. Recently, would also improve the self-esteem the concept of different groups being of the people as a whole and enrich allowed to learn in their own mother those who are working with them. tongue has been approved, but much Several projects that are working with debate still takes place about the indigenous peoples in different parts practical implications of implementing of the world work along these lines such a policy given the difficulties of and have reported success with not having enough first-language participation, as well as positive teachers available in all minority progress in education. Examples are languages. Presently the lack of the Village Schools Programme in sufficient language materials and East Bushman land (Tsumkwe human resources still surpasses all constituency in Namibia) under the arguments in favour of the policy, Nyae Nyae Conservancy and the especially in regard to the San Intelyape-lyape Akaltye Project for languages. Aboriginal children in Ltyentye Apurte, Australia. But more than Bernard van Leer Foundation

The 1995 tracer study recommended Schmidtsdrift School near Kimberley, that the government should consider has reported success with translators/ hiring permanent translators as aides in the lower grades of primary teaching aides, especially in the four school. lower grades of primary school. These people need not have had much 10. The survey made it clear once again schooling, but they would need to that the preschool has a useful place know Setswana well, as well as the in the transition process of the San local language of each settlement, people. Therefore we recommended and would need to have basic reading that the government look into the and writing skills. Consideration possibility of either providing these could also be given to employing services to especially underprivileged interested parents to act as aides in communities or taking over the salaries the preschool. They could be used as of teachers where non-profit institutions intermediaries or monitors, and their are run by NGOs or private owners. presence in the classroom could At present, the preschools in the provide emotional security for the Ghanzi District are funded by several children. These people could also be overseas donors, topping up the VDC given the task of imparting some grants to some of the preschools, but traditional knowledge in an informal it is hoped that at a certain stage either way. Such a system would not only the communities or the government be a valuable help to the teacher, but will take over this role. might bring better understanding from the parents' side, as they would 11. The tracer study indicated the need be able to get to know the system for better record keeping and for from the inside. better monitoring in order to provide a basis for better understanding. We Examples of such programmes recommended that the Bokamoso elsewhere are the Head Start Program Programme keep records of the in the United States, which has children who have gone through become famous for its effects on their preschools, indicating the education among marginalized movement of their families and the communities. It also has a primary schools to which they component of involving parents in transferred. The best solution would the process, which means education be to computerise all the registered for the parents as well as enrichment data to be able to really trace these for the system. In South Africa a children. programme working with the !Xun and Khwe San children, the Chapter Seven: Recommendations

12. More attention should be given to the teachers' understanding of click languages, to enable them to be consistent in spelling. Teachers in both primary and preschools should be obliged to use the available information on these languages, while linguistic help to develop the other San languages should be encouraged by easing the restrictions on research permits for Botswana, and by making more funding available for the development of minority languages.

13. The system of allowing children to pass their primary school years in spite of very weak results is still a complicated issue that builds one weakness upon another. Although it is an obvious disadvantage to keep children in one grade for too long, it is, for example sometimes necessary to counteract the specific problems children have developed in the first two years because of insufficient language skills. These problems influence their performance in later years and might be one of the strongest reasons for failure and dropping out.

8 9 Bernard van Leer te ponadation

t .1.

-.1"

4

4, Bernard van Leer Foundation

In this Epilogue, I have described the Ria Seitlheko, wife of the minister of the background to the Bokamoso Preschool Reformed Church in Ghanzi, started her Programme and brought the story up to own preschool in Ghanzi, not only for date with recent developments. This the children of government workers, but update includes a summary of the also for San children from the informal research carried out during 1998-99 to settlements growing up around Ghanzi. look at the present situation of San She became involved as advisor and co- children in education throughout trainer in the broader Bokamoso southern Africa and the plans for the Preschool Programme during 1991. future as they stood in April 2001. From 1991 to 2000, a team of eight people History and background to the in the district formed an advisory board, Bokamoso Preschool Progamme meeting monthly to assist and direct the I started the first of the present programme. This board included the preschools in the Ghanzi District in my three persons mentioned above plus then capacity as Mma Moruti (wife of a Coby Visser and Beppie Wessels (both minister) of the Reformed Church in missionaries in Ghanzi sent by the D'Kar, where I started working with my Christian Reformed Churches in the 89 husband, Rev. Braam le Roux, in 1982. Netherlands) and Maithamako Keakopa, The very first donor to the preschools who joined in 1992 as a fieldworker/ was the Bernard van Leer Foundation trainer, assisted by a succession of which, in 1983, funded the purchase of Mennonite Central Committee volunteer basic toys and equipment. couples on three-year contracts. Since the end of 1994, Xwaa Qubi has been The initial three preschools (one in promoted from preschool teacher to D'Kar plus two playgroups in Grootlaagte fieldworker/trainer. In 1996, two and East Hanahai) expanded when community mobilisers, Mary Simon drought relief projects erected more from New Xanagas and Mutla Maipelo preschool buildings in RAD settlements from the CKGR, were appointed to serve and help was needed to train teachers different communities as well as to assist in and to assist with managing these training sessions and workshops. Keipele preschools. In 1986, Gaolatlhe E. Thupe Tibi, preschool teacher from D'Kar, was joined the programme. She was formerly appointed as assistant trainer. Sophie the headmistress of Xacle Primary School, Tsatsi joined the programme as materials inside the CKGR. She was seconded to the developer for two years but retired in 2000. Kuru Development Trust by the Netherlands Development Organisation The Kuru Development Trust (sNv) and is presently the Coordinator The first preschools and teacher training of the Bokamoso Preschool Programme. programme were loosely affiliated with photo: D'Kar preschool children, photo: Matthias Hofer 9 1 Bernard van Leer Fodoio

Kuru Projects, which became the Kuru At the time of the tracer study, the board Development Trust in 1986. From 1991 of trustees of the Kuru Development Trust to 2000, the Bokamoso Programme was was chosen from project participants and formally linked to KDT's training centre. villagers of D'Kar who, as owners and In the years since the study was done, decision makers, met on a weekly basis. the structural environment around the The tracer study was done when there Bokamoso Programme has changed were changes made that enlarged the dramatically. It is useful, therefore, to Kuru board to include members from all consider the history of the Kuru those communities where the KDT was Development Trust, as well as the working, a step that diminished the history of the area in which these influence of the D'Kar community over preschools were set, to fully projects such as Bokamoso, but which understand the background of the empowered wider leadership development programme. in the whole region.

D'Kar is a private farm legally owned by Changes in the Kuru Development the San Church Council of the Reformed Trust 1995-2001 90 Church in D'Kar. Some income- Starting in 1995, this process of widening generating projects and a primary school KDT's target group and representation (which for a few years also had an led to the many changes that also attached preschool) were started there affected the Bokamoso Programme. In during the early 1960s and 1970s 2001, the Kuru Development Trust through the work of the then owners of decided to restructure itself into a the farm, the Mission of the Reformed community-based organisation for Church in Aranos, Namibia. These D'Kar only (Kuru Development Trust) projects and activities were given new life and a district development programme in the early 1980s when the local church supporting community-based initiatives became independent and the farm was in the district (Komku Development officially handed over to the community. Trust). As part of this reorganisation, the Through this act, the farm became the Bokamoso Programme has now become only piece of freehold land in Botswana an independent development agency for officially owned by San people. In 1986, the training of preschool teachers in the the diaconal projectscalled Kuru Ghanzi District as well as in the rest of Projects and affiliated to the church the remote areas of Botswana. Bokamoso councilorganised themselves as the has elected its own board from people Kuru Development Trust, an involved in the preschools at the independent organisation. The word community as well as government level. kuru means 'to do it (yourself)' in the Bokamoso will also assist all the Naro language. community preschools to form a daycare 92 Epilogue

association with an annual general Kuru Development Trust in 1995 meeting that will then be responsible for The KDT board had tried to address these managing the affairs of the different issues through regular visits to the preschools with the assistance of the communities and by holding workshops above-mentioned agencies. (Other on related topics at the training centre in organisational changes are described D'Kar. At the same time, the KDT did its below.) best to ensure employment opportunities for as many people as possible, through Background to the change process various income-generating activities like In 1994 and 1995, when the study was cochineal dye production on cactus done, KDT employed a number of plants, leather work and tanning, sewing, expatriate and non-San people with the contemporary San art, and silk screened necessary technical skills to ensure products. It also bought and marketed financial accountability and crafts from local producers, as well as communication with donors. Although, locally dug and processed mosetsane root from the beginning, the KDT's vision had for tanning purposes. Although these been the economic and developmental activities provided income for many empowerment of its own people, it had people, the number of beneficiaries was 91 to deal with the difficult realities of still disturbingly low compared to those transition. One of the main struggles of not reached. the board was to ensure professional output from the organisation as well as In 1995, the KDT had 38 paid local transparency for the larger group of employees, and about 120 people Kuru participants and villagers in D'Kar, benefited directly from the income- some of whom were not directly generating projects. The Trust employed involved and mistrusted the ethnic- 11 technical support staff members, specific ownership of the Trust. including expatriates and Batswana. Capitalism has brought many inequities Projects such as the cochineal dye to the area, and as a result, the harmony production needed a lot of back-up in the communities, traditionally kept support and motivation because of the intact through equal sharing, has been San's lack of experience in agriculture disturbed. It is an acknowledged fact and the time it took to establish the that in contemporary San culture, prickly pear orchards, so a food-for- extreme jealousy often cripples work programme was attached to it to development efforts. Individuals who ensure participation. In addition to the prosper in one way or another have to hope that the cochineal production units endure much abuse from their fellows, could bring an income to about 500 and the San leadership of today finds people in the district, it was expected itself in crisis. that more D'Kar people would make a

9 3 Bernard van Leer Foundation

living from the new game farm, Dqde of the KDT was delayed for months in Qare, which the Trust bought in 1995 2000 by a protest movement organised with the help of the Dutch government. by factions within the community of D'Kar against the inclusion of other The Kuru Training Centre ran an adult communities, the enlargement of the education programme that included a board of trustees and San ownership of cultural centre and museum. This the organisation. Through mediation by encouraged people to address the government officials and other facilitators, difficulties they were facing then and the board regained the right to pursue now, from the perspectives gained from the changes as proposed by an evaluation their history. It also tried to empower in 1999 in order to make the development people by encouraging their self-esteem work easier to understand and manage and reminding them of the beauty of the for local people. culture they were rapidly losing. Therefore, in 2001, the Bokamoso Training courses were offered on an Programme is now embarking on its ongoing basis and included the own independent course as a training 92 Bokamoso Preschool Programme, an programme. It will stand alongside the English literacy programme, and Naro organisations mentioned above, such as language development, with reading and the Komku Trust, the D'Kar-based Kuru writing classes for adults and children. Development Trust, the Kalahari Crafts Other short-term courses included Business Support Programme, and the driving lessons, administrative skills, Trust for Okavango Cultural and bookkeeping and technical upgrading Development Initiatives (TOCADI) in courses for small businesses, as well as northwest Botswana. These organisations cultural workshops focusing on will all have their own boards but will be community issues, such as nutrition linked as the Kuru Family of Organisations (including veld food knowledge), and will be supported by a networking traditional housing methods, HIV/AIDS, organisation called Letloa ('net' in the changing role of women, alcoholism. Setswana). This organisation will house a savings and loan programme and The situation today support the other programmes with At present, most of these activities have training, fundraising and financial been temporarily stopped or scaled management on a contractual basis. down, except for limited extension activities to maintain contacts and San Education in the future projects in the settlements and activities The Bokamoso Programme attached to the cultural centre and the In future, the Bokamoso Programme will Bokamoso Programme. The restructuring concentrate on preschool teacher Epilogue

training for RADs in the rural areas of Bokamoso will further cooperate with Botswana and will also try to develop other programmes such as the Tirisanyo alternative early learning opportunities Catholic Commission (TCC), which has in areas where there are no schools or started preschools in predominantly San possibilities to start them. They will liaise settlements in the Kgalagadi District, as closely with the Ghanzi Farm Workers well as with the Preschool Development Project (under the Department of Social Unit under the Ministry of Education, to and Community Development in the build an awareness of the need for local council) to empower San workers adaptation of policies in accordance with on the cattle ranches around Ghanzi to the realities of rural groups and language take charge of their children's transition minorities. into formal education. Bokamoso also plans to continue to build on the One area where the present training initiatives started since 1996 to train programme will have to be adapted will primary school teachers about the need be to include training on the effects of for early childhood development, as well HIV/AIDS, home based care and the role as to enhance their general understanding of the preschools in orphan care. Due to of the cultural differences of the people their social vulnerability, the San people they work with and what the preschools are among the groups worst affected by in the district are trying to achieve. the pandemic in the region, and Bokamoso Successful workshops have been held is looking into expanding the role of every year with the Breakthrough community motivators and preschool Programme for Infant Teachers in teachers as resource people on HIV/AIDS Ghanzi, and more collaboration and as well as ECD. training is needed with school principals and other teachers. San education in general In 1998 Bokamoso participated in a Another achievement since 1995 has regional research project under the been that Bokamoso managed to hand umbrella of the Working Group of the food support programme over to the Indigenous Minorities in Southern RADP programme office in Ghanzi; even Africa (WIMSA). It was the first phase of the payment of teachers from the VDC a three-part regional San education grants is now administered by the S&CD project (RSEP). The research phase office. One or two of the local VDCs are included trips to most of the areas where attempting to handle the payment of their San people live in southern Africa. The own teachers and the administration of result was the report Torn ApartSan their own funds, which will be encouraged children as change agents in a process of further to ensure complete independence acculturation, published at the end of of these community schools. 1999 (Le Roux, 1999). The second phase Bernard van Leer Foundation

took place in 2000/2001 and included field research over the whole region, feedback sessions and networking among looking into the present situation of San stakeholders and policymakers about the children in education. The subsequent situation and the recommendations of report, Torn ApartSan children as the report. A researcher from the USA, change agents in a process of acculturation Jennifer Hays, coordinated this phase. (Le Roux, 1999), is summarised below. The third phase started in May 2001 when, after a regional conference in Windhoek, The fieldwork lasted eight months, Namibia, terms of reference for a Regional which included travelling to the remotest Task Force on San Education were corners of Namibia, South Africa and drawn up and national task forces are in Botswana. A number of San people the process of being put in place as well. accompanied me on these trips as Hopefully, by May 2002 such a Task translators and facilitators, and several Force and a Regional San Education NGOs and government officials assisted Coordinator will take the cause of San in the information gathering process. In education further across the region. Botswana, the information gathered represents the Bugakxoe, //'Anikxoe, the 94 At the WIMSA annual general meeting in Ju7hoansi, Naro, Kua and Tua November 2000, a representative committee people. on San language and education was elected from San people involved in Although the report was commissioned education programmes for their own to focus on the situation of the San, the people all over the region. This San reality in Botswana suggested taking into committee, of which Xhwaa Qubi from account the situation of other RADs, Bokamoso is a member, will act as a whose circumstances were often quite reference group to the actors of phase similar to those of the San. Such groups three of the RSEP. It is hoped that not only included the Hambukushu, WaYei, early learning programmes for the San, but Bakgalagadi and Baherero. As the educational activities involving them in research was jointly commissioned by general will take note of their specific the Kuru Development Trust (Bokamoso needs and that people will link to and learn Programme) and the regional WIMSA, I from the experience of others in order to could make use of the previous research build a better future for San children. materials and assistants provided by these two organisations. Because it was Torn apart - San children as difficult to obtain entry into Angola, and change agents in a process of because other countries like Zambia and acculturation Zimbabwe had so few San people that it The three-phased RSEP on San education did not justify separate trips there, in Southern Africa started with a year of anthropologists, government workers Epilogue

and NGOs in those countries provided to become equal citizens, it appeared the necessary information. that formal education in itself often eroded community life and the San's The report reflects broadly on San self-esteem in general. children in education all over the southern African region, and the Three main crisis periods overriding impression of the researchers When looking at the problems of San was the similarity in the situation education from the institutional side, it everywhere, regardless of the efforts to was clear that there are three main crisis improve their situation and counter the periods in the life of a San learner. appalling school dropout rate, on which several well-known previous reports have Crisis period 1: ages 4-8 commented. The title of the report, Torn Children have to step outside of their Apart, was chosen because it became own culture and language and enter a apparent that the San children are the new environment that is not always victims of two opposing forces involved friendly. Many have to leave their homes in their education process. Teachers, as and family at a very young age for well as extension and health workers, on months on end, and care is not always the one side, and parents and communities up to standard. This is the time when on the other, all expect the children to most San children run away from school. bring about socio-economic change for the San people and to provide a basis for Crisis period 2: ages 10-14 political power. Each side endeavours to While puberty was traditionally celebrated reach their goal by means of the children. in San culture as the advent of young adulthood, the school culture treats However, the findings showed that children of this age as obstinate teenagers several crucial factors still hinder the and not as individuals entering adulthood. successful transition of the San child to Schools are reluctant to allow time and formal educationfactors that need to space for traditional puberty rites, and be addressed before the San child would children feel confused about their roles. be able to meet any of these expectations. Many run away at this stage. This is also The report stressed the need for a two- the age when most San children start way approach to education, where the feeling the pain of stigmatisation and traditional education methods of the San those who do not drop out are often could benefit modern education and under pressure to change their identity. enrich both sides. In spite of the well- meant efforts to 'educate' San children, Crisis period 3: ages 16-24 and the San parents' agreement that Those who have managed to remain in their children needed modern education school this long usually start feeling the Bernard van Leer Foundation

effects of their parents' poverty. Apart dependency on the very people who the from not being able to provide the right San intrinsically mistrust, resulting in kind of clothing and cash to let the child confusion, apathy and low self-esteem in fit in with his/her peers, the parents are the parents and communities. no longer in tune with the needs of the child at this age, now mostly at school in 2. Poverty towns. Only those San children who In spite of many poverty alleviation have support from other beneficiaries programmes, San people generally finish their secondary school career. cannot afford to send their children to Decisions about subject choices and school and do not have enough future careers have to be made without information about how to access parent support or adequate counselling. government support systems. Those who A large number of San children quit do get support or are exempted from school shortly before they are due to school fees often suffer because they are finish. This problem extends also into blamed and ostracized by other groups institutions of higher education for those for the privileges they receive. few who make it that far. 3. Abuse and discrimination What the San people said In spite of integration taking place The report tried to emphasise the everywhere, high levels of abuse of San perceptions of the San people children were still reported, such as themselves, to give a voice to the many beatings, sexual abuse, theft of their San people consulted by making use of clothes and name calling. Many San quotations and anecdotes. The main children suffer emotional abuse in findings of the report, according to the hostels because of their separation from San people and those who work with their parents, lack of proper care, them, can be summarized according to boredom and oppression. San children the following five main themes. react in two ways to thisthey either drop out, or their self-esteem becomes so 1. Power and dependency low that they do not fulfil their academic Parents do not always cooperate with the potential. education of their children because they don't trust the system. The schools are 4. Language often seen as the domain of the Most San children are taught in a oppressor who wants to 'steal' their second, often completely foreign children so they can take their land, and language. In spite of the existence of parents feel at a loss to control this force. mother-tongue education policies in The many aid programmes that are some countries, the availability of connected to education have created suitable materials and teachers in Epilogue

mother-tongue languages is problematic. o San children must have dual Very few orthographies have been educationmodern as well as developed in San languages, and often traditional. Parents should be those that exist are not suitable for encouraged to develop traditional practical use in schools. The lack of educational opportunities and should mother-tongue education has a direct be assisted in doing so. influence on the performance of the child, which, in turn, determines the o The rapidly disappearing natural choice of curriculum subjects, which environment, history and culture of once again limits the San child's career the San must be documented and opportunities. preserved to influence and enrich modern education as well as to make 5. Cultural differences knowledge available for traditional Traditional San educational practices educational programmes. differ greatly from the formal education system, and the schools do not take this o To lessen stigmatisation, other people into consideration. This results in the should be informed about San parents' lack of participation in a system culture by making use of tourism, they neither condone nor understand. radio/Tv, exhibitions and updated The schools also lack patience to deal educational materials. with the cultural needs of San children, such as more flexible time schedules so o The knowledge accumulated by they can follow their parents to the veld outsiders through research on San during seasonal food collection, or culture should be returned to them allowing children sufficient time off to linguists and anthropologists should practise puberty rites. The school make this knowledge available in a curriculum also only teaches about other medium accessible to the San children's cultures, making San believe themselves. their culture is not acceptable. oStructural changes are needed to Recommendations encourage the education of San The report ends with an overview of children, such as more facilities closer recommendations given by the San to where they live, official protection themselves, as well as general from abuse when they are away from recommendations for governments and home, legal protection of villagers NGOs. against the abuse of power by teachers or extension workers who The San people's recommendations can come to live with them. be summarized as follows:

.9 9 Bernard van Leer Foundation

O Affirmative action is needed in order community must be taken into to employ San-speaking people in account in each area. hostels, schools, etc., waiving the official levels of qualification. o Programmes geared to special needs, Examples given were to employ San such as mother-tongue education people as cleaners, guards, hostel and remedial teaching, are needed to aides, teaching aides, or translators. effect success in the long run.

The general recommendations include O Education systems should allow the following: flexibility as to time schedules, entry age, etc., in order to meet the needs

O Emphasis needs to be put on the of traditional education systems ownership of educational where they are still in place. programmes by the communities

they serve so as to increase O Strategic policy changes and master participation. plans are needed for financial and structural support to break down the 98 0Special training programmes are dependency that has developed. needed to make communities

understand the need for participation O Financial and structural support is in and support of educational needed for informal or NGO-based programmes and to address mistrust. educational programmes to broaden the scope of choice for San learners

O Educational programmes need to be and to encourage innovative more holistic and need to approach approaches. the total development of children and their community, instead of o More flexible standards are needed removing them from their for the educational level of NGO community. teacher-training programmes in early childhood development and literacy oVillage-based training and literacy to enable them to employ programmes for communities, community members and develop including multi-grade classrooms in community-based initiatives. the early years, should be promoted.

O Accreditation of traditional oEthnic-specific approaches can be knowledge and special or cultural counter-productive and can increase skills is needed to enable San people the marginalisation of the San to be employed in the education further. The realities of the system.

0 0 Epilogue

O Community extension There was also special emphasis on the workers/literacy teachers should be need for improved teacher training in trained to support village-based order to make teachers better able to educational initiatives such as home- cope with cultural differences and the based care groups or preschools. need for effective second-language teaching practices to be introduced

O Special support should be organised where Setswana is not the mother in schools with regard to subject and tongue. career choices for San and other children, as early as possible.

O Government support is needed to develop and promote mother-tongue education and second-language acquisition teaching programmes for all minority languages.

During the discussions, the practice of dividing learners in secondary schools between pure science courses and the combined or core curriculum, based on the child's performance, was questioned because children are often hampered by language deficiencies, especially those who have had to master two foreign languages by the time they are in secondary school. The plenary also suggested language-specific schools for the first four years, before a second language is introduced. Plans have to be developed in Botswana to achieve this.

Caution was also advised not to ignore the importance of globalisation and the San child's need for equal development, although a strong point was made that globalisation presupposes a strong cultural identity if people are to benefit and participate equally. a .1 Bernard van Leer (!) Foundation

Bibliography

Bernard van Leer Foundation (1994) 'Mobility and young children' in Newsletter (October 1994); Bernard van Leer Foundation: The Hague, Netherlands

Cummins J. (1993) 'Bilingualism and second language learning' in Grabe W (Ed) Annual review of applied linguistics, Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK

Daybreak Star Preschool Program (1983) Organizing and operating an Indian preschool, a 'how-to' manual; Daybreak Star Press: United Nations of All TribesFoundation, USA

Department of Wildlife and National Parks (1992) Wildlife Conservation and National Parks Act, Government Printer: Gaborone, Botswana

Dow U and Mogwe A (1992) The Convention on the Rights of the Child and the Legal Status of Children in Botswana; Women in Law in Southern Africa research Project (VVISA), UNICEF Botswana: Gabarone, Botswana

Fillmore L W (1992) 'When learning a second language means losing the first' in Educator Vol 6, No 2, Fall 1992:6-7

Ghanzi District Development Committee (1989) Ghanzi District Development Plan 1989-1995; Ghanzi District Council: Ghanzi, Botswana

Ghanzi District Land Use Planning Unit (1992) Okwa Wildlife Management Area Land Use Plan, Vol. 1; Environmental Services Botswana; Gaborone, Botswana

Ghanzi District Land Use Planning Unit (1995) Ghanzi District Land Use Zoning Plan (Draft); Ghanzi District Council: Ghanzi, Botswana

Government of Botswana (1993) In the Interests of the Child (Draft); National Plan of Action for the Children of Botswana (August 1993); Government Printer: Gabarone, Botswana

Government of Botswana (1994) The Revised National Policy on Education (March 1994); Government Paper No 2; Government Printer: Gabarone, Botswana Bernard van Leer Foundation

Guenther M (1986) The Nharo Bushmen of Botswanatradition and change; Helmut Buske Verlag: Hamburg, Germany

Heinz H J and Lee M (1978) Namkwa, life among the Bushmen; Anchor Press: Tiptree, UK

Intelyape-lyape Akaltye Project (1994) Arrernte health curriculum: curriculum development workshop report, workshop No. 2; Intelyape-lyape Akaltye Project, Health Strand: Ltyentye Apurte, Australia

Kalahari Conservation Society (1991) Monitoring programme for the settlements Thankane, Kokothsa, Inalelogo, Monong, Ngwatle, Grootlaagte; Economic Consultancies Pty LTD, Environmental Services, Data Handle and others, MLGC/ARADP: Gabarone, Botswana

Kann U, Hitchcock R and Mbere N. (1990) Let them Talk, an issues paper compiled in connection with a review of the Norwegian Support to the ARADP (LG32); Accelerated Remote Area Development Plan: Gabarone, Botswana

Le Roux W (1995) The challenges of change: a survey on the effects of preschool on Basarwa primary school children in the Ghanzi District of Botswana; Bokamoso Preschool Programme, Kuru Development Trust: Ghanzi, Botswana. [Out of print]

Le Roux W (1999) Torn apartSan children as change agents in a process of acculturation; Kuru Development Trust and Working Group of Indigenous Minorities in Southern Africa; Capital Press: Windhoek, Namibia (available from WIMSA, POBox 80733, 8 Bach Street, Windhoek, Namibia. email: [email protected])

Loermans H (1993) Sustainable development in the Kalahari from a gender perspective; Stichting Nederlandse Vrijwilligers: The Hague, Netherlands

Montessori M (1990) 'To keep the door open... aconversation with Antonia Lopez' in Montessori Life Magazine

Pfaffe J F (1994) 'Learning to have sense'. An approach for the development of a three- dimensional school readiness programme for teachers, communities and learners of Nyae Nyae; Windhoek und Baraka: Nyae Nyae Development Foundation of Namibia (NNDFN): Windhoek, Namibia Bernard van Leer Foundat ion

Salole G (1992) Building on people's strengths: the case for contextual child development; Studies and Evaluation Paper 5; Bernard van Leer Foundation: The Hague, Netherlands

Shostak M (1981) Ncisa, the Life and Words of a !Kung Woman; Harvard University Press: Cambridge, MA, USA

Tanaka J (1980) The San, hunter-gatherers of the Kalahari; University of Tokyo Press: Japan

UNICEF (1991) Basic education for the unreached children and adults (Draft); UNICEF Project Document; United Nations Children's Fund: Gabarone, Botswana

Visser H (1994) Dictionary of the Naro language; Reformed Church in D'Kar/Wycliffe Bible Translators: Ghanzi, Botswana

102

photo: Mother and child, photo: Matthias Hofer 105 Bernard van Lee Foundation

Appendbc one

Enrolments, repetition rates and dropouts in Ghanzi District, 1997-2000

TABLE A.1: NUMBERS OF STUDENTS DROPPING OUT AND REPEATING CLASSES IN GHANZI DISTRICT, 1997 AND 1998 droiving out Students repeating classes 1994 :1997

Stdi 87 112 49 55

Std 2 25 28 9 46

Std 3 29 31 10 9 Std 4 22 29 113 195 Std 5 14 17 14 8 104 Std 6 13 16 4 28

Std 7 12 15 5

Totals 202 268 199 346 Source: Ministry of Education, Gaborone, 2001

It can be seen from Table Al that in 1997 and 1998 the highest numbers of children in the District dropped out of school from Standard 1. Numbers of dropouts then tend to decrease as children move up through the different classes. (It was not possible to obtain enrolment data, thus rates of dropout and repetition could not be calculated.)

The high number of children repeating in Standard 4 is caused by the fact that this is the first time that children are held back on the basis of their academic performance. Those who repeat in Standards 1 to 3 are generally children who dropped out the previous year and have to start the year again. Between Standards 4 and 7, children are allowed to continue without repeating.

Table A2 gives details of enrolments and dropouts from the seven primary schools in Ghanzi to which most children from the Bokamoso preschool programme goon the assumption that they enter the primary school system. It should be noted that, although there are preschools in all these settlements, only a minority of the children attending these primary schools will have attended a preschool. 106 Bernard van Leer Foundation

The rates of dropping out, in absolute numbers and in percentages, varies quite widely from school to school and from year to year, from which it is surmised that factors such as an individual teacher or the atmosphere in a school influences the children.

The dropout figures for D'Kar, the only one of these schools with a boarding hostel, appear to have improved since figures were collected for the original tracer study 1993- 1995. There are two possible explanations for this.

TABLE A.2: NUMBERS OF STUDENTS DROPPING OUT FROM SEVEN SCHOOLS WHERE THE BOKAmoso PRESCHOOL PROGRAMME IS ACTIVE, BY GENDER, 1997-2000 &ere New East West Groot- D'Xar New Xanagas HanahaiiHanahaifaagte Xade

F M F M F 'M

1997 enrolment 33 40 81 91 63 74 29 53 68 63 279 290 68 79 105 dropouts 1 3 1 0 9 8 2 1 35 36 25 13 5 18 percent dropouts 3.0 7.5 1.2 0 14.310.8 6.9 1.951.557.1 9.0 4.5 7.422.8 1998 enrolment 32 39 95 97 48 74 42 47 84 70 216 236 106134 dropouts 10 4 4 1 0 0 7 6 11 14 2 7 0 0 percent dropouts 31.2 10.3 4.2 1.0 0 0 16.7 12.813.020.0 0.9 3.0 0 0

1999 enrolment 32 44 100 82 60 68 45 43 78 54 255 258 101 113 dropouts 5 4 11 2 3 9 12 9 30 19 42 26 19 8 percent dropouts 15.6 9.011.0. 2.4 5.013.226.720.938.535.2 16.510.0 18.87.0

2000 enrolment 31 43 108 95 48 57 43 46 96 84 285 273 97106 dropouts 16 3 6 0 15 10 5 2 12 5 14 13 20 11 percent dropouts 51.6 7.0 5.6 0 31.017.511.6 4.312.5 5.9 4.9 4.820.610.4 Totals 9997-2000

Total enrolment 1997-2000128 156 384 365 219273 159 189 326 271 10351057372432 enrolment M + F 284 749 492 348 597 2092 804 total dropouts 1997-2000 32 14 22 3 27 27 26 18 88 74 83 59 44 37 dropouts M + F 46 25 54 44 162 142 81 percent dropouts 1997-2000 25.0 9.0 5.7 0.8 12.3 9.916.4 9.5 27.0 27.3 8.0 5.6 11.8 8.6 percent dropouts M + F 16.2 3.7 11.0 12.6 27.0 6.8 10.0 Source: Ministry of Education, Gaborone, 2001

1L" One is that most of the other primary schools now go up to at least Std 4, thus children are able to stay with their families for their first school years. If they then transfer to D'Kar for the later primary classes, they will already be familiar with the atmosphere and culture of a primary school, and would usually be with other children from their own village. This is in contrast to the earlier study when many children were sent to board at D'Kar from Std 1 when they were just six or seven years old.

A second possible explanation is a new Farm Workers' Project in the District, carried out by Ghanzi District Council in collaboration withSNV,that works with the small groups of workers (mostly San) on private farms. These groups are normally very isolated and out of reach of Government support services. Children from these farms would normally all be sent to board at D'Kar and previously dropped out in large numbers; there were no preschools nor any other preparation for school on the farms, and it was relatively easy for them to return to their parents. It is therefore possible that attention given to conditions and training of farm parents has had an effect on the dropout rate of their children. io6 The school in Grootlaagte has a particularly high dropout rate which is currently (2001) being investigated by the authorities. One possible explanation is the lack of water in the school. The water in the settlement is not considered fit for human consumption and drinking water is trucked in by the Council from a nearby settlement. When there is no water, due to breakdowns or other delays, there is no food at the school and children do not attend. According to the Education Officer in Ghanzi, this irregular attendance causes the children to eventually drop out.

TABLE A.3: PERCENTAGE OF DROPOUTS FROM ALL SEVEN SCHOOLS BY YEAR

1997 ,1998 1999 2000

total enrolment 1311 1320 1333 1412 total dropouts 157 66 199 132

percentage dropouts 91.8 5.0 14.9 9.3 Source: derived from Table A2

Table A3 summarises the enrolment and dropout figures for all seven schools and it can be seen that the percentages of dropouts varies quite considerably from year to year. There is no specific explanation for this, except for the factors suggested above variations in school atmosphere or individual teachers. Appendix One

TABLE A.4: PERCENTAGE OF DROPOUTS FROM ALL SEEVEN SCHOOLS, 1997-2000, BY GENDER Male -Female

total enrolment 2623 2743 total dropouts 322 232 percentage dropouts 12.3 8.5 Source: derived from Table A2

Table A4 shows that slightly more girls are being enrolled in primary school than boys and that the girls tend to stay in school more than the boys. As can be seen from Table A2, the dropout rate for boys is higher than for girls in all the schools except Grootlaagte, where the rates are nearly identical and relatively high. Overall, the girls have a dropout rate of 8.5 percent, whereas the boys have a dropout rate of 12.3 percent. This could have serious implications for the future of the San communities in this area in terms of differences between the genders in preparedness for adult life.

I Appendx two

Tracer study questionnaire (abbreviiited)

A. Identification: 1. Name of settlement 2. Name of Primary School 3. Name of pupil 4. Name of teacher interviewed 5. Date of interview 6. Length of interview 7. Name of interviewer

B. Background information on pupil: los 1. Date of birth/age 2. male/female 3. Age started preschool: 0 3 0 4 0 5 0 5+ 4. Year in which transferred to Primary School: 0 1984 0 1985 0 1986 0 1987 0 1989 0 1990 U 1991 5. Age when commenced Std 1: 0 5 0 6 07 D 8+ 6. In which standard was s/he in 1993? 0 1 0 2 U3 0 4 0 5 0 6 0 7

C. Background information on the preschool:

1.Did the child have the same preschool teacher throughout? 0 Yes CI No 2. If no, state number of teachers: 0 2 0 3 04 0 4+ 3. For how long did each teacher help the child? 0 Less than a yearlj Full year 0 Two years + 4. Please probe for information on the training the teacher obtained: No training at all 0 Lobatse Day Care Training Centre 0 Kuru Workshops 0 Othersspecify 5. Please probe for child's performance at preschool using indicators attached.

6. Were the parents supportive?

0 Yes LINo

Specify 7. Did the child complete preschool? D Yes DNo If no, state reasons

D. Primary School information:

1.Ask for school attendance register for the years the child has been at school, and record for each year the total number of days/weeks/months s/he did not attend school.

2. Check annual academic performance, if records are kept, otherwise interview teachers that have taught the child on all aspects of academic performance (includes writing, listening, Setswana, English, sums, etc.).

3. Probe for other child development indicators.

4. Ask teacher/s what support s/he obtained from the parents/ relatives during the years the pupil was registered at the school.

Can the teacher give a subjective evaluation of what type of parents are these, e.g., poor, religious, quarrelling, alcoholic, etc.

5. Ask teacher to give an assessment of the performance of the child compared to those who did not attend.

What indicators is the teacher using, e.g., mastery of Setswana, behaviour in class, etc.

6. Does the teacher believe the pupil benefited from preschool attendance? 0 Yes 0 No Specify and indicate

7. If the teacher feels the pupil benefited, in what way is s/he using such benefits to further improve the integration of the pupil in formal education? 8. Any other information the teacher has on the pupil should be requested and reported here.

9.If pupil dropped out of school, specify: Year/Standard/when 10. Reasons for dropping out, probe: e.g. distance from school, poverty, family problems (specify), school problems, specify.

E. Information on those who have dropped out from Primary School: Family: 1. Does the child have both parents? D Yes 0No 2. Specify who stays with the child: D Single parent M/F D Both parents M/F 0 Relatives M/F D Others (specify) 3. Do pupil's guardians live in this settlement?

Yes DN0

4.Is s/he/they employed? 110 D Yes 0No 5. If yes, by whom, specify.

6. Please probe on how they make a living. El Livestockgoatsspecify number 0 Cattlespecify number D Chickensspecify number 7. Drought relief, specify remuneration.

8. Council registered destitute: Dependent on U church D children

9. Huntshow often a month.

10. Gathers - how often a month.

11. Handicrafts - type and where sold.

12. Others/ specify.

13. Why did pupil leave school, probe for reasons.

photo: Playground built by parents and teachers at Grootlaagte, photo: Matthias Hofer 112 ), ,

113 orm tionbo t F u d 40 , g antma 4npoky, po keation ,ERgvailabieftqa Foundationthrough C:t3t @Dzba,

4 at.,0 &tow ep 35,49 cOOD ikadgfb

G1:03Dega.pn-Joh so Praetie

E buDist 14cgr40), 0 Margaret bi

challengesceAfasgeigg?study gD5c,Preschoolchldren Bo'osZefilTd, VID:atcm lbROO& f;-1,2acKe Re eetionsVio

ha tile Mal e s udy

uni1a,;(i3P ogra me,Ir land,

@EO&T,ou> -4Argilb t g g e, Nethe lands rd vin Lee;

Bernard van Leer Foundation P.O. Box 82334 2508 EH The Hague The Netherlands Tel: +31.70.3512040 Fax: +31.70.3502373 Email: [email protected] www.bernardvanleer.org

The San population of Botswana is among or language; to being sent to boarding the last groups of hunter-gatherers still schools, far from their parents. And parents surviving into the 21st century. Coming from mistrust a system that 'steals' their children a culture where children and adults interacted and beats them for childish misbehaviour, freely, where education was informal and a but feel powerless to make.ariy .c/hinges. constant part of this interaction, and where physical abuse of children or harsh corporal The main body of this publication is based punishment was unheard of, the San find it on research carried out during 1993-1995 hard to understand the formal system of which has been updated to 2001 with education. additional background material and new findings. The report gives us a rich and varied This report of a tracer study of the Bokamoso picture of the very many factors that have an Preschool Programme describes very clearly, influence on children as they grow older. It sometimes poignantly, how these differing shows us, among other things, that there is values and norms affect the children of the far more to child development than San. Children have difficulty adjusting to preschool, and that if the school system is rigid class schedules; to being enclosed in not congruent with home circumstances, classrooms; to lessons taught in Setswana the children will have to make immense and English by teachers who have no efforts to achieve any form of success. understanding or appreciation of San culture U.S. Department of Education Office of Educational Research and Improvement (OERI) National Library of Education (NLE) IC Educational Resources Information Center (ERIC)

NOTICE

Reproduction Basis

This document is covered by a signed "Reproduction Release (Blanket)" form (on file within the ERIC system), encompassing all or classes of documents from its sourceorganization and, therefore, does not require a "Specific Document" Release form.

This document is Federally-funded, or carries its own permission to reproduce, or is otherwise in the public domain and, therefore, may be reproduced by ERIC without a signed Reproduction Release form (either "Specific Document" or "Blanket").

EFF-089 (3/2000) p5'2D3z),?6,n