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Geology and Paragenesis of the Boseto Copper Deposits, Kalahari

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Geology and Paragenesis of the Boseto Copper Deposits, Kalahari GEOLOGY AND PARAGENESIS OF THE BOSETO COPPER DEPOSITS, KALAHARI COPPERBELT, NORTHWEST BOTSWANA by Wesley S. Hall A thesis submitted to the Faculty and the Board of Trustees of the Colorado School of Mines in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science (Geology) Golden, Colorado Date _________________________ Signed: ______________________________ Wesley S. Hall Signed: ______________________________ Dr. Murray W. Hitzman Thesis Advisor Golden, Colorado Date _________________________ Signed: ______________________________ Dr. John D. Humphrey Associate Professor and Head Department of Geology & Geological Engineering ii ABSTRACT Detailed lithostratigraphic, structural, and petrographic studies coupled with fluid inclusion and stable isotopic analyses and geochronological studies indicate that the Boseto copper deposits formed initially during diagenesis as metalliferous brines ascended along basin faults and moved along a stratigraphic redox boundary between continental red beds and an overlying reduced marine siliciclastic sequence. The hanging wall rocks to copper-silver ore zones comprise comprises a series of at least three stacked coarsening upwards cycles deposited in a deltaic depositional setting. Early copper mineralization may have been accompanied by regionally extensive albitization. Later multiple pulses of faulting and hydrothermal fluid flow associated with a southeast-vergent folding event in the Ghanzi-Chobe belt resulted in extensive networks of bedding-parallel and discordant quartz-carbonate-(Cu-Fe-sulfide) veins. This contractional deformation-related vein and shear system was responsible for significant remobilization of pre-existing vertically and laterally zoned copper sulfide minerals into high- grade zones by hot (250-300˚C), syn-orogenic, metamorphic-derived hydrothermal fluids. Orientation analysis indicates that the mineralized veins probably formed in association with a flexural slip folding processes. Mineralized vein systems display intense carbonate- chlorite-Cu-Fe-sulfide replacement of wall rock slivers within veins and clasts within shear zones, potassic alteration of the surrounding wall rock, and significant remobilization of early diagenetic disseminated copper sulfide minerals. Sulfur isotopic analyses indicate copper sulfides were probably both mechanically and chemically remobilized. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................... iii LIST OF FIGURES ...................................................................................................................... vii LIST OF TABLES .......................................................................................................................... x ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ........................................................................................................... xi CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Objectives ............................................................................................................................ 1 1.2 Location and Exploration History ........................................................................................ 2 1.3 Sedimentary Rock-Hosted Copper Deposits ....................................................................... 4 CHAPTER 2 GEOLOGIC BACKGROUND ................................................................................. 6 2.1 Regional Basement .............................................................................................................. 6 2.2 Ghanzi-Chobe Belt............................................................................................................... 9 CHAPTER 3 REGIONAL STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY OF THE GHANZI RIDGE ................ 16 3.1 Regional Geophysical Data................................................................................................ 16 3.2 Regional Structural Geology.............................................................................................. 18 CHAPTER 4 STRATIGRAPHY OF THE BOSETO AREA ...................................................... 23 4.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 23 4.2 Ngwako Pan Formation ..................................................................................................... 24 4.3 D’Kar Formation – Lower Member ................................................................................... 27 4.4 Stratigraphic Architecture .................................................................................................. 31 4.5 Paleo-Environmental Reconstruction of the Boseto Area ................................................. 36 CHAPTER 5 GEOLOGY OF THE BOSETO COPPER DEPOSITS .......................................... 45 iv 5.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 45 5.2 Structural Setting ............................................................................................................... 46 5.3 District-Scale Features of Stratiform Copper-Silver Mineralized Zones .......................... 49 5.4 Hydrothermal Alteration Associated with Mineralization ................................................. 55 5.5 Macroscopic Structures in the Boseto area ........................................................................ 62 5.6 The Plutus Deposit ............................................................................................................. 68 5.7 The Zeta Deposit ................................................................................................................ 73 CHAPTER 6 FLUID INCLUSIONS ............................................................................................ 93 6.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 93 6.2 Microthermometry ............................................................................................................. 95 6.3 Crush Leach Analysis ........................................................................................................ 99 CHAPTER 7 STABLE ISOTOPIC ANALYSES ...................................................................... 105 7.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 105 7.2 Results for Carbon and Oxygen Isotopic Analyses ......................................................... 106 7.3 Sulfur Isotopic Analyses .................................................................................................. 110 CHAPTER 8 RHENIUM-OSMIUM CHRONOMETRY .......................................................... 114 8.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 114 8.2 Re-Os Chronometry Results ............................................................................................ 115 CHAPTER 9 DISCUSSION ....................................................................................................... 120 9.1 Sedimentary Architecture ................................................................................................ 120 9.2 Early to Late Diagenetic Stratiform Copper Mineralization ............................................ 121 9.3 Basin Inversion, Metamorphism, and Structurally Controlled Mineralization ................ 122 9.4 Comparison to Other Sedimentary Rock-Hosted Stratiform Copper Deposits ............... 126 v REFERENCES CITED ............................................................................................................... 128 APPENDIX A: LITHOLOGY PHOTOGRAPHS ..................................................................... 134 APPENDIX B: STABLE ISOTOPE DATA .............................................................................. 139 vi LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1.1: Location of the Boseto copper deposits. ...................................................................... 3 Figure 2.1: Lithostratigraphy of the Ghanzi-Chobe Belt ................................................................ 7 Figure 2.2: Regional basement rocks of Botswana ......................................................................... 8 Figure 2.3: Precambrian rock exposures in northern Botswana ................................................... 10 Figure 3.1: Aeromagnetic map of the Ghanzi Ridge area. ........................................................... 17 Figure 3.2: Geologic map of the Ghanzi Ridge area interpreted from aeromagnetic data. .......... 21 Figure 3.3: Schematic regional cross section of the Ghanzi Ridge area ....................................... 22 Figure 4.1: Geologic map of the Boseto area. .............................................................................. 25 Figure 4.2: Representative stratigraphic columns ......................................................................... 26 Figure 4.3: Photomicrograph of a pebble conglomerate, Ngwako Pan Formation ...................... 28 Figure 4.4: Strike-parallel stratigraphic section of the Plutus deposit. ......................................... 34 Figure 4.5: Strike-parallel stratigraphic section
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