Preparing Teachers for a Changing World: Contemporary Issues in EFL Education

EDITED BY Servet ÇELİK Preparing Teachers for a Changing World: Contemporary Issues in EFL Education Editör: Servet ÇELİK Yazarlar: Selami AYDIN, Servet ÇELİK, Kenan DİKİLİTAŞ, Esim GÜRSOY, Yasemin KIRKGÖZ Vildan İNCİ KAVAK, Suzan KAVANOZ, Okan ÖNALAN, Bena GÜL PEKER, Perihan SAVAŞ Eda ÜSTÜNEL

ISBN: 978-605-7523-23-5

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İletişim: Harbiye Mah. Hürriyet Cad. No: 56/A Dikmen Çankaya/ANKARA Tel.: (0312) 482 00 11 Web: www.vizetek.com.tr E-mail: [email protected] Preparing Teachers for a Changing World: Contemporary Issues in EFL Education

EDITED BY

Servet ÇELİK

AUTHORS

Selami AYDIN

Servet ÇELİK

Kenan DİKİLİTAŞ

Esim GÜRSOY

Yasemin KIRKGÖZ

Vildan İNCİ KAVAK

Suzan KAVANOZ

Okan ÖNALAN

Bena GÜL PEKER

Perihan SAVAŞ

Eda ÜSTÜNEL

Ankara, 2020 TABLE OF CONTENTS

ESİM GÜRSOY 1 Chapter 1 BURSA ULUDAĞ UNIVERSITY GLOBAL ISSUES IN ELT

Chapter 2 SERVET ÇELİK 23 CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE EDUCATION TRABZON UNIVERSITY AND THE EFL CLASSROOM

Chapter 3 YASEMİN KIRKGÖZ 35 EFL PROGRAMS, CURRICULA, TEXTBOOKS ÇUKUROVA UNIVERSITY AND INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS

Chapter 4 SUZAN KAVANOZ 47 CULTIVATING CRITICAL THINKING SKILLS YILDIZ TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY IN THE EFL CLASSROOM

PERİHAN SAVAŞ 67 Chapter 5 MIDDLE EAST TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY TEACHING EFL WITH TECHNOLOGY

Chapter 6 BENA GÜL PEKER 83 TEACHING AND LEARNING GRAMMAR GAZİ UNIVERSITY THROUGH THE SPOT (SLC) MODEL

Chapter 7 OKAN ÖNALAN 103 AUTOMATED SCORING OF PRODUCTIVE INDEPENDENT RESEARCHER SKILLS IN LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

VİLDAN İNCİ KAVAK GAZİANTEP UNIVERSITY 115 Chapter 8 EDA ÜSTÜNEL LANGUAGE ALTERNATION PRACTICES MUĞLA SITKI KOÇMAN UNIVERSITY

Chapter 9 SELAMİ AYDIN 143 AFFECTIVE STATES AND LEARNING İSTANBUL MEDENİYET UNIVERSITY OUTCOMES IN EFL EDUCATION

Chapter 10 KENAN DİKİLİTAŞ 157 PRE-SERVICE AND IN-SERVICE EFL UNIVERSITY OF STAVANGER, NORWAY TEACHERS AS RESEARCHERS Introduction The idea for this book initially came about during a course titled “Trends and Issues in Language Education” recently introduced for undergraduate students in the Department of Foreign Languages Education at Trabzon University. Learning to teach English requires, of course, a solid mastery of the language, as well as knowledge of the pedagogical aspects of foreign language teaching. On the other hand, decisions about teaching should be grounded not only in an understanding of instructional approaches and methodologies, but also in an awareness of the context in which the instruction is taking place, including the sociological, economic, political and cultural environment, among other factors. The course was designed as a forum for students to explore these issues and to consider the ways that they might impact their future practice; the themes that emerged from this process formed the framework for this book. By presenting these themes as a series of chapters, authored by leading Turkish experts in English language education, the text offers a comprehensive view of the contemporary trends and issues that impact English as a Foreign Language (EFL) instruction in Turkey and beyond, offering points for reflection on how these concerns may affect both current and future teachers of EFL in terms of their philosophical approach to teaching, their classroom practice and their professional identities as English language teachers. While the intended audience is primarily students who are enrolled in English Language Teaching (ELT) programs at Turkish universities, the book may also serve as a valuable resource for graduates in English Literature and other related programs who are planning to become certified as English language teachers. In-service teachers, teacher trainers and other language teaching professionals may also benefit from the book as an informational work. To begin the discussion, Esim Gürsoy presents her chapter on “Global Issues in ELT,” delving into the current challenges and concerns that impact the global community. Issues such as the world political climate, gender and racial inequalities, the environment and more are highlighted in terms of their impact on how we approach language education, whether and how they should be included as content in English language lessons, and what it means to be a socially responsible teacher. The text then continues with a chapter from Servet Çelik, who expands on the concept of socially responsible teaching with an in-depth look at “Culturally Responsive Education and the EFL Classroom.” In this regard, he highlights the responsibility of teachers of English as a foreign language to foster positive attitudes toward learners from all linguistic and ethnic backgrounds, as well as discussing the steps that teachers can take to create an inclusive and supportive classroom environment.

Page v  Turning from the philosophical and practical aspects of socially responsive teaching to the pedagogical side of language education, Yasemin Kırkgöz elaborates on the role of “EFL Programs, Curricula, Textbooks and Instructional Materials” in her examination of the history, theoretical underpinnings and design considerations of EFL curricula and materials, as well as how these support the expected outcomes of English language learning.

The focus of the book then moves to a number of instructional issues, beginning with insights from Suzan Kavanoz on the importance of “Cultivating Critical Thinking Skills in the EFL Classroom” and how language teachers can support their learners in developing their abilities in this regard. Next, Perihan Savaş looks at another important concern in the modern language classroom, that of “Teaching EFL with Technology.” The various types of teaching technologies are described, as well as the rationale for using them in language instruction; and some tips for applying them effectively are provided.

Afterward, in the chapter on Teaching and Learning Grammar through the SPOT (SLC) model, by Bena Gül Peker, we encounter an integrated model for contextualized grammar instruction that incorporates both inductive and deductive techniques. This material is followed by Okan Önalan’s “Automated Scoring of Productive Skills in Language Assessment,” which investigates the benefits, challenges and implications of non-human scoring of speaking and writing skills in English language learning.

Next, we present a discussion by Vildan İnci Kavak and Eda Üstünel on “Language Alternation Practices,” which delves into the ways that learners use their mother tongue as a compensation strategy in the EFL learning process. Selami Aydın continues with the emotional aspects of language learning in his chapter on “Affective States and Learning Outcomes in EFL Education,” which draws attention to learning anxiety, motivation and other affective issues that may impact the learning process. Finally, Kenan Dikilitaş explores the role of “Pre-service and In-service EFL Teachers as Researchers,” touching on the ways that language teachers can continue to engage as learners in their practice, as well as identifying solutions to the challenges they encounter, through the process of action research.

– Servet Çelik, Editor December 16, 2019 Trabzon, Turkey

 Page vi Acknowledgements This book represents the diverse experiences, insights and perspectives of some of Turkey’s top English language teacher educators; without their knowledge, time, effort and patience, this work would not have been possible. Sincere thanks to all authors for their valuable contributions.

Our thanks go out as well to a talented student of mine, Toykan Okur, for his assistance with the cover design, and to a true friend, Wendy Mardas, for English language editing and proofreading of the text.

I hope that this volume will encourage current and future EFL practitioners to reflect on the issues discussed here and how they may impact their professional lives; as well as to inform their approach to teaching in accordance with the evolving needs of modern language education.

– Servet Çelik, Editor

Page vii 

CHAPTER 1

GLOBAL ISSUES IN ELT

ESİM GÜRSOY BURSA ULUDAĞ UNIVERSITY

Esim Gürsoy is an associate professor at the ELT Department of Uludağ University, Turkey. She holds an M.A. in teacher education from Ohio University, USA, and a Ph.D. in English language teaching from Anadolu University, Turkey. She has published many research articles in international journals. She has authored and edited books and is also the author of several book chapters. Her research interests include teaching English to young learners, pre-service teacher education, teaching practice, and integrating socially responsible teaching to ELT.

Pre-reading Questions

1. What are global issues? 2. Should global issues be the concern of the language teacher? 3. How can we integrate global issues into language content? 4. Can global issues be used with all age groups?

Introduction Unfortunately, there is not a day that goes by without a news story on TV about war, terrorism, gender and social inequality, racism, global warming, pollution or deforestation. These issues, and many more, are not just the concern of certain countries or people, but the whole world. Therefore, solutions to these problems are only possible if the global community shares responsibility. Deriving from this common concern, a relatively new approach to language teaching, called “Global Issues in Language Education (GILE),” has become a matter of interest. Fisher and Hicks (1985) define global education as “education which promotes the knowledge, attitudes, and skills relevant to living responsibly in a multicultural, independent world” (p. 158). In the above definition, knowledge, attitudes and skills are to be given attention, as knowing what is happening is not adequate to stop it from happening. Thus, knowledge is considered as a first step to developing attitudes that are necessary for the skills needed to act upon the problems.

Attitudes are not developed in an instant in adulthood. Our value judgments, prejudices, and attitudes develop when we are younger (Gürsoy, 2010). To develop an understanding and a concern for global issues, teachers carry a huge responsibility no matter what their teaching field is. Similarly, Ünal and Dımışkı (1999) underline the role of the teacher in reaching the goals of environmental education as one of the global issues. Hence teachers’ (both pre-service and in-service) knowledge and awareness in global issues is essential in helping their students develop skills to prevent global problems. The teacher training process should be supported with critical thinking activities to equip teachers and teacher trainees with the necessary skills to carry out socially responsible teaching. Thus the aim of this chapter is to create awareness on global issues and their integration into language lessons by underlining the role of the practitioner as a global citizen.

GLOBAL ISSUES IN ELT Page 3 Theoretical Framework Socially Responsible Teaching

The importance given to global education is a social responsibility that is highlighted in Freire’s (2005) critical pedagogy. Socially Responsible Teaching (hereafter SRT), as a reflection of critical pedagogy, emphasized the development of a critical stance towards society. Salı and Gürsoy (2014, p. 141) define SRT as “the intentional efforts to help learners understand themselves and the world around them by enabling them to develop skills and knowledge to act upon the problems that arise in the social and physical environment.” The development of such a critical stance allows individuals to become active participants in changing the society for the better by being socially responsible and aware (Gürsoy & Salı, 2014). The underlining philosophy of Freire’s line of vision to education is that learners and teachers are cognitive actors. Thus education is an act of cognition (Gürsoy & Salı, 2014) during which the students are actively involved in the process. He contrasts his view with the “banking model” of education in which learners are passive recipients of knowledge. In this model learners do not have a say regarding their learning and learning outcomes. They are considered as vessels to be filled. Like Dewey, Freire also mentions the importance of inquiry. He (2005) states that “knowledge emerges only through invention and re-invention, through the restless, impatient, continuing, hopeful inquiry men pursue in the world, with the world, and with each other” (p. 72). In Freire’s definition, knowledge is not static, on the contrary it is to be invented and re-invented. Critical thinking, as a skill, is an important constituent of the learning process. According to Shor and Freire (1987) “action, critical reflection, curiosity, demanding inquiry, uneasiness, uncertainty - all these virtues are indispensable to the cognitive subject, the person who learns!” (p. 8).

Reflection

1. Would you consider yourself as a socially responsible individual?

2. Discuss what you can do to be a socially responsible teacher.

3. What are some knowledge and skills you need to implement SRT in your classes?

4. What would be some actions that could be taken to create awareness and understan- ding in learners?

Page 4 GLOBAL ISSUES IN ELT Global Issues in Language Education The integration of global issues in language education facilitates the development of critical thinking skills as all of these issues require active involvement and problem solving while developing language skills. As stated by Cates (2002) integration of global issues in language education “aims to enable students to effectively acquire a foreign language while empowering them with the knowledge, skills, and commitment required by world citizens to solve global problems” (p. 41). In his definition, Kniep (1985) highlights the “efforts to bring about changes in the content, methods and social context of education in order to better prepare students for citizenship in a global age” (p. 15). In other words, having the knowledge and skills are not adequate unless there is an effort to bring about change. Thus the language education should be planned in steps to have the learners show some intention and effort to be an active participant of the solution.

The objectives of environmental education as identified by the United Nations (UNESCO_UNEP, 1976 cited in Jacobs and Goatly, 2000, p.256) can be easily implemented in any global issue. These objectives gradually move from awareness to action at each step by increasing cognitive involvement and participation. Accordingly, the objectives of environmental education are:

1. Awareness of environmental problems; 2. Basic understanding of the environment and its problems and human beings’ role in relation to the environment; 3. Attitude of concern for environmental problems; 4. Skills in overcoming environmental problems; 5. Ability to evaluate proposed solutions to environmental problems; 6. Participation in solving environmental problems.

Thus the first step for global education should be awareness raising and the last should be the participation in solving problems. These steps reflect Freire’s critical pedagogy as they also underline the importance of being critical towards and contribution to the solutions of societal problems. Taking a critical stance requires “action competence” which should be considered as one of the goals of SRT and GILE (Salı & Gürsoy, 2014). Action competence emphasizes intentionality and willingness to contribute to the decision-making process, which differentiates it from an activity (Jensen, 2000; Jensen & Schnack, 1997).

GLOBAL ISSUES IN ELT Page 5 The goals in education with a global perspective constitute knowledge, attitudes, skills and action (Cates, 2002). Knowledge is the first goal and the first step in global education. If we want our students to work for a better world it is essential that they are aware of the problems and their solutions. Developing global attitudes comprises the second goal which involves “global awareness, curiosity, an appreciation of other cultures, respect for diversity, commitment to justice, and empathy with others” (Cates, 2002, p. 41). The skills have a wide range in global education that involve “communication, critical and creative thinking, cooperative problem-solving, nonviolent conflict resolution, informed decision making, and the ability to see issues from multiple perspectives” (Cates, 2002, p. 41), most of which are also relevant with 21st century skills as well. Finally, in order to solve world problems taking action via “democratic participation in the local and global community” (Cates, 2002, p. 41) becomes necessary. This final goal is a reflection of the main philosophy behind SRT that lies its roots in critical pedagogy.

In March 2005 United Nations launched the “Decade of Education for Sustainable Development” (DESD) (Allen & Bacha, 2007), thus the years 2005-2014 marked “a new era for global education and efforts and education related research” (p.12). The Decade of Education for Sustainable Development was not only about the environment and environmental problems but other global issues as well (Allen & Bacha, 2007). With the DESD, the UN Millennium goals are also supplemented as it emphasizes “promoting change through education, training, and raising public awareness in both developed and developing countries.” (Allen & Bacha, 2007, p. 12). Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) is an approach aiming to help people:

• better understand the world in which they live, • face the future with hope and confidence, and • play a role in addressing the complex, inter-dependent problems that threaten our future … (Allen & Bacha, 2007, p. 12).

ESD and GILE complement each other as well. Language programs with an ESD view …

aim to raise awareness of global issues, give students opportunities to apply knowledge to real world problems, build skills in communication, cooperation and independent learning, and conduct activities that allow students to look at the world from different perspectives and foster respect for different values (Allen & Bacha, 2007, p. 12).

Page 6 GLOBAL ISSUES IN ELT 21st Century Skills and their Relationship with GILE and ESD To this end, aims of ESD also reflect the 21st century skills that learners require to survive in the new century. According to one of the initiatives of OECD, the Definition and Selection of Competencies (DeSeCo) Program, individuals “think for themselves and take responsibility for their learning and for their actions” (OECD, 2009, p. 7). At the core of the argument lies the two skills, which the new economy and society requires: “Critical Thinking” and “Problem Solving” (Gürsoy, 2017). Critical thinking and problem solving are one of the four C’s of the 4C Model in 21st century skills. The others are communication, collaboration and creativity. ESD also emphasizes communication, cooperation as does the 4C Model. Moreover, the ability to “look at the world from different perspectives” as stated in the aims of ESD is a skill that requires critical thinking in parallel to 21st century skills.

Reflection

Think about how you can relate 21st century skills and Socially Responsible Teaching.

Critical thinking is an essential skill in the implementation of GILE as well. It requires reasoning, interpretation and analysis, constructing arguments and problem solving. Using the topics of global issues such as pollution, global warming, gender inequality, etc. the learners will have plenty of opportunities to think critically on the issues to solve the problems.

Communication is an indispensable component and the major aim of any language teaching process. Communication within 21st century skills requires engagement in conversations and discussions and communication in diverse environments. Topics of SRT will give a real reason to talk thus enabling the learning process become meaningful for the learners.

Engaging in conversations and being an active participant of the problem solving process, learners can work together in collaboration. Collaborative ability requires flexibility, responsibility and productivity. If education is really an “act of cognition” as Gürsoy and

GLOBAL ISSUES IN ELT Page 7 Salı (2014) claim, cooperative action, during which participants work together to solve problems, would trigger this act. Moreover, working together encourages creativity, which also leads to thinking out of the box.

Relevance of GILE with Language Teaching Methodology and Pedagogy The role of the language educator has been somewhat a narrow one constituting the teaching of language skills, grammar and vocabulary (Salı & Gürsoy, 2014). However, as any educator the language teacher has ethical and pedagogical responsibilities to the local and global society. It would be incorrect to exclude teachers from the responsibility toward world problems. Yet, as they have a greater impact on the society they have the power to shape the future in a sense. For a long time global issues such as pollution, global warming, deforestation was considered to be the responsibility of science and biology teachers (Gürsoy, 2010) and such issues were only covered within the content of the aforementioned lessons. However, issues that have a global impact should be the concern of all world citizens including language teachers.

Meaningfulness has prime importance for language education. Any information offered without any relevance to real world is subject to be forgotten. Hence the language instruction should be meaning-focused. One-way to create meaningful lessons could be enhanced via using several language teaching methods, approaches and/or techniques. Content Based Instruction (CBI), Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL), Theme-based Teaching are to tell a few. Jacobs and Goatly (2000) support this view by claiming that the use of these approaches would fit well if the coursebooks include environmental topics.

CBI has been used widely at all levels from kindergarten to secondary school, from English for Specific Purposes (ESP) classes to L1 classrooms (Grabe & Stoller, 1997). The rationale behind CBI is that learners learn the content matter via second/foreign language (Gürsoy, 2010). Language in this approach is considered as a medium to convey meaning rather than a goal in itself thus providing learners a reason to use the L2 in a meaningful way. The content is chosen from different subjects across the curriculum such as history, science and math. While learning these subjects, students and the teacher interact in L2 by using necessary language functions and chunks. CBI was initially used in Canada and in the US. CLIL, on the other hand is a similar approach to language teaching used in European Union countries. It is used, to teach a subject

Page 8 GLOBAL ISSUES IN ELT with the use of a language other than the L1 of the students (EC, 2010). According to European Commission (EC, 2010) CLIL is found to be effective at all levels of education including, kindergarten, adult education and higher education. Several benefits of the CLILL were identified (EC, 2010);

• It improves language competence including oral communication; • It provides learners with different perspectives while studying a content matter; • It provides more input and practice; • It enables diverse use of methods and practices; • It increases motivation and self-confidence in both areas (language and content).

Another approach that could be used when integrating global issues into language classroom is theme-based teaching. Theme-based teaching can be more easily used by teachers any time they feel the need. As different from CBI and CLIL, the themes or topics do not have to come from the curriculum. In CBI and CLIL the curriculum has to be organized in such a way that the language lessons, in a way, supplement the core content areas. Thus the planning of the language lesssons has to be parallel with the content of the other courses in the curriculum. In order to use and implement CBI or CLIL, curriculum design should be at the national made level by the Ministry of National Education (MoNE) so that language and content goals are determined together by considering content across the curriculum. However, in theme-based teaching any topic or theme can be used and integrated into the syllabus any time. The teacher does not necessarily select the topics from the curriculum but from the ‘here and now’ or according to learners’ interests, age and other topics of importance. Due to its nature, theme-based teaching does not have to be organized by MoNE. Depending on the targeted language functions and chunks the teacher can select a theme. This feature of the approach makes it more feasible and also available for the teachers to use it with global issues.

In CBI, CLIL and theme-based teaching there are always two sets of goals: language and content. When planning the lesson the teacher identifies both types of goals and objectives. The students aim for learning the content matter by using the language. Such language use is more meaningful especially in EFL contexts where learners do not have a reason for learning a foreign language. Moreover, as the content facilitates contextualization, language is not learnt and practiced in a vacuum but within a meaningful whole. Lesson activities are organized in such a way that both the content goals and language goals are met by, actually, experiencing the L2 (for an example lesson plan made by 3rd year ELT students see Appendix).

GLOBAL ISSUES IN ELT Page 9 In a theme-based lesson with a global issue, the teacher can benefit from different types of activities and materials in addition to those used and prepared for language teaching. Especially, drama activities that trigger creativity and critical thinking would help students develop an understanding towards the global problems and work out the solutions for it.

Picture 1. ELT teacher trainees organizing a drama activity to take attention to water pollution

As discussed earlier, value judgments, behaviors and attitudes develop when we are younger, hence it is essential that global issues are integrated into language lessons at all levels from kindergarten to adult education (see, Erten, 2004; Şimşekli, 2004). UNESCO (1974) “Recommendation Concerning Education for International Understanding, Cooperation and Peace and Education Relating to Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms” (as cited in Cates, 2002, p. 43) emphasizes bearing a global perspective throughout the education process. Such a global perspective would promote an understanding for cultural diversity, and respect for other cultures; an awareness of the rights of people (children rights, women rights, human rights) and animals; and prepare students to participate in solving problems in the local and global community (Cates, 2002). Considering children’s limited cognitive abilities and their limited/lack of ability for abstract thinking, global issues might seem to be above their content and world knowledge. However, when the content is presented with child- friendly materials and activities at their cognitive and linguistic level, even children would be able to develop awareness and become active participants in solving global problems. Some global issues such as cultural diversity due to migration or exodus

Page 10 GLOBAL ISSUES IN ELT or global warming, deforestation, pollution, energy waste, children’s rights, etc. are already within the children’s agenda as they are experiencing the results of these issues every day or witness them on news.

Picture 2. ELT teacher trainees’ material for global warming

The use of appropriate materials would not only create a desire for children to get involved in the activity but also with the increased involvement there will be more language practice. In the following pictures third grade children are using the material that 3rd year ELT teacher trainees prepared to take attention to pollution. The purpose of the activity was to help children to find solutions to save the world from pollution. The model earth is covered with garbage and the children are removing one piece of garbage from the world by making a sentence about what to do to keep the world safe, such as “we should recycle” and “we shouldn’t cut the trees.” With each correct suggestion the child gets to remove garbage until the earth is totally clean. In the end, the outcome will be a clean and healthy world that children actually contribute doing it by telling the right things and by actually performing the action. Such an activity and its outcome is very child-friendly because the content is made concrete with the material. Children can actually see the results of an action, which makes the content comprehensible for them.

GLOBAL ISSUES IN ELT Page 11 Pictures 3 & 4. Third grade children are involved in the activity aiming to stop pollution

Page 12 GLOBAL ISSUES IN ELT In such an activity the language teacher can achieve both goals: awareness raising on pollution (content) and making suggestions (language). These kinds of activities are also appropriate with children’s characteristics. Children learn by seeing and doing as they are predominantly visual and kinesthetic (Gürsoy, 2010). Any activity that involves physical movement and/or has a visual component would take children’s interest. Moreover, when the students make a cognitive investment such as finding a solution as in the aforementioned activity, the learning process contributes to their cognitive development as well.

Picture 5. An activity for energy saving: The model house displays energy waste in different rooms. The envelopes in the birds’ mouths state the problem. By using the chunks given, students try to save energy at home.

Another reason why global issues can be used even with young learners while implementing theme-based teaching is that working for the content gives them a reason to use L2. For adult learners any reason such as finding a better job, travelling, or earning more money could be important and valid to learn a foreign language. However, as children lack hypothetical thinking and as the “future” is abstract, such reasons will not work with children. Therefore, the purpose of learning should be inherent in the activity within the “here and now” principle. The activities with a concrete outcome such as the one described above would provide a reason for learning. When using global issues with children the teacher should be careful about the theme selection by considering children’s emotional development as well as content and world knowledge. Topics like war, hunger, poverty, might not be appropriate with child learners. Age relevant selection would no doubt increase the benefits of global education. For this to happen the teacher should have developed the skills to find the best ways to implement GILE.

GLOBAL ISSUES IN ELT Page 13 Pre-service and in-service training of teachers on socially responsible teaching and GILE have become an invaluable component of teacher education process in order to prepare teachers and their students for the 21st century. SRT and GILE can no longer be considered as a distant possibility for teachers, yet considering the current needs of the global society and the world itself, they have become an indispensable part of the education process. Regardless of our fields in teaching, developing ourselves as socially responsible individuals who care for the global problems would contribute to the future of the world as teachers are the most important piece of the puzzle in bringing up children.

In conclusion, policy makers, teacher education institutions, teachers and parents share the concern to raise socially responsible global citizens. Yet, as teachers bring up policy makers, future teachers and parents, the greatest importance should be given to teacher qualifications. Teacher education institutions and the governments should create the necessary conditions by involving courses on SRT, GILE, 21st century skills to equip teachers and prospective teachers with the knowledge, skills and attitudes to display a critical stance. The development of social responsibility in students could only be possible with socially responsible teachers who have the skills to find ways to implement SRT with their students.

Post-reading Activity

1. Prepare a theme-based lesson plan so that it involves one of the global issues. When se- lecting and sequencing your activities consider UNESCO-UNEP’s objectives for environ- mental education. Start with an awareness raising activity and then finish the lesson with a task or activity that encourages students to participate in solving that problem. Don’t forget to write content and language objectives.

2. By considering the current English Language Teaching Program (ELTP) identify units that you can integrate a global issue and discuss how you can do it.

3. Discuss how you can facilitate the comprehension of global issues for young learners having limited (or no) metacognitive awareness.

4. Work in groups and discuss how you can raise your prospective colleagues’ awareness, understanding and use of SRT.

Page 14 GLOBAL ISSUES IN ELT References

Allen, R., & Bacha, J. (2007). Global issues in language education and the United Nations’ decade of ESD. Global Issues in Language Education, 63, 12-14.

Cates, K. A. (2002). Teaching for a better world: Global issues and language education. Human Rights Education in Asian Schools, 5, 41-52.

Erten, S. (2004). Çevre eğitimi ve çevre bilinci nedir, çevre eğitimi nasıl olmalıdır? Çevre ve İnsan Dergisi, 65/66. Retrieved from http://yunus.hacettepe.edu.tr/~serten/makaleler/ cevre.pdf

European Commission (EC). (2010). Content and language integrated learning (CLIL). Retrieved from http://ec.europa.eu/education/languages/languageteaching/doc236_ en.htm

Fisher, S., & D. Hicks. (1985). World Studies 8–13. New York: Oliver & Boyd.

Freire, P. (2005). Pedagogy of the oppressed (30th Anniversary Ed.). New York: Continuum.

Grabe, W., & Stoller, F. L. (1997). Content-based Instruction: Research foundations. In Snow, M.A. and Brinton, D.M. (Eds.), The Content-based classroom: Perspectives on integrating language and content (pp. 5-21). White Plains, NY: Longman.

Gürsoy, E. (2010). Implementing environmental education to foreign language teaching to young learners. Educational Research, 1(8), 232-238.

Gürsoy, E. (2017). 21st century skills for teachers: Excuse me, are we there yet? Paper presented at Çukurova International Teachers’ Conference (CUELT), Çukurova University, Adana.

Gürsoy, E., & Salı, P. (2014). A language course within the scheme of socially responsible teaching: ELT trainees’ expectations. Journal of Educational and Social Research, 4(2), 355-365. Doi:10.5901/jesr.2014.vl4n2p355

Jacobs, G. M., & Goatly, A. (2000). The treatment of ecological issues in ELT coursebooks. ELT Journal, 54(3), 256-264.

Jensen, B. (2000). Participation, commitment and knowledge as components of pupils’ action competence. In B. B. Jensen, K. Schnack & V. Simovska (Eds.), Critical environmental and health education: Research issues and challenges (pp. 219–238). Copenhagen: Danish University of Education.

GLOBAL ISSUES IN ELT Page 15 Jensen, B., & Schnack. K. (1997). The action competence approach in environmental education. Environmental Education Research, 3(2), 163–78.

Kniep, W. (1985). A critical review of the short history of global education. New York: American Forum for Global Education.

OECD (2009). 21st century skills and competences for new millennium learners in OECD countries. EDU working paper no. 41.

Salı, P., & Gürsoy, E. (2014). Evaluation of a language course within the framework of socially responsible teaching. ELT Research Journal, 3(3), 140-152.

Shor, I., & Freire, P. (1987). A pedagogy for liberation. South Hadley, MA: Bergin and Garvey.

Şimsekli, Y. (2004). Çevre bilincinin gelişmesine yönelik çevre eğitimi etkinliklerine ilköğretim okullarının duyarlılığı. Uludağ Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 17(1), 83- 92.

Ünal, S., & Dımışkı, E. (1999). UNESCO-UNEP himayesinde çevre eğitiminin gelişimi ve Türkiye’de ortaöğretim çevre eğitimi. Hacettepe University Journal of the Faculty of Education, 16(17), 142-154.

Page 16 GLOBAL ISSUES IN ELT th Grade : 6 Date : ...... Unit : 9 School : ...... Name of the Unit : Saving the Planet Students : ...... Theme : Energy Saving Target Chunks : Class Duration : 40 minutes What should we do to save energy/ Materials : Poster, pictures, solve the problems? video, worksheets, — We should turn off the lights. flashcards — We should unplug the TV. — We should close the windows.

Context We give harm to our world by wasting energy. We should take action and become activists. We should save energy and we should save the world! Goals Students will be aware of energy saving. [Content goal] Students will learn how to take action for energy saving. [Content goal] Students will offer solutions/suggestions to the problems. [Language goal] Objectives By the end of the lesson; • Students will relate their previous knowledge about energy by brainstorming and filling a mind map. [21st century skill – critical thinking] • Students will analyze some ideas about energy saving by listening a song about energy saving. [21st century skill – critical thinking] • Students will evaluate their knowledge about energy saving by completing a listen and do activity. • Students will describe some problems in the house by looking at visuals. [Language function] • Students will choose the best solutions for the problems by using the flashcards and the chunk “We should ...”. • Students will prepare a poster by writing down their suggestions about energy saving. (E.g., We are activists, we turn off the lights) and post them on school walls for awareness of other students. • Students will explain their suggestions for the given problems in a speaking activity. [Language function]

GLOBAL ISSUES IN ELT Page 17 PROCEDURE Warm-up Objective • Students will relate their previous knowledge about energy by brainstorming and filling a mind map. 10 Teacher greets class and shows the lamp on the board. Minutes T asks questions about energy to fill the mind map by brainstorming.

T writes down the students’ answers on the board.

T shows the pictures about wasting energy and then explains what they can do about that situation.

T describes the term “Activist” by giving a demonstration.

Listening (Song) Objectives • Students will analyze some ideas about energy saving by listening to a video-song. • Students will evaluate their knowledge about energy saving by completing a listen and do activity. 7

Teacher plays a song about energy saving. minutes

T plays the song for the second time and wants the students to listen carefully.

While listening to the song, the students circle the energy saving activities given via visuals. After the students finish the activity, the answers are discussed.

Page 18 GLOBAL ISSUES IN ELT Energy Saving House Activity Objectives • Students will describe some problems in the house by looking at visuals. • Students will choose the best solutions for the problems by using the flashcards and the chunk “We should ...”. 10 Teacher introduces the house/parts of the house and wants the minutes students to see the problems in that house. T explains the activity and demonstrates. T picks a color from the box and goes for the same color on the board. T reads the message in the colorful envelope and offers a solution for the written problem. The activity goes on like that until the all problems are solved.

Poster Activity Objective • Students will prepare a poster by writing down their suggestions about energy saving (E.g., We are activists, we turn off the lights). Teacher emphasizes that there are lots of problems about saving energy around the world. T wants the students to think about some ways for making people aware of energy saving. The students share their opinions. 10 Teacher and the students decide to prepare a poster. minutes T shows a cardboard which has children’s picture on the center as activists. T hands out Earth pictures and students cut and stick them on the cardboard. After sticking the Earth pictures, teacher wants the students to write suggestions about saving energy by using the pattern such as “We are activists, we turn off the lights”. Students write their suggestions and stick them on the poster. When the poster is ready, teacher displays the poster on the school’s wall.

GLOBAL ISSUES IN ELT Page 19 Homework Teacher hands out a checklist about energy saving and also reflects 3 it on the board. minutes T explains how to fill the checklist.

Back-up Plan: (Speaking Activity) Objective • Students will be able to explain their suggestions for the given problems in a speaking activity.

Teacher gives different situations and wants the students to offer suggestions for them.

Page 20 GLOBAL ISSUES IN ELT Environmental Education’s Six Objectives (UNESCO-UNEP) 1. Awareness of environmental problems: In the lesson plan, it is aimed to generate awareness about energy related problems by making the students think about the energy saving and then showing some pictures which display the harm that we give to our world.

2. Basic understanding of the environment and its problems and human beings’ role in relation to the environment: The teacher demonstrates the appropriate energy saving actions and points out what they can do about the problem. S/he also shows the students how to take action and become an activist with demonstration. Moreover, in the house activity, family members waste energy by their actions. In this way, the students see human beings’ roles and understand that this is a problem.

3. Attitude of concern for environmental problems: Students are aimed to be motivated with a song about energy saving. By doing this, it is intended to have the students develop concern about energy saving. As an activist the student(s) take actions with the help of messages to solve energy saving problems.

4. Skills in overcoming environmental problems: With the help of the song, the students have some ideas/solutions for energy saving problems. After the song, they check their knowledge about energy saving ways with a listen and do activity and they use flashcards for the house activity. So, they listen, speak and give solutions about the topic.

5. Ability to evaluate proposed solutions to environmental problems: The students have a chance to evaluate the solutions with the house activity. In the activity, the students are expected to realize the problems and provide solutions for them.

6. Participation in solving environmental problems: At the end of the lesson, students prepare a poster about suggestions for energy saving in order to reach more people at the school.

GLOBAL ISSUES IN ELT Page 21

CHAPTER 2

CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE EDUCATION AND THE EFL CLASSROOM

SERVET ÇELİK TRABZON UNIVERSITY

Servet Çelik is an associate professor and Head of the Department of Foreign Language Education at Trabzon University, Turkey. Dr. Çelik holds a bachelor’s degree in ELT from Gazi University, Turkey; a Master of Education degree in TESOL from the University of Pennsylvania, USA, and a doctoral degree in Literacy, Culture, and Language Education from Indiana University-Bloomington, USA. Some of Dr. Çelik’s professional interests include language teacher education, teaching of culture and intercultural competence, curriculum design and teacher professional development.

Pre-reading Questions

1. What images come to mind when you hear the term “culturally responsive education”? How do you visualize a culturally responsive classroom?

2. Is it important to consider learners’ cultural backgrounds when teaching a foreign langua- ge? Why or why not?

3. Do you see yourself as a culturally responsive individual?

4. How do you feel about teaching students from cultural and linguistic backgrounds diffe- rent from your own?

Introduction Amid the rhetoric of inclusion that has characterized the socio-political landscape of the European Union and its partner countries since the early 2000s, the stance of educational policy-makers has turned increasingly toward a focus on diversity, cultural awareness and making room for multiculturalism in the classroom. On the other hand, in terms of outreach to ethnically and linguistically diverse students, the approach to teaching in many contexts has not always been responsive to cultural differences. Often, this is due to issues such as rigid standardization of teaching curricula, inadequate training of teachers, and lack of understanding of what constitutes culturally responsive education. However, in light of increasing global mobility, and in particular, the growing influx of families displaced by regional conflict (e.g., the Syrian refugee crisis) into European nations, the need to address diversity in our classrooms has become more critical than ever.

While this concern impacts teachers in every subject area, it is especially relevant in the English as a Foreign Language (EFL) classroom, where teachers are expected to handle issues of culture as a natural extension of the language education process (Çelik, 2014). Therefore, in this chapter, we will discuss the definition of culturally responsive education and its features; encourage teachers to reflect on their own cultural awareness; and offer strategies for creating a teaching environment that is safe, supportive and empowering for learners from a wide range of ethnic and linguistic backgrounds.

CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE EDUCATION AND THE EFL CLASSROOM Page 25 What is Culturally Responsive Education, and Why is It Important? By definition, culturally responsive (or culturally inclusive) education entails that learners from all ethnic, linguistic and cultural backgrounds are welcomed and viewed as valuable and as capable of benefiting from instruction. The roots of culturally inclusive instruction can be found in the United States, where Zeichner (2003) explains that there is often a “substantial cultural divide” (p. 493) between the predominantly white teachers in urban areas and their racially and culturally diverse minority students. Under such circumstances, Çelik and Amaç (2012), Gay (2000, 2010) and Hampton, Peng, and Ann (2008) point out that, due to issues such as racial stereotypes and underperformance on standardized testing (which by nature favors dominant-culture students), teachers often harbor preconceived notions of minority students as undermotivated and lacking in discipline and parental support. As such, they often dismiss them as being incapable of learning.

To overcome this issue, researchers such as Irvine and Armento (2001) pioneered the notion of culturally responsive teaching as encompassing a student-centered environment where teachers believe in and have high expectations from all students, engage in critical problem-solving, and work to develop close relationships with students, their families and the wider community. In this respect, Gay (2000) describes a culturally inclusive learning environment as one that:

Page 26 CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE EDUCATION AND THE EFL CLASSROOM • legitimizes cultural heritage in terms of its impact on students’ attitudes and approaches to learning; • builds bridges between home and school; • diversifies instructional strategies to address a diverse range of learning styles; • raises awareness and appreciation in students for their own cultures and those of their peers; • incorporates multicultural content and materials in the learning process (p. 29).

Contrary to assimilative education, where all learners (regardless of their individual circumstances) are expected to integrate into the dominant culture; where differences are regarded as unimportant; and where it is assumed that a one-size-fits-all approach will provide each individual with an equal opportunity for success, culturally responsive education is designed to recognize diversity and to capitalize on the individual perspectives of learners from many backgrounds. In this context, the personal experiences of each learner are seen as offering a unique perspective that can contribute to the educational development of his or her peers.

A Crisis Point in Turkish Education While the concept of cultural inclusivity may be viewed as important in all educational contexts, it is especially relevant in Turkey at the time of this writing as a nation that has been deeply impacted by the ongoing Syrian conflict and the resulting influx of displaced families, including millions of children of school age. Since the year 2011, more than 8 million Syrians have been displaced from their homes due to the ongoing civil war, and of these, over 5.2 million have fled to other countries; and with its “open-door” policy toward Syrians, an estimated 3.7 million Syrians have been accommodated in Turkey to date (European Commission, 2018).

Initially, Syrians were accommodated in camps in just 10 Turkish cities, and the children who lived in these camps – as part of an effort to avoid a gap in their education – attended lessons that were taught by Syrians who either were teachers by profession or had received basic teacher training in Turkey. However, in an effort to relieve the pressure on refugee camps and to assist displaced Syrians in integrating into Turkish society, significant portions of the refugee population have been relocated throughout the country. Additionally, in compliance with Turkey’s view of education as a basic human right, school-age refugee children have been integrated into Turkish public schools.

CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE EDUCATION AND THE EFL CLASSROOM Page 27 Yet the majority of schools in Turkey are underprepared to deal with an influx of displaced students, who are often characterized by critical issues such as language barriers (few Syrian students speak Turkish), cultural differences, homelessness, broken families, lack of basic necessities, health and psychological issues caused by trauma, and minority status – not to teachers’ and classmates’ attitudes. All of these factors present significant barriers to their ability to benefit from formal education; and with few exceptions, teachers lack the knowledge and skills to overcome them. With such issues in mind, it is our responsibility as educators to inform ourselves of the steps necessary to promote a supportive and nurturing learning environment through culturally inclusive teaching.

Culturally Responsive Education and Our Responsibility as English Language Teachers Given the current socio-political situation, it is more important than ever that Turkish educators in every subject area consider cultural differences in the classroom. However, due to the intertwined nature of language and culture (Kramsch, 1993), foreign language teachers have a special responsibility to promote a culturally responsive learning environment with respect to the linguistic and cultural backgrounds of all learners (Banks, 2010; Byram & Feng, 2005; Council of Europe, 2001; Çelik, 2014), whether they are members of the dominant (Turkish) or a minority or foreign culture, by: • fostering appreciation for diversity; • promoting equality and social justice; • supporting the preservation of minority cultures; • helping students from all backgrounds to develop their self-identity and self-esteem; • making all members of a community safer by encouraging tolerance and understanding between diverse groups; • allowing all learners to succeed (Çelik, 2014).

Page 28 CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE EDUCATION AND THE EFL CLASSROOM In-class Reflective Exercise: Does a learner’s cultural background affect my beliefs about teaching?

PART ONE Work together in groups of 4-5. Prepare enough copies of the set of statements below for each person in the group. Each member of the group should respond to the statements individually by circling YES or NO.

1. As a teacher, I should be aware of the cultural backgrounds of my students. YES/NO

2. I believe that teachers should consider their students’ cultural backgrounds in their teaching. YES/NO

3. As a teacher, a student’s cultural background would affect how I see him/her as a learner. YES/NO

4. As a teacher, a student’s cultural background could affect how I respond to him/her (emotionally as well as behaviorally). YES/NO

5. In my classroom, I would require my students to treat all of their classmates with respect, regardless of their differences. YES/NO

6. Teachers can do a lot to promote a culturally inclusive environment in the classroom. YES/NO

PART TWO As a group, count all of the YES and NO responses to each question. Using poster paper, PowerPoint or any other material, work together to create a chart, graph or other visual to track the results for your group.

Compare your results with the other groups and discuss as a whole class.

Implementing a Culturally Inclusive Classroom In the culturally inclusive classroom, differences are regarded as enriching; diverse viewpoints are seen as contributing to learning; and students’ background knowledge and prior experiences are brought into the instructional process. According to Gay (2000), providing a culturally inclusive environment requires strategies such as:

CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE EDUCATION AND THE EFL CLASSROOM Page 29 1. Legitimizing cultural heritage in terms of its impact on students’ attitudes and approaches to learning;

2. Building bridges between home and school;

3. Diversifying instructional strategies to address a range of learning styles;

4. Promoting awareness and appreciation in students for their own cultures and those of their peers;

5. Integrating multicultural content and materials in the learning process (p. 29).

However, while teachers may recognize the importance of these strategies, it is not always clear how they can be successfully implemented. Therefore, in the following section, we discuss some of the practical steps that you can take, starting right now, to make your classroom more inclusive.

What Does a Culturally Inclusive Classroom Look Like? The physical environment. In terms of physical surroundings, the environment should be warm and inviting. Seating should be arranged so that students can see and interact easily with the teacher and with fellow students, such as placing desks in a U shape or in small groups of 3-4. There should be no separation of students from different cultural backgrounds, either during general instruction or when assigning students to smaller groups.

The visual elements in the classroom, such as posters and artwork, should reflect a diverse range of cultures. When possible, display realia from learners’ home countries, as well as English-speaking and Turkish culture, whether hung on the walls or displayed on tables or shelves. Incorporate these into various teaching activities whenever possible.

Classroom management. As in any classroom, rules and policies should be clearly stated. Displaying a list of classroom “DOs and DON’Ts” is a good way to be sure that all students are clear on the behavior that is expected of them, as well as the consequences of breaking the rules. These should be explained at the beginning of the course and reviewed as necessary. Any consequences for negative actions (not to mention rewards for positive ones) should be applied consistency with ALL students; do not show preferential treatment to a particular group or to individual learners.

Page 30 CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE EDUCATION AND THE EFL CLASSROOM Students should understand that they must be civil and show respect and understanding for all classmates; and that exclusion or bullying of any student based on differences in culture, learning ability, or any other personal feature will not be tolerated. Moreover, you, as a teacher, should model an appreciation for diversity and a positive attitude toward cultural differences. If you expect your students to demonstrate positive attitudes toward diversity, but you are overheard by them while talking in a demeaning way about a given cultural group, you will undermine your own authority on this issue.

If bullying is a problem in your educational context, whether due to cultural differences or for any other reason, look for anti-bullying resources like those found at this website: https://bullyingnoway.gov.au/NationalDay/ForSchools/ClassActivities; use these or others to incorporate age-appropriate anti-bullying activities in your lessons.

Classroom interactions. In your teaching, as well as in any other interactions with students, both in and out of school, it is important to respond to all students in a warm and positive manner. During instruction, as appropriate, make sure that students are invited to express differing viewpoints. Treat each idea with respect, so that all students feel that their perspectives are valid, even if they are outside the “norm.

Instructional approach. In terms of the way that you approach your teaching, work to get to know your students as well as possible, including their prior learning experiences, backgrounds, and personal preferences. As appropriate, students may be asked what types of learning activities they prefer. Use this information to differentiate instruction so as to engage all of your students as much as possible, accommodating a variety of learning styles (e.g., through individual and group work, hands-on learning tasks, arts and crafts, writing exercises, music/dance, role playing, active games, and so on).

Encourage students to work together, cooperate and participate fully in the learning process, making sure that no student is excluded and that all students have the chance to express themselves. Be sure to engage each student; avoid showing more attention to some students than to others. For students who are shy or who have difficulty expressing themselves in front of the whole class, motivate them to participate more by partnering them with a friendly, kind-natured classmate in pair activities.

Cultural adjustment. For teachers who work with students who are new to the culture – especially those who have been recently displaced from their home culture -- it is critical to understand the issues they may experience as they adjust. Recently-arrived students

CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE EDUCATION AND THE EFL CLASSROOM Page 31 may feel disoriented, anxious and isolated; and these issues may be compounded in those who have difficulty communicating with their teachers and peers due to a language barrier. Students who have been traumatized due to violence in their home countries may also exhibit symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder. In some cases, they may have never received any formal education, or they may have been away from school for an extended period of time. While classroom teachers may not be able to address deeper psychological issues that require specialized support, they can help new students to adjust to their new culture by:

• Creating a “buddy system” to pair new students with empathetic classmates who can help them get to know the school and the community. This can help to eliminate any sense of isolation and allow them to feel more connected to their new surroundings. • Clarifying classroom routines and policies. Make sure students know what to expect, as this can help them to feel less anxious; • Encouraging (but NOT forcing) students to talk about their experiences; • Asking them what they need!

Connecting school and home. For any student, developing a sense of belonging requires that teachers make an effort to connect school and home. To accomplish this, it is important to ensure that lessons are meaningful, with a clear link drawn between the material and students’ everyday lives and experiences. For instance, during a classroom activity, you may invite students to share stories about their family’s traditions or events that happened to them, or you may ask them to bring items from home and present them to the class.

Additionally, it is critical to encourage parents or caregivers to take part in the learning process and to maintain open communication with students’ families. You can do this through one-on-one meetings, where you may talk about your expectations, inform them of their student’s progress, and respond to their questions and concerns. You may also hold “open house” events where you invite all families to visit your classroom, talk to them in general about what their children are learning in class and allow students to display their work. Parents/caregivers may also be drawn into their students’ learning by asking them to read together at home or to participate in projects or assignments.

Page 32 CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE EDUCATION AND THE EFL CLASSROOM During your interactions with families, be sure to demonstrate a positive, friendly and respectful attitude and a desire to get to know them. This can be a challenge for teachers in cases where language or other cross-cultural barriers make communication difficult; however, it is important to continue to reach out, and in such instances, you may be able to find assistance from a colleague or acquaintance who speaks their native language or understands their cultural codes.

Putting it all together: Activity Work together in groups of 4-5.

Brainstorm 10 specific things that you can do as a teacher to support a culturally inclusive learning environment, taking into account: • The physical features of a typical classroom; • Your own assumptions and attitudes about members of other cultures. • Approaches to instruction; • Coursebooks and other teaching materials; • Classroom communication/interaction; • Classroom management policies; • Parent-teacher relations; etc. • Write up a one-page actionable plan for creating a culturally responsive classroom.

CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE EDUCATION AND THE EFL CLASSROOM Page 33 References Banks, J. A. (2010a). Approaches to multicultural curriculum reform. In J. A. Banks & C. A. McGee Banks (Eds.), Multicultural education: Issues and perspectives (7th ed.) (pp. 233-256). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley and Sons. Byram, M., & Feng, A. (2005). Teaching and researching intercultural competence. In E. Hinkel (Ed.), Handbook of research in second language teaching and learning (pp. 911-930). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Council of Europe. (2001). Common European framework of reference for languages: Learning, teaching, assessment. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. Çelik, S. (2014). Classroom Strategies of Turkish EFL Teachers in Managing Cultural Diversity. In P. Romanowski (Ed.), Intercultural issues in the Era of Globalization (pp. 32-46). Warsaw: Wydawnictwo Naukowe. Çelik, S., & Amaç, Z. (2012). Are teacher education programs failing the nation’s urban schools? A closer look at pre-service teachers’ beliefs about working with inner-city students. The Journal of Multiculturalism in Education, 8(3). Retrieved from https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ ED588858.pdf European Commission (2018, January 10). European civil protection and humanitarian aid operations. Retrieved from http://ec.europa.eu/echo/files/aid/countries/factsheets/turkey_ syrian_crisis_en.pdf Gay, G. (2000). Culturally responsive teaching: Theory, research, & practice. New York, NY: Teachers College Press. Gay, G. (2010). Acting on beliefs in teacher education for cultural diversity. Journal of Teacher Education, 61, 143-152. Irvine, J. J., & Armento, B. J. (2001). Culturally responsive teaching: Lesson planning for elementary and middle grades. New York: McGraw Hill. Kramsch, C. (1993). Context and culture in language teaching. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. UNESCO. (2004). Changing teaching practices using curriculum differentiation to respond to students’ diversity. Paris: Author. Zeichner, K. M. (2003). The adequacies and inadequacies of three current strategies to recruit, prepare, and retain the best teachers for all students. Teachers College Record, 105(3), 490-519.

Image Credits: Image 1: https://education.cu-portland.edu/blog/leaders-link/culturally-responsive-teaching-strategies/ Image 2: https://pxhere.com/en/photo/1559329 Image 3: http://www.outputeducation.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/09/Academic-Development.jpg

Page 34 CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE EDUCATION AND THE EFL CLASSROOM CHAPTER 3

EFL PROGRAMS, CURRICULA, TEXTBOOKS AND INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS

YASEMİN KIRKGÖZ ÇUKUROVA UNIVERSITY

Yasemin Kırkgöz is Professor at the English Language Teaching Department at Çukurova University, Turkey. She holds an M.A. and a Ph.D. in Applied Linguistics at Aston University, England. Her research interests include language policy and practices particularly in primary and higher education, curriculum design and innovation management, teaching English to young learners, English medium instruction in higher education, and pre-service and in-service teacher education. She has published book chapters and articles on these topics in both national and international refereed journals. She received various awards, including the Third Annual David E. Eskey Memorial Award for Curricular Innovation for her publication Innovation as a Curriculum Renewal Process in a Turkish University in 2006, and the Leadership and Management Special Interest Group (SIG) award from IATEFL in 2013. She is the co-editor of the book Key Issues in English for Specific Purposes in Higher Education, published by Springer in 2018.

Pre-reading Questions

1. What is curriculum?

2. What are the components of a curriculum?

3. Who are the major curriculum designers?

Introduction Curriculum has been defined in many ways. In the 1960’s, Ralph Tyler, a pioneer and a forefather of curriculum design, defined curriculum as all the learning which is planned and guided by the school to attain its educational goals (1968). According to Mickan (2003) curriculum is a “framework for the planning and implementation of educational programmes” (p. 43). In its broadest sense, Bilbao, Lucide, Iringan and Javier, (2008) referred to curriculum as the “total learning experiences of individuals not only in school but society as well” (p. 12). As seen from these definitions, curriculum can be considered as the cornerstone of any educational institution which means that schools cannot operate effectively in the absence of a well-designed curriculum.

After giving a number of definitions of curriculum, this chapter introduces two curriculum frameworks: the earliest and one of the recent ones. It then outlines the main components of a curriculum. The section which follows this presents foreign language curriculum in Turkey to help you relate the theory with practice. Some questions are included in the text to help you reflect upon your understanding.

Theoretical Framework Tyler’s Curriculum Model

The earliest curriculum design model is known as the ‘Tyler’s Model’. In his influential book Basic Principles of Curriculum and Instruction published in 1949, Tyler specified his rationale for curriculum design in terms of four basic principles: specifying instructional objectives, developing learning experiences to help students achieve step one, organizing learning experiences, and evaluation and assessment of the objectives. These principles are also reformulated as four questions that must be answered in developing any curriculum:

EFL PROGRAMS, CURRICULA, TEXTBOOKS AND INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS Page 37 1. What are the educational objectives that a school should attain? 2. What learning experiences can be provided that will likely attain these educational objectives? 3. How can these educational experiences be effectively organized to achieve the desired outcomes? 4. How can we determine whether the objectives are being attained?

These principles can be illustrated with an example. If students need to meet the objective of letter writing, the teacher needs to design a logical order of instructions to help learners develop knowledge in letter writing to provide learning experience. How the teacher demonstrates letter writing is largely determined by the philosophy of the teacher and the needs of the students. Then, the students might practice letter writing. It is important that the experience of teacher’s demonstration of letter writing and the student writing be consistent with the objective of letter writing in the curriculum. Tyler’s model was revolutionary as it provided foundational principles for curriculum design, a useful reference source for curriculum designers and a guide for teaching and instruction. It has undoubtedly influenced the process of instructional design of today. The model was systematic and linear; it involved a certain sequence of steps. Yet critiques of the model (Brummelen, 1994) argued that the model disregarded some factors such as contextual influences, personal needs or prior learning of students. For this reason, throughout time adaptations have been made to create curriculum models to achieve greater effectiveness and optimal educational outcomes. Later models gave consideration to the needs, values, social contexts and prior learning experiences of learners. Grundy (2001) added cultural dimension to his concept of curriculum, viewing curriculum as a way of organizing a set of human educational practices. This definition acknowledges that curriculum is a culturally embedded process, and that teaching, learning and curriculum are culturally embedded. Ahlstrom’s (2003) perspective of curriculum builds mainly on context approach, as stated in this definition: “Curriculum includes not only the entirety of activities, methods, materials, and physical and social environment of the whole learning center, but also the dynamic processes that shape and change these components” (p. 3). In fact, such dynamic forces shaping these processes are considered to be multiple such as the learners themselves and community, national and international events. This definition of ‘curriculum’ includes not only the total learning occurring within a classroom context but also it encompasses the environment of the class and learners’ input.

Page 38 EFL PROGRAMS, CURRICULA, TEXTBOOKS AND INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS Mickan’s (2003) Curriculum Model Taking a social theory to curriculum design, Mickan (2003) defines curriculum as a “framework for the planning and implementation of educational programmes” (p 43). Accordingly, the ultimate aim of curriculum design is to provide opportunities to learners so that they can develop knowledge and skills to facilitate their participation in the specified cultural practices of a community such as a school or a university classroom. As seen, Mickan’s perspective to curriculum is even broader and takes into account the larger social and situational context within which curriculum is developed. This framework comprises a body of knowledge that articulates the needs, values, objectives and aspirations of a society through the teaching and learning process in classrooms to accomplish desired outcomes.

Components of the Curriculum According to Mickan (2013), a curriculum has five core components. These are syllabus, resources, working plan, practices and assessment (p. 45). This is illustrated in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Core components of a curriculum (Mickan, 2013, p. 44)

EFL PROGRAMS, CURRICULA, TEXTBOOKS AND INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS Page 39 The general aim of a curriculum is to plan and organize educational activities so that resources, classroom practices and assessment are integrated coherently for the realisation of a programme’s goals. A syllabus sets out predetermined goals of a programme, which are the aims and objectives of a programme of a particular group of learners. It might also include learning outcomes. The aims, objectives and outcomes guide planning and programming for teachers and learners. The aims of the programme state its purposes, whereas the objectives specify knowledge and skills learners need to acquire by performing various tasks and activities in the programme or in a particular unit. Objectives are decided to meet the needs of learners.

The outcomes are based on objectives. They specify learners’ engagement with and their progression in a structured programme. As noted by Mickan (2013), outcomes are important for both teachers and students. For teachers they provide a standard for assessment or testing. For students, outcomes provide a sense of making progress as they participate in activities and instructional practices.

As seen in Figure 1, the next curriculum component is work-plan or a teaching programme. A teaching programme describes an action plan for a particular class or classes over a period of time such as a semester or a year. It is organised into units with topics and activities. In some educational contexts such as Turkey, teachers’ programmes are prescribed in syllabuses which guide teachers’ instruction to teach classroom tasks and activities and give learners’ direction. It is expected that textbooks are written in accordance with the guidelines outlined in curriculum and syllabuses. Teachers are required to meet the national programme goals by following the syllabus. They have responsibility for lesson planning which describe teachers’ instructional actions in lessons. The curriculum and syllabus may also provide suggestions for the teachers to use specific instructional methods such as communicative methodology or direct method.

Resources comprise the content, instructional materials, textbooks and tools to help achieve learning outcomes. The selection of resources is based on the goals and objectives of a programme. Now, technology plays a fundamental role in the process of foreign language teaching and learning for children and adults. Digital education tools such as computers, smart boards, among others, can be used to facilitate learning.

Page 40 EFL PROGRAMS, CURRICULA, TEXTBOOKS AND INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS Teaching Activities Activities describe the work teachers perform to develop students’ abilities. It is important that each activity is meaningful, and ensures student development through the unit. Activities should enable students to engage with and develop their knowledge, skills, and understandings in different ways. Meaningful activities such as role play and problem solving activity can be engaging for students in active, constructive, authentic, and cooperative ways.

Assessment Assessment is the final component of a curriculum. It is crucial to align assessment with intended learning outcomes. Learning outcomes specify what students are expected to demonstrate they have learned whereas the assessment shows how they will demonstrate their learning. These two elements must be in parallel if the assessment is to be valid. For example, for a learning outcome stating that ‘students will be able to describe a family member’, an appropriate assessment task would be asking the learner to bring a picture of a family member and talk about his/her hair, eye colour, weight, height and so on.

This section has outlined the main components of a curriculum based on Mickan’s (2013) framework. As the curriculum is structured with programme goals, objectives, a list of suggested teaching activities and outcomes it serves as a useful map to guide educational programmes. Textbook writers work on this suggested map in producing textbooks for the teachers and students to use textbooks as ready-made materials. The curriculum design outlined above also provides a procedure for curriculum planning and policy development. Curriculum writers can apply the model to programmes with different purposes and for different levels of education such as primary secondary and high school levels. Teachers have opportunities to adapt programmes appropriate to the needs and interests of students by creating texts and activities as long as they comply with curriculum guidelines and national curriculum policies.

Reflection

In the light of these definitions, what is your own definition of curriculum? Write your defini- tion and make sure that it includes essential components of the curriculum. Also, illustrate it drawing a figure.

EFL PROGRAMS, CURRICULA, TEXTBOOKS AND INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS Page 41 Foreign Language Curriculum Development in Turkey As early as 1994, Tyler stressed the importance of curriculum design and he recommended educators and curriculum planners to take a critical approach to curriculum planning. In many countries including Turkey curriculum is centrally designed. The section below traces back the history of foreign language curriculum in Turkey.

In Turkey, foreign language curriculum development has evolved as a systematic, planned, purposeful and progressive policy, beginning from 1990’s to create positive improvements in foreign language education, mainly in teaching English. To keep up with global changes and to address the language-related concerns such as low proficiency of school leavers in English, a series of curriculum reforms or innovations have taken place.

The 1997 Foreign Language Curriculum In 1997, English was introduced as a compulsory subject in primary school curriculum for young learners at the elementary level (grades four through eight), as part of a major curriculum reform initiated by the Turkish Ministry of National Education (MNE). As a result, younger learners in grades four- and five were required for the first time to receive English instruction annually (two 40-minute lessons per week), while learners in grades six through eight received 160 hours of instruction (five 40-minute lessons per week). In addition, the 1997 reform laid the foundations for a Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) approach in teaching English (Kırkgöz, 2007). Consistent with this model, priority was given to acquisition of the basic communicative skills needed for daily life. With respect to younger learners, English instruction was provided using games and other age appropriate enjoyable activities to increase motivation and to create a positive attitude toward the learning of English language skills.

The 2005 Foreign Language Curriculum The ELT curriculum was revised in 2005 in order to improve the earlier English language teaching curriculum. Besides strengthening the communicative dimension of language learning, the 2005 teaching program incorporated a constructivist approach to instruction, the implementation of experiential learning, use of tasks, and application of Multiple Intelligences Theory and content- and language-integrated learning (CLIL). As such, it attempted to align Turkey’s ELT curriculum with the European Union’s (EU) language teaching standards (See MNE, 2006, for more details).

Page 42 EFL PROGRAMS, CURRICULA, TEXTBOOKS AND INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS The 2013 Foreign Language Curriculum In 2012, the eight years of compulsory elementary education was changed into a new educational model to be implemented in the 2013-2014 teaching year. The new curriculum comprised three four-year segments known as “4+4+4” (MNE, 2013). Each of the four years represented the primary, elementary, and high school levels. Another innovation was to lower the starting age at which English is to be taught from grade four (age nine) to grade two (six to six ½ years of age). A team of ELT curriculum specialists worked hand- in-hand with specialists from other disciplines and with practicing teachers to develop the 2013 curriculum. The English language curriculum benefitted from the principles and descriptors of the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment (CEFR) in its philosophy (CoE, 2001). Accordingly, the curricular model emphasizes language use in an authentic communicative context; an action oriented approach to give learners the experience of using English as a means of communication, and the development of learners’ communicative competence (see MNE 2013, for a more detailed description of the curriculum).

Reflection

1. What is the aim of CEFR?

2. How does CEFR define action oriented approach and competences?

To answer these questions you need to read the CERF. You can access the CERF curri- culum from the following link: https://www.coe.int/en/web/common-european-framework-reference-languages • The article “Laying the theoretical and practical foundations for a new elementary English curriculum in Turkey: A procedural analysis” discusses the processes involved in preparing the English as a foreign language (EFL) curriculum based on the authors’ own experiences as the program designers. Here is the link to help you access the article from: https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED573347 Read the article to familiarize yourself with the procedures that took place in preparing the elementary EFL curriculum for Turkish state schools. Reflect upon the process.

EFL PROGRAMS, CURRICULA, TEXTBOOKS AND INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS Page 43 The 2017 Foreign Language Curriculum As highlighted by the curriculum designers, the 2017 curriculum revision was not a drastic one. It primarily aimed at updating and revising the 2013 curriculum (See MNE, 2017 for details). Revision of the theoretical framework focused on the following points:

• Reviewing the curriculum with regards to values education • Including the basic skills as themes • Expanding certain subsections, such as testing and evaluation, and suggestions • Revision of each grade by;

a) Revision of the target language skills and their linguistic realizations b) Evaluation and the update of the contexts, tasks and activities c) Analysis and general update of the curriculum in terms of functions and forms covered

Keeping to the previous curriculum content, the revision has been ‘minor’ in that values education and key competences are incorporated into the English language education curriculum, particularly into the themes and topics of the syllabuses. Key competences are listed as …

• preparing effective learning materials and contexts for the learners, • decreasing early school-leaving, • increasing the participation to early childhood education and • improving the support mechanisms of the teachers and other shareholders.

Values are defined as “the personal and societal beliefs and attitudes that are framed by specific universal and national dispositions”, and key competences are described as “the key knowledge, skills and attitudes that are expected to equip students with the personal realization of personal and professional development and growth for societal inclusion and contribution” (MNE, 2017, p. 5). The curriculum document specified the key values as ‘friendship, justice, honesty, self-control, patience, respect, love, responsibility, patriotism and altruism’. Teachers and material designers are recommended to take learners’ age and psychological and sociological level into consideration in selecting characters, texts, visuals to be used during instruction to preserve values and ethics of our education system.

Page 44 EFL PROGRAMS, CURRICULA, TEXTBOOKS AND INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS In conclusion, the English language has been given high priority in the Turkish education system. The foreign language curriculum innovation and curriculum revision have become inevitable, and in many cases desirable to meet the challenges of globalisation and to adapt to global changes in education and technology. Another reason for the periodic revision of the foreign language curriculum can be related to ensuring that Turkish learners of English are better equipped with the necessary knowledge and skills to be competent users of foreign language in society. Therefore, it is possible to state that curriculum development has become a dynamic and a continuous process, laying the foundation of foreign language education in Turkey.

Reflection

Analyse the 2017 foreign language curriculum according to Mickar’s curriculum framework. Is there any consistency between the two? Can you spot all the components such as objec- tives, assessment etc.? Is there anything missing? If so, make a list.

• What philosophy is 2017 curriculum based on? • How are the learning outcomes expressed? • Here is the link to help you access the 2017 Curriculum: https://can.meb.gov.tr/meb_ iys_dosyalar/2017_08/25124155_Yngilizce_Dersi_YYretim_ProgramY.pdf

EFL PROGRAMS, CURRICULA, TEXTBOOKS AND INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS Page 45 References

Ahlstrom, C. (2003). Collaborating with learner to build curriculum that incorporates real-life materials, focus on basics, Connecting Research and Practice, 6 (C), 3-7.

Bilbao, P. P., Lucido, P. I., Iringan, T. C., & Javier, R. B. (2008). Curriculum development. Philippines: Lorimar Publishing, Inc.

Brummelen, H.V. (1994). Stepping stones to curriculum. Washington: lta Vista College Press.

Council of Europe (CoE). (2001). Common European framework of reference for languages: learning, teaching, assessment. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Grundy, S. (1987). Curriculum: product or praxis? Lewes: Falmer Press.

Mickan, P. (2013). Language curriculum design and socialisation. Bristol: Multilingual Matters.

Kırkgöz, Y. (2007). English language teaching in Turkey: Policy changes and their implementations, RELC Journal, 38(2), 216-228.

Kırkgöz, Y., Çelik, S., & Arıkan, A. (2016). Laying the theoretical and practical foundations for a new elementary English curriculum in Turkey: A procedural analysis. Kastamonu Education Journal, 24(3), 1199-1212.

Tyler, R.W. (1949). Basic principles of curriculum and instruction. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.

T. C. Millî Eğitim Bakanlığı [Republic of Turkey, Ministry of National Education (MNE)]. (2006). English language curriculum for primary education Grades 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8. Ankara: T.C. Millî Eğitim Bakanlığı.

T. C. Millî Eğitim Bakanlığı Talim ve Terbiye Kurulu Başkanlığı [Republic of Turkey, Ministry of National Education (MNE)]. (2013). İlköğretim Kurumları (İlkokullar ve Ortaokullar) İngilizce Dersi (2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 ve 8.Sınıflar) Öğretim Programı [Elementary (Primary and Lower Secondary) English Language Teaching Program (Grades 2-8)]. Ankara: T.C. Millî Eğitim Bakanlığı.

T. C. Millî Eğitim Bakanlığı Talim ve Terbiye Kurulu Başkanlığı [Republic of Turkey, Ministry of National Education (MNE)]. (2017). İlköğretim kurumları (ilkokullar ve ortaokullar) İngilizce dDersi (2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 ve 8. sınıflar) öğretim programı [elementary (primary and lower secondary) English language teaching program (grades 2-8)]. Ankara: Author.

Page 46 EFL PROGRAMS, CURRICULA, TEXTBOOKS AND INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS CHAPTER 4

CULTIVATING CRITICAL THINKING SKILLS IN THE EFL CLASSROOM

SUZAN KAVANOZ YILDIZ TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY

Suzan Kavanoz is an associate professor of Applied Linguistics currently teaching at Yıldız Technical University. She earned her PhD in English Language Education from the Middle East Technical University, Ankara. She has published articles in national and international journals on English language teaching and teacher education and presented her research studies at conferences related to her field. Her research interests include foreign language teacher education, academic writing, development of language skills, and technology in language education. She has also taught courses on EFL Curriculum Development, Testing and Assessment, ELT Methodology, and Research Methods.

Pre-reading Questions

1. What do you already know about critical thinking?

2. What skills are necessary to become critical thinkers?

3. What evidence is there to support that the ability to think critically is important?

4. How can we enable our learners to develop their critical thinking skills in foreign language classes?

Introduction One of the fundamental objectives of education is to help develop general thinking skills, specifically critical-thinking skills and enable learners to gain the ability to articulate thinking about thinking, regardless of the subject matter being studied. Teachers are agents in shaping the thinking of their students, and along with this, they have the responsibility to aid learners in discovering the power of their intellectual faculties. This is in fact one of the desired outcomes of education. However, it must be noted that teachers’ ability to foster critical thinking is largely restricted by their potential to think critically. It follows that when teachers understand the fundamental premises of critical thinking entirely, they will be able to teach it effectively. Provided that teachers have critical thinking and problem-solving abilities, they will be able to support their learners in their attempts to become critical thinkers and problem solvers. At this point, it is important to draw attention to the connection between critical thinking skills and being a critical thinker. By critical thinkers, we refer to people who are not only thoroughly proficient in critical thinking but who also use these skills habitually (Facione, 1990).

Majority of the texts, be it journal articles, chapters, or books on critical thinking, start with the indication that the phrase critical thinking has become a buzzword that has received widespread attention in recent years especially after 1980s. Yet, the claim that critical thinking is a fuzzy concept is arguable. Labelling a concept that has a history dating back to the late 5th century BC as such would be underestimating its importance and contradicts with its meaning. Considering that critical thinking requires an analysis and assessment of a thought in terms of “its clarity, accuracy, precision, relevance, depth, breadth, logic” (Paul, Elder, & Bartell, 1997, p.1), exploration of the background

CULTIVATING CRITICAL THINKING SKILLS IN THE EFL CLASSROOM Page 49 and development of critical thinking is essential before we move on to its integration in language classes. Only after providing clear and concrete conceptions of critical thinking and the required educational attainments to be a critical thinker, can we be in a situation to apply it in learning environments.

Therefore, definitions of critical thinking will be provided first and then different techniques and strategies on how to develop our learners’ critical thinking skills within the context of foreign language education will be presented in this chapter. While doing so, a pragmatic approach to teaching critical thinking will be adapted and some suggestions will be made for integrating critical thinking in language courses. The aim is to help language teachers develop an understanding of what is meant by critical thinking, help them build confidence in their own ability think critically and to take proactive steps with respect to infusing critical thinking into their courses.

Theoretical Framework Critical Thinking: Historical Background and Definitions Various definitions and conceptualizations of critical thinking have been documented in literature, each one highlighting a particular dimension of thinking or a disciplinary affiliation (Liu, Frankel, & Roohr, 2014). However, before discussing about the plethora of definitions, we need to explain how critical thinking emerged and developed throughout history.The intellectual seeds of critical thinking were planted in the time of the teaching practice and vision of Socrates (470 BC— 399 BC) who developed insight into learning by extensive, in-depth questioning of the knowledge claims of others (Paul et al., 1997). Socrates is the first philosopher to lay the foundation for the tradition of critical thinking and his method of dialectic so called “Socratic Questioning” has become the most widely known strategy for teaching critical thinking (Lavine, 1984). Socrates was followed by Plato and Aristotle who emphasized that under deceptive appearances exist the deeper realities of life. The critical thinking practices of these scholars led to the emergence of the need to think systematically and deeply to see through the way things that are not apparent on the surface (Paul et al., 1997).

In the middle ages, thinkers such as Thomas Aquinas maintained the tradition of methodical critical thinking and reasoning in their works (Paul et al., 1997). The Renaissance period was marked by the need to search analysis of domains such as religion, society, and freedom owing to the scholars like Colet, Erasmus, Francis Bacon, and More

Page 50 CULTIVATING CRITICAL THINKING SKILLS IN THE EFL CLASSROOM who built on the insight of their ancient ancestors (Paul et al., 1997). Particularly, Francis Bacon, the English philosopher, argued that our knowledge of the world should be expanded empirically through information gathering and inductive reasoning (Vickers, 1992). His book ‘The Advancement of Learning’ written in 1605 is one of the earliest texts that established the basis for critical thinking (Jones-Devitt & Smith, 2007). In the same time period, Thomas Moore was credited for circumscribing to critical thought in his Utopia (1516) through portraying the improper functioning of power structure in a satirical manner (Chaudhury, 2009).

In the late 1630s, the French philosopher, scientist, and mathematician Descartes, known for his proposition “I think, therefore I am”, delineated four principles for critical thinking in his book Discourse on Method which can be considered as the second text on critical thought (Hendriksen,2009). 17th and 18th centuries was a time when confidence in critical mind was prioritized in Europe with the works of Machiavelli in Italy, Hobbes and Locke in England, and Voltaire in France (Paul et al., 1997). They all united in their rejection of traditional norms of their culture and valued evidence and reason as powerful forces to accomplish political changes (Jones-Devitt & Smith, 2007).

In the 18th century, Adam Smith’s Wealth of Nations (1776) and Critiques of Reason (1781) by Immanuel Kant appeared as pioneering works initiating a new direction in developing critical thought and led to the application of critical thought to reason itself (Jones- Devitt & Smith, 2007). However, it was not until the 19th century that critical thought was instilled in social life by Comte and Spencer; eventually, the application of reason and critical thought to issues in human life led to establishment of a range of social sciences such as Linguistics and Anthropological studies as well as emergence of certain ideas and theories as represented by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels in economy, Charles Darwin in biology and Sigmund Freud in psychoanalysis (Paul et al., 1997).

The early twentieth century is marked by transformation of critical thinking into explicit formulations by the American social scientist William Graham Sumner who recognized the ultimate need for critical thinking and the importance of education and training in cultivating this skill (Paul et al., 1997). He assessed the quality of education with its impact on raising critical thinkers stating that “education is good just so far as it produces well-developed critical faculty” (Sumner, 1906, p. 1564, as cited in Bermingham, 2015). His ideas were supported by Dewey (1933) who advocated the centrality of reflective thinking in education and viewed the main purpose of critical thinking as fostering reasonable democracies (Rodgers,2002).

CULTIVATING CRITICAL THINKING SKILLS IN THE EFL CLASSROOM Page 51 Obviously, in addition to the aforementioned critical thinkers, many more exemplary figures have played important roles in the development of critical thinking and thus aided us in increasing our sense of the power of human thought. Bloom et al. (1956) made a significant contribution to cognitive research. Together with his colleagues, he produced a theoretical classification of educational objectives for the cognitive domain, called as Bloom’s Taxonomy. The hierarchical levels in the taxonomy represent thinking levels for each cognitive domain. Another important leading contributor to critical thinking is Robert Ennis whose work in 1960s provided the impetus for teaching critical thinking in the classroom (Murawski, 2014). Given the complex nature of critical thinking, there have been numerous attempts to define critical thinking.

Ennis (1985, p.45) describes critical thinking as “a reflective and reasonable thinking that is focused on deciding what to believe or do”. In his definition, critical thinking is tied to beliefs and thus portrayed as being guided by an instinctive feature (Jones- Devitt & Smith, 2007). Similarly, Siegel’s (1989) definition of critical thinking refers to attitudes and mind. According to Siegel, critical thinking involves “the ability to assess reasons properly”, willingness and disposition to do so, and “intellectual honesty, justice to evidence, sympathetic and impartial consideration of interests, objectivity, and impartiality” (p. 25). The definition by Bailin and Battersby (2016) partially echoes Siegel’s ideas maintaining that critical thinking refers to the process of involving critical inquiry which is “the process of coming to a reasoned judgment based on a critical evaluation of relevant reasons” (p. xviii), and it is a process that requires “a careful examination of the issue” (p.6). Chaffe (1988), on the other hand views critical thinking as an intentional instrument to understand the world and limits the purpose of critical thinking to improving our understanding by defining critical thinking as “active, purposeful, and organized efforts to make sense of our world by carefully examining our thinking, and the thinking of others, in order to clarify and improve our understanding” (p. 29).

The definition proposed by Paul and Elder (2005) echoes the same dimensions of critical thinking. They claim that “critical thinking is the process of analyzing and assessing thinking with a view to improving it. Critical thinking presupposes knowledge of the most basic structures in thinking ... and the most basic intellectual standards for thinking ...” (Paul & Elder, 2005, p. 7). A more recent definition by Bassham, Irwin, Nardone, and Wallace (2011, p. 1) seem to embrace diverse dimensions of critical thinking and reads as …

Page 52 CULTIVATING CRITICAL THINKING SKILLS IN THE EFL CLASSROOM a wide range of cognitive skills and intellectual dispositions needed to effectively identify, analyze, and evaluate arguments and truth claims; to discover and overcome personal preconceptions and biases; to formulate and present convincing reasons in support of conclusions; and to make reasonable, intelligent decisions about what to believe and what to do.

This broad definition characterizes critical thinking as an application of rational and higher order thinking skills, such as analysis and evaluation. In the pursuit of understanding critical thinking, it is also important to point out the interrelationship between critical and creative thinking. Both critical and creative thought are interwoven and inseparable in reasoning rather than being mutually exclusive (Bailin, Case, Coombs, & Daniels, 1999). While creativity implies production, criticality requires discernment and assessment (Silvia, 2008). The human mind is capable of simultaneously producing and assessing, along with generating and judging (Paul & Elder, 2005). That means critical and creative thinking occur at one and the same time. This implies that as we are engaged with critical thinking, we are automatically activating our creative resources.

Despite the abundance of definitions and conceptualizations of critical thinking, each of these converges in essentially the same direction and they seem to paraphrase the same idea about the importance of questioning the world and continually searching for ways to analyze and improve it (Paul et al., 1997) implying the use of meta-cognition, higher order thinking skills, rationality and reasoning (Atkinson, 1997). It is observed that themes of reasoning, judgment, metacognition, reflection, questioning, mental processes, and purpose are common among most researcher definitions (Fischer et al., 2009).

Reflection

How do you view the relationship between creative thinking and critical thinking? Are there any barriers to critical thinking? If so, what do you think they are?

CULTIVATING CRITICAL THINKING SKILLS IN THE EFL CLASSROOM Page 53 Is It Possible to Develop Critical Thinking? The arguments that critical thinking is a learned ability and it is possible to gain critical thinking skills through training have been verified by previous studies (Davidson & Dunham, 1997; Yang, Newby & Bill, 2005; Patel, 2013). According to the skills approach developed by Newell and Simon (1972), exposure to extended experiences results in learners’ exceptional performance because of an increase in their knowledge and skills. This implies that development of proficiency in thinking skills often requires systematic direct instruction rather than implicit teaching (Doyle, 1983).

It is suggested that through explicit instruction learners do not only gain the ability to think critically but also their problem solving, decision making, and inventive thinking abilities are sharpened (Herrnstein et al., 1986). The studies carried out within the scope of EFL education on critical thinking offer convincing evidence to safely claim that critical thinking abilities of learners can be developed through instruction.

For instance, Davidson and Dunham (1997) integrated critical thinking skills into their intensive English courses with a group of college students (n = 17) in Osaka, while they only offered content-based intensive English instruction to another group (n = 19). The results gained after one year of instruction confirmed that instruction in the basics of critical thinking led to an increase in critical thinking abilities of the treatment group. It was concluded that critical thinking skills can be taught along with English as a foreign language.

Yand and Gamble (2013), on the other hand, explored whether it is possible to simultaneously foster EFL learners’ English language proficiency and critical thinking skills by integrating critical thinking enhanced activities such as debates and peer critiques into language courses. While experimental group learners were exposed to activities such as argumentative writing and debating, control group learners’ activities lacked the emphasis on argumentation or critical thinking. A significant improvement both in English proficiency and critical thinking skills was observed for the experimental group, suggesting that using an argumentative approach to issues and content led to improvement in critical thinking skills.

Similarly, Yang and Wu (2012) explored the impact of digital storytelling (DST) on the academic achievement, critical thinking, and learning motivation of a group of Taiwanese high school EFL students by using a pre-test and post-test quasi-experimental design. The results of their study suggest that after 20 weeks of instruction, participants showed significant improvement in critical thinking as well as English proficiency and learning

Page 54 CULTIVATING CRITICAL THINKING SKILLS IN THE EFL CLASSROOM motivation. The researchers concluded that it is possible to develop learners’ critical thinking skills through using an IT integrated instructional strategy.

The assumption that critical thinking is a learned skill and an activity that can and must be developed and practiced requires us to continually integrate critical thinking into the curriculum. In order to achieve outstanding performance that demands experience and exposure, there should be focused attention on the application of content, the learning process, and assessment methods (Snyder & Snyder, 2008).

The Need for Promoting Critical Thinking in Foreign Language Education We approach enhancement of critical thinking in foreign language from two dimensions. One line of argument involves the centrality of critical thinking skills for survival and a successful career in the information age and the other line stresses the importance of foreign language competence in the 21st century.

By all means, critical thinking is a required skill for the 21st century. While during the production and agricultural economies of 1950s , mastery of the three Rs (reading, writing, and arithmetic) sufficed, in the increasingly digital age, learners need to gain proficiency in 4Cs listed as communication, creation, critical thinking and collaboration to be globally competent (NEA, 2012) . Today’s competitive knowledge based economy dictates that people with the ability to devise effective solutions to complex problems in real time will take advantage of available opportunities. The employees who are adept in conceptualization, knowledge synthesis, and construction of information will be preferred over the ones who lack these skills.

Graddol (2006, p.71) expresses this new paradigm shift and notes that “an individual, to participate fully in the new economy – as worker, consumer and responsible citizen – needs to be even better informed (and about global as well as local issues) and needs higher-order and more flexible skills.” In addition, today’s job market requires the ability to interact with people from different linguistic and cultural backgrounds (NAE, 2012). The fact that English is widely recognized as the global language makes it almost imperative to gain proficiency in English. Now, it appears that “without English” one is “not even in the race” (Graddol, 2006, p.122).

With the rapid development of economic globalization in a changing world where English is accepted as a lingua franca, critical thinking is becoming increasingly important for EFL learners. The need for higher-order thinking skills is mounting. This is an achievable

CULTIVATING CRITICAL THINKING SKILLS IN THE EFL CLASSROOM Page 55 objective provided that EFL learners receive formal instruction and training (Feng, 2013). Paul and Elder (2009) list the competencies of a well-cultivated critical thinker and assert that a high-performing educated thinker will: i. form essential questions and problems, express them clearly; ii. collect and evaluate relevant information, use abstract ideas for insightful interpretation; iii. reach well-grounded conclusions and solutions, evaluate them based on relevant criteria and standards; iv. consider alternative systems of thinking, evaluate assumptions, and implications; v. engage in effective communication to find out solutions to complicated issues. In addition to the competencies stated above, a person in the 21st century should also be able to communicate in English effectively.

Reflection

What kind of activities can be designed to promote learners’ critical thinking skills along with their language skills?

Developing Critical Thinking Skills in English Classes Paul (1993) cautions us against the disparity between curricula and teaching strategies and the genuine consideration of basic intellectual and moral development. He argues that rushed by the desire to cover extensive content leaves little space for stimulating intellectual virtues. However, only when the practice of critical thinking is integrated into daily use in language classes, will it become internalized by learners.

Previous literature provides us with convincing evidence to maintain that it is plausible to develop as critical thinkers and help our students to enhance their thinking. Bailin et al. (1999) list three pre-requisite elements for teaching critical thinking. They suggest that to attain this goal: i. teachers should engage students with tasks that require reasoned judgment and assessment; ii. teachers should help students “develop intellectual resources for dealing with these tasks”; iii. teachers should provide a learning environment where learners’ critical thinking is valued and their attempts to think critically are supported and encouraged (Bailin et al., 1999, pp.298-299). These elements highlight the vitality of teachers’ acceptance about the importance of critical thinking in one’s life and the necessity of teachers’ willingness and commitment to enhance learners’ critical thinking skills. Teachers should also accept that development of critical thinking is a process. Paul and Elder (2000, p. 40) propose six stages throughout which the learners become critical thinkers. These stages are listed in the following table:

Page 56 CULTIVATING CRITICAL THINKING SKILLS IN THE EFL CLASSROOM STAGES LEVELS DESCRIPTORS Stage One Unreflective thinker Is not aware of the problems in her/his thinking Stage Two Challenged thinker Becomes aware of problems in her/his thinking Attempts to improve her/his thinking without Stage Three Beginning thinker regular practice Feels the need to get regular practice to improve Stage Four Practicing thinker her/his thinking Stage Five Advanced thinker Improves her/his thinking with practice Acquires critical thinking skills and becomes an Stage Six Master thinker insightful thinker

Table 1. Developmental stages of critical thinking

Nevertheless, the success through these stages depend on the acceptance of the need to think critically, recognition of the weaknesses in thinking and willingness to change and start practice on a regular basis (Paul & Elder, 2000).

Due to their unrestricted nature of content, English teachers have abundant opportunities to incorporate critical thinking into their teaching. A variety of activities have been proposed to promote critical thinking in classes. Specifically, communicative approach is well-suited for nurturing critical thinking through information-gap, reasoning-gap and opinion-gap tasks that allow collaborative learning. In addition to argumentation, peer debate and structured controversial dialogues (Johnson & Johnson, 1993), student discussion, problem solving activities, and verbalization of metacognitive strategies (Pintrich et al., 1993) can improve learners’ critical thinking skills.

In the following section, two fundamental methods will be presented for incorporating critical thinking skills into English language classes, with the assumption that these two tools will provide a holistic approach teachers can adapt to their teaching situations. One is Socratic Questioning Method and the other is Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives. EFL teachers can use these two approaches as a basis for promoting critical thinking skills regardless of content and specific language skill (listening, speaking, writing, reading) or system (e.g. grammar, pronunciation).

The following sections describe integration of Socratic Questioning method and the original and revised versions Bloom’s Taxonomy.

CULTIVATING CRITICAL THINKING SKILLS IN THE EFL CLASSROOM Page 57 Socratic Questioning Method The fact that thinking is stimulated by questions, in order to engage students in thinking through the content, the teachers should pose questions to stimulate their thinking.

Generally, six critical questions “Who, What, Where, Why, When and How” such as “Who are the key figures in critical thinking literature?, What is the impact of information communication technologies on the development of EFL leaners’ critical thinking skills?, Where would critical thinking help learners?, When is the right time to integrate critical thinking skills into foreign language classes?, Why should teachers know about critical thinking?, and How can we develop EFL learners’ critical thinking skills?” seek to understand critical thinking in language education context.

Along with these questions, since we aim to promote an additional level of thinking and uncover learners’ inner thought, we need a systematic and disciplined manner of questioning. Socratic questioning is considered as one of the most effective strategies to cultivate critical thought via questioning between students and the teacher (Paul, 1993). Socratic questioning is the core of critical thinking and the six categories of Socratic questioning prompts can be used to challenge learners to develop their critical thinking (Elder & Paul, 2005). The following questions can be modified and adapted to a variety of contexts and content.

Questions for clarification aim to get learners to think about what they are asking. These questions help them to investigate issue more deeply. ‘Why do you say that?’, ‘What do you mean by…?’, ‘Can you give me an example?’.

Page 58 CULTIVATING CRITICAL THINKING SKILLS IN THE EFL CLASSROOM Questions that probe assumptions make learners think about the presuppositions on which they base their argument. ‘What can we assume instead?’, “Can you explain why / how…..?’, ‘What would happen if….?’.

Questions that probe reasons and evidence aim to get learners’ reasoning. They are guided towards finding support for their arguments: ‘What evidence do we have for…?’, ‘On what evidence do we have to make this claim?’, ‘How can you refute this?’.

Questions about viewpoints and perspectives aim to get learners to think about alternative viewpoints: ‘What would be an alternative?’, ‘What is another way to look at it?’, ‘What is a counter argument for...?’.

Questions that probe implications and consequences aim to get learners to think about the logical implications of the argument in question: ‘What are the consequences of that assumption?’, ‘What are the implications of ... ?’, ‘What effect would that have on…..?’.

Questions about the question aim to get learners think deeply about questions: ‘What was the point of this question?’, ‘What makes this an important question?’, ‘Where did you get that idea?’ (Paul & Elder, 2007).

Asking challenging, open-ended questions that demand real analysis, or evaluation will nurture learners’ critical thinking (Elder & Paul, 2005) and help induce students’ higher- level cognitive processes that are integral to critical thinking (Yang, Newby, & Bill, 2005).

CULTIVATING CRITICAL THINKING SKILLS IN THE EFL CLASSROOM Page 59 Bloom’s Taxonomy of the Cognitive Domain Benjamin Bloom and his colleagues (Bloom et al., 1956) created a taxonomy of educational objectives, known as the Bloom’s Taxonomy. The objectives are categorized in a hierarchical way and classified for three domains: the cognitive, the affective, and the psychomotor. According to Bloom’s Taxonomy, human thinking skills can be divided into six categories: Knowledge, Comprehension, Application, Analysis, Synthesis, and Evaluation (Krathwohl, 2002). Each level describes the stages of learning and thinking that students would be involved in while moving up towards higher order critical thinking. These learning and thinking stages are further expanded by the expected behaviors. The educational objectives found on the upper three levels (analysis, synthesis, and evaluation) in Bloom’s pyramid reflect higher order thinking skills, whereby making attributions to definitions of critical thinking (Truschel & Deming, 2008). Teachers can use the verbs in the higher levels to set learning objectives in order to help cultivation of critical thinking skills.

The first level-Knowledge- refers to bringing to mind the previously learned material. The second level-Comprehension- exhibits the ability to understand the meaning of material. The third level-Application- refers to the ability to transform learned material into new and hypothetical situations. The fourth level- Analysis- refers to the ability to examine and break learned material into parts in order to understand its structure. Learning outcomes at this level demonstrate a higher intellectual capacity because learners need to understand not only the content but the structure as well. The fifth level- Synthesis- refers to the ability to compile parts of the learned material together in a different way to form a new whole. The sixth level- Evaluation- refers to the ability to judge the value of material on the basis of specified criteria for a given purpose (Krathwohl, 2002). By using Bloom’s taxonomy, EFL teachers can choose appropriate verbs to state what the students are expected to do, as well as specifying at what level.

Following the original publication of Bloom’s Taxonomy, an updated version of the taxonomy was created in 2001 (Adams, 2015). The revision of the original taxonomy presents the six categories described in the original taxonomy. Nevertheless, the Knowledge category was renamed as Remember, the Comprehension category was renamed as Understand, and Synthesis was renamed as Create. Create appears at the top level as it is considered to be higher than evaluation within the cognitive domain. The remaining categories are expressed with their verb forms: Apply, Analyze, and Evaluate (Krathwohl, 2002). The following figure displays both taxonomies and sample action verbs for learning objectives at each level.

Page 60 CULTIVATING CRITICAL THINKING SKILLS IN THE EFL CLASSROOM Figure 1. Bloom’s Taxonomy (1965) and Bloom’s Revised Taxonomy (2001)

Even though illustration of the skills gives the impression that there is a progressive order as if lower order thinking skills should be acquired before the higher order thinking skills, different skills can be used in an integrated way to enhance critical thinking.

Churches (2008), later adapted Bloom’s Revised Taxonomy in a way to include digital technologies and digital cognitive objectives and labelled it as Bloom’s Digital Taxonomy. The hierarchy of learning activities in this taxonomy addresses new objectives and actions that became necessary with the emergence and integration of information and communication technologies in the digital age and they help to develop their critical thinking skills (see Churches, 2008, for more information).

Concerning the aforementioned strategies, it is important to note that that there are two modes of critical thinking (Paul, 1993). The weak mode views critical thinking as a list or collection of discrete intellectual skills, while the strong mode considers critical thinking as a mental integration of dispositions, values, and skills that lead one person to reach rational thinking. In defense for the strong view, it is suggested that if learners are not exposed to challenging tasks that require critical thinking, there is a slight chance that these learners will gain the intellectual independence inferred from the strong sense critical thinking (Paul, 1993) .

Conclusion Currently, as validated by standardized testing, the education system is marked by the extensive coverage of content while encouraging learners to passively absorb information and to repeat back what they hear or read. Yet, the world we inhabit now needs individuals who have critical thinking skills along with the ability to analyze

CULTIVATING CRITICAL THINKING SKILLS IN THE EFL CLASSROOM Page 61 and assess people, things or situations. Within the paradigm of critical thinking, critical thinkers can express ideas clearly, gather and evaluate relevant information, and communicate effectively whereas non-critical thinkers adopt a very egocentric worldview and tend to answer questions with only yes or no (Flores et al., 2012). Likewise, mastery of English language is also one of the necessities of the new millennium. As language teachers, we are obliged to design instructions and prepare the necessary conditions to allow our learners to become critical thinkers. By doing so, we will not only equip learners with the essential skills of the 21st century, but also be instrumental in causing a personal transformation (Chaffe, 1988). Once language teachers become aware of the conception and value of critical thinking skills and develop strategies to infuse them into their language classes, they will be able to cultivate these higher-order skills in their learners (Hove, 2011) and help them take the lead in this competitive era.It is a reality that development of critical thought does not happen serendipitously. Crucial to this process is the intellectually committed approach of actively conceptualizing critical thought and applying the required strategies. Developing learners’ competence in critical thinking is a long-term objective; therefore, this process should begin in the earliest years in school, and the objective is attained gradually (Bailin et al., 1999). What’s more, in addition to the strategies and techniques to enhance critical thinking, teacher behaviors have utmost importance for creating a classroom environment lending itself to the cultivation of critical thinking skills. Teachers should keep in mind that humans have great capacity for thinking rationally and reasonably (Cosgrove, 2011) and through modelling and using a variety of teaching modalities, it is possible to develop learners’ thinking.

A learning environment where critical thinking skills are cultivated will undoubtedly pose challenges for teachers. As it requires questioning, “such questioning would require intellectual courage, perseverance, integrity, empathy, and confidence in their own [learners’] capacity to reason and understand subject matter through their own thought” (Paul, 2000, p.168). Yet, the desire to make a positive change in our learners’ life will be the guiding force and the belief that this long term commitment is worth the sacrifice is powerful enough to drive teachers towards attaining this goal.

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Image Credits:

Image 1 https://www.shutterstock.com/tr/image-illustration/cannot-teach-anybody-anything- can-only-237183769

Page 66 CULTIVATING CRITICAL THINKING SKILLS IN THE EFL CLASSROOM CHAPTER 5

TEACHING EFL WITH TECHNOLOGY

PERİHAN SAVAŞ MIDDLE EAST TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY

Perihan Savaş is an associate professor at Middle East Technical University in Turkey. She received her Ph.D. degree in Curriculum and Instruction with a major in TESOL, a cognate in Educational Technology, and a minor in Educational Administration from the University of Florida, USA. Her scholarly interests include integrating technology into English as a Foreign Language (EFL) curriculum, mobile assisted language learning (MALL), teacher training/faculty support in online education, and computer-mediated communication. She has authored articles in Learning and Individual Differences, Journal of Pragmatics, ReCALL, and Journal of Interactive Research among others.

Pre-reading Questions

1. Which technological tools do you use a) in your daily life? b) for learning purposes?

2. What is the rationale for integrating technology into EFL classes?

3. What are the benefits and challenges of using technology to teach EFL?

Introduction Technology use in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) classes has accelerated in the first two decades of the 21st century as a result of the wide use of technological tools in our everyday lives. Today in many EFL classes, learners are considered as digital natives (Prensky, 2001) who were born into a digital age with access to many technological tools. These digital natives who are more at ease with communicating via technology in their lives are more motivated when advances in the technology are transferred to their learning environments. In return, EFL teachers are expected to integrate technology into language learning classes. This requires EFL teachers to have knowledge and skills to effectively incorporate technology for language teaching and learning purposes. In order to effectively use technology in EFL classes, teachers need to know basic terminology in relation to teaching EFL with technology, evaluate the effectiveness of technology integrated EFL tasks, and design technology enhanced EFL tasks and materials.

There are several common terms and acronyms used while teaching EFL with technology:

Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL): Language learning with the aid of computers.

Computer Mediated Communication (CMC): Communication that takes place via computers, generally in chat rooms, blogs, or social media. It can be asynchronous or synchronous.

Mobile Assisted Language Learning (MALL): Language learning with any portable device such as cell phones, mp3 players, and camcorders.

TEACHING EFL WITH TECHNOLOGY Page 69 Online Learning: Learning via online tools and environments in which learners and teachers are free of time and space.

Blended Learning: A hybrid learning in which elements of both face-to-face and online learning are used.

Flipped Learning: Type of learning in which the content is given via online tools; generally, through videos and activities, practice, and discussions take place in face-to-face classes.

Benefits of Integrating Technology into EFL Classes Having digital native EFL learners is not the only rationale for integrating technology into EFL classes. There are certain benefits of using technology, especially the Internet, in EFL classes. Technology and EFL can be very compatible if they are effectively integrated as the language used in the Internet is dominantly English. One of the main benefits of using technology in EFL classes is to provide learners with opportunities to access authentic language and content via the Internet. Since practicing language outside the classroom is relatively limited in EFL settings, the Internet plays an important role for language learners as a means to receiving input in English. With the help of online resources, EFL learners can visit websites that native speakers visit, read what native speakers read, and can talk to native speakers and other EFL learners around the world. As EFL learners interact with native speakers and other EFL learners online, they come in contact with

Page 70 TEACHING EFL WITH TECHNOLOGY different cultures, which increases learners’ intercultural competence. Learning and communicating online is usually free of time and space, which gives learners flexibility in their learning processes. Learners not only have access to language content but also can practice different language skills in a flexible manner and by interacting with peers around the globe.

Another benefit of technology use in EFL is providing learners with more personalized learning via abundance of online self-access materials. Depending on their strengths and witnesses in language learning, EFL learners can take advantage of variety of online language learning materials and organize their learning suitable for their own pace. Use of technology can also increase the level of autonomy among EFL learners with such self-access online materials. While interacting with the technological tool, content, and peers, online EFL learners can take charge in their own learning with the guidance of their teachers. In addition to teacher input, online resources and interactions allow language learners shape their language learning experiences in a more varied and organized way.

Since technological devices and the Internet are widely used in our daily lives, many tasks that are carried online in learners’ native language can also be used for practicing English. EFL learners can do similar tasks they carry out in their native language in their target language as well, which leads to more real-life like learning. For example, EFL learners can read newspapers online, can plan for travelling abroad, or do online shopping in English. In addition, via social media EFL learners have the opportunity of being a part of a more global online communities. EFL learners can share their opinions, experiences, and materials with culturally diverse population in the online environments. In this way, learners can take part in negotiation of meaning via collaborative activities. Teaching EFL with technology also calls for a constructivist view of language learning and teaching. Both technology enhanced and constructivist language education values

TEACHING EFL WITH TECHNOLOGY Page 71 a learner-centered approach in which learners are empowered via autonomy and increased interaction. In both, learners are expected to be active and in control of their own learning. Furthermore, both encourage collaborative learning and co-construction of meaning and reality in which learners are motivated to explore multimodal learning strategies. Addressing to various senses, language learning via technology enhances meaning focus and form practice among learners with multiple learning styles.

Having more permanent records of learner activity and communication is another benefit of using technology in EFL classes. Since learner behavior is monitored, tracked, and kept with more efficiency in online environments through technological tools, it is possible for EFL teachers to study learners’ language and communication closely and in a timely manner. EFL teachers can give more detailed and process oriented feedback on learners’ language with the help of tracking and screen capturing tools. Learners can also benefit from their recorded process of their learning via e-portfolios in which written work, audios, or videos can be kept. Finally, use of technology in EFL classes can create more dynamic, up-to-date, and interactive EFL classes. Technology brings in variety to EFL classes; in return, learners can be more motivated as they see technology use relevant and fun similar to their daily life activities.

On the contrary to numerous benefits of using technology in EFL classes, there are several challenges that EFL teachers need to take into consideration in relation to technology use in EFL classes. One of the challenges with the use of technology is the digital divide. Not all language learners can have easy access to technological tools in some teaching contexts and this may create obstacles for teachers in integrating technology in EFL classes. That is why, it is essential for EFL teachers to assess the available resources and have contingency plans if the resources are scarce or limited prior to the integration of technology in the classroom. Another challenge for EFL teachers in using technological tools is setting boundaries for learners. Teachers need to monitor and supervise EFL learners closely so that learners do not go off task and spend too much time on online resources that do not contribute to language learning. EFL teachers should also train their learners in the effective use of the netiquette. EFL learners should have knowledge and skills in using the language in appropriate forms and ways in a variety of settings. EFL teachers should present and model the correct use of the CMC while communicating with various addressees.

Page 72 TEACHING EFL WITH TECHNOLOGY Roles of EFL Learners and Teachers in the 21st Century EFL learners in the 21st century have more chances to interact with authentic language and content thanks to the Internet. Since they are born into a digital age, EFL learners today have a better fluency in using digital tools. They are better at multi-tasking and multimodal activities. When working with technology, EFL learners are expected to be active and autonomous in their learning. They take part in decision making more actively while selecting technology enhanced materials for their own pace. Learners are also required to be more collaborative as many online language learning environments call for sharing content and experiences with peers. EFL learners receive language input and content from the interaction between the technological tool and peers in addition to their teachers.

Even though the amount of language input given by online resources seem to be increased compared to the one given by teachers in technology enhanced EFL classes, teachers remain to have active roles as facilitators, guides, and content experts. Designing and administrating online activities are two of the essential tasks of EFL teachers in the 21st century classes. EFL teachers continue being role model, not as an authority figure, but as a guide. They demonstrate effective use of CMC and provide their learners with both technological and pedagogical support in their language learning experiences. Therefore, it is crucial for EFL teachers to try out technological tools as a learner before they introduce such tools to their learners. In this way, they can serve their learners as guides who have been through the learning process and lead their learners in their language learning processes.

TEACHING EFL WITH TECHNOLOGY Page 73 Integrating technology into EFL curriculum EFL teachers need to follow certain steps for integrating technology in EFL classes. Figure 1 outlines the steps and main actions to follow in integrating technology in EFL curriculum.

One of the most important issues in this integration is to consider pedagogy first. In other words, language teaching and learning should be the main concern for EFL teachers rather than the technology itself. Technology should be viewed as a means to achieve language objectives rather than an end.

• Identify EFL teaching context, and objectives I • Evaluate available techonogy resources

• Explore and evaluate existing techonogical tools II • Select possible tools and try out as a learner

• Pilot the selected tools in relation to EFL, receive feedback from learners III • Adopt or adapt depending on the results of the piloting process

Figure 1. Process of integrating technology into EFL curriculum

After deciding on the objectives and appropriate content, EFL teachers need to evaluate available technology resources to help them achieve these objectives. In selecting technology resources, EFL teachers can consider addressing multiple thinking skills so that learners can engage in higher order thinking skills rather than mechanical activities in learning the language.

Page 74 TEACHING EFL WITH TECHNOLOGY Walker and White (2013) suggest several tools to use for different thinking skills for language learning:

Thinking Skill Tools Creating VoiceThread, WeVideoi Prezi, Screenr Evaluating Blogger, Google Groups, Google Analysing Survey Monkey, Google Docs, Zoho, Flisti Applying Pipes, Scribble, Maps, Podomatic, Aviary Understanding Diigo, Google reader, Google advanced search Remembering Wordle, Diigo, Google, Fotobabble

Table 1. Suggested Tools for Different Thinking Skills in EFL Classes (Walker & White, 2013, p. 167)

Once the available technology tools are explored and selected, EFL teachers need to try out these tools as a learner first and then implement them in their classes. In this way, teachers can better understand the benefits and challenges in relation to the technological tool and have an informed decision about the effectiveness of the tool for language learning purposes. Piloting the technology integration with a representative group of learners is also preferred as learner feedback is also essential in deciding to use or not to use a specific technological tool in EFL classes.

Evaluating the Effectiveness of Technology Enhanced Language Tasks and Materials The Internet provides EFL teachers with a variety of online language teaching tasks and materials. However, not all online resources are of good quality. Each EFL teacher needs to evaluate the existing online resources before using them in their classes. There are several guidelines for evaluating online materials and tasks. For example, Chapelle (2001) suggests a six-fold criterion to be used in assessing the effectiveness of CALL tasks under six main categories:

a. Authenticity: Does the language learning activity in the CALL task correspond to language real-world tasks?

b. Positive impact: Does the CALL task have effects on participants beyond language learning potential? For example, does it help learners to develop language learning strategies?

TEACHING EFL WITH TECHNOLOGY Page 75 c. Practicality: Are there adequate resources to support the use of CALL activity? For example, are the hardware, software and technology support available?

d. Language learning potential: Is there opportunity for beneficial focus on form when working on the language?

e. Learner fit: Are the learner characteristics taken into consideration and is there opportunity for engagement?

f. Meaning focus: Is there opportunity for focusing on meaning in the CALL task?

Son (2016) proposes more specific criteria to evaluate the effectiveness of MALL applications. In his list, there are fifteen categories to consider in relation to a MALL application prior to class use. These categories include:

1. Purpose 6. Engagement 11. Reliability 2. Accuracy 7. Feedback 12. Presentation 3. Usefulness 8. Integration 13. Organization 4. Flexibility 9. Support 14. Navigation 5. Authenticity 10. Price 15. Multimedia

“As each new technology materializes, we repeat the process of evaluating and refining our rationale and methods for implementing it.”

(Otto, 2017, p. 10)

As Otto (2017) states in the quote above, CALL material and task evaluation is an ongoing process. Technology use in language classes is a dynamic field and it requires a dynamic as well as continuous approach to material evaluation and design. Whenever EFL teachers are introduced with new technology, they need to evaluate it based on their own teaching contexts. Since each teaching and learning situation are unique, it is recommended for EFL teachers to evaluate CALL tools based on their own specific EFL learner profile, EFL curriculum, and EFL context.

Page 76 TEACHING EFL WITH TECHNOLOGY Practice activity Writing your own criteria for the effective CALL tasks and materials

In your opinion, what are the top three important characteristics of effective CALL tasks or materials? Please, list a minimum of three characteristics together with your rationale. Then, share your list with your peers.

I think, an effective CALL tool should be…

1......

2......

3......

TEACHING EFL WITH TECHNOLOGY Page 77 Exploring Online Resources for EFL Classes Please, visit and explore three of the online resources in Table 1 below and tick (✓) EFL topics and skills that can be taught or practiced with using each resource.

Table 2: List of Online Resources Culture Writing No Link Reading Listening Speaking Grammar Vocabulary Pronunciation

https://librivox.org/ https://www.memrise.com/ https://secondlife.com/ https://storybird.com/ https://www.edx.org/ https://documentaryheaven.com/

http://unplugthetv.com/

http://freerice.com/ https://www.studyblue.com/

https://www.sporcle.com/ http://www.polishmywriting.com/ https://www.twiddla.com/ https://www.funfonix.com/

https://cacoo.com/ http://www.manythings.org/ https://ed.ted.com/ https://www.teachertube.com/ https://www.thecolor.com/ https://www.voki.com/ https://surveyanyplace.com/ http://www.visuwords.com/ http://www.makebeliefscomix.com/ http://www.wolframalpha.com/ https://scratch.mit.edu/ https://www.polleverywhere.com/

Page 78 TEACHING EFL WITH TECHNOLOGY Practice: Integrating Technology into EFL Classes Please, first select an EFL teaching content/topic. Then fill in rows 1-9 in Table 3 below. You are free to choose your teaching context and EFL learner profile. Second, select one CALL tool such as a website, software, or application (you can use one of the online resources in Table 2) and fill in rows 10-14. Third, design a task together with its materials for your EFL learners by integrating one website, app, or software by filling in the description section in 15. Then, share your suggested technology integrated EFL task or materials with your peers.

1. Name or Type of the Institution

2. Level of Learners

3. Grade of Learners

4. Age of Learners

5. Number of Learners in class

6. Duration of Your Task

7. Teaching Point

8. Topic/Theme of the Lesson

9. Objectives (A minimum of 3)

Name of the Software/Website/App You Will 10. Use to Achieve Your Objectives

11. URL of the Software/Website/App

The Main Purpose/Function of the Software/ 12. Website/App

13. Hardware Requirements

14. Your Main Reason for Choosing This Tool

TEACHING EFL WITH TECHNOLOGY Page 79 Description of your Task Step Time Tasks Tasks Interaction Purpose (Teacher) (Students)

Page 80 TEACHING EFL WITH TECHNOLOGY References

Chapelle, C. (2001). Computer applications in second language acquisition: Foundations for teaching, testing and research. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Prensky, M. (2001). Digital natives, digital immigrants, part 1. On the Horizon, 9(5), 1-6. doi:10.1108/10748120110424816

Son, J.-B. (2016). Selecting and evaluating mobile apps for language learning. In A. Palalas & M. Ally (Eds.), The international handbook of mobile-assisted language learning (pp. 161-179). Beijing: China Central Radio & TV University Press.

Otto, S. E. K. (2017). From past to present: A hundred years of technology for L2 learning. In C. C. Chapelle & S. Sauro (Eds.), The handbook of technology and second language teaching and Learning (pp. 10-25). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Walker, A., & White, G. (2013). Technology enhanced language learning: Connecting theory and practice. Great Clarendon Street, Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Image Credits:

Image 1: https://www.shutterstock.com/tr/image-photo/teacher-using-tablet-computer- elementary-school-388661212

Image 2: https://www.shutterstock.com/tr/image-photo/chiang-mai-thailand-november- 14th-2016-519587608

Image 3: https://www.shutterstock.com/tr/image-photo/business-man-hand-pointing-search- bar-138965573

TEACHING EFL WITH TECHNOLOGY Page 81

CHAPTER 6

TEACHING AND LEARNING GRAMMAR THROUGH THE SPOT (SLC) MODEL

BENA GÜL PEKER GAZİ UNIVERSITY

Benâ Gül Peker works as a professor at Gazi University, Ankara, Turkey. She holds an M.A. from Bilkent University and a Ph.D. from Aston University in Birmingham, U.K. Among her professional interests are educational change, teacher empowerment, language teaching methodology, NLP and drama. Benâ Gül Peker is a certified trainer of NLP. She has presented nationally and internationally. She was a plenary speaker at the 40th IATEFL Convention, Harrogate 2006, U.K. She was involved as editor and writer in the writing of the English curriculum and course book series, “Spot-On”, for primary ELT grades 4-8 between 2005-2010.

Pre-reading Questions

1. What do you know about teaching and learning grammar?

2. What do we mean when we say traditional grammar teaching?

3. Remember the Grammar Translation method. What was the main principle?

4. Is teaching and learning grammar different today?

Introduction: A Trip Down Memory Lane Now that you have had a chance to reflect on teaching and learning grammar, I am going to take you on an imaginary trip to the past when you were learning grammar in elementary or high school. Gently close your eyes and imagine that you are at a particular level of learning English in a particular class. Remember how you were learning. What was the classroom atmosphere like? Did you have to memorize rules of English? Were you happy to do that? See what you see, hear what you hear and feel what you feel. Bringing back those sights, sounds and feelings, gently open your eyes.

After recalling those moments in your past experiences, you have probably become aware that you were mostly required to memorize the rules of grammar. You may also have had to write these rules and make sentences with them—sentences that were out of context. These were perhaps not really meaningful for you at all.

• Transmission of knowledge • Teachers in control • Teacher talk and teacher questions • Happy and satisfied

A Theoretical Framework: How Should We Teach Grammar Today?

All of that has changed. Or, has it really? We still see form-focused instruction (FFI) (Larsen-Freeman, 2014) all around us whether in course books used in schools, or at private courses. This model of teaching grammar assumes an explicit presentation of the rules of English grammar. Is this the way we should teach grammar? The important question, then, is how do we approach the teaching of grammar today?

TEACHING AND LEARNING GRAMMAR THROUGH THE SPOT (SLC) MODEL Page 85 When we view research in trying to identify the right methodology for teaching grammar, we see that the findings of studies are varied depending on the context and the purpose of the research. We also notice that little attention has been paid to the perceptions of Young Learners of English. Two studies investigating grammar instruction with learners and teachers inform us that teachers make certain instructional decisions parallel to their pedagogical systems (Borg, 1998) and that learners’ perceptions may differ from those of their teachers in terms of communicative language learning activities. Turkish learners believe that grammar is an important part of language learning; however, they also believe that it should be taught in a communicative manner (İnceçay & Keşli Dollar, 2011).

In this chapter, I discuss teaching and learning grammar for young learners (YLEs) of grades 6-8 in the teaching of English as a Foreign Language (EFL). I suggest a model that I designed and discuss the different parts of that model which was used in a course book entitled Spot On (2006) for grades 6-8, written for the Ministry of Education based on the English Language Curriculum for Primary Education (Grades 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8) (Ersöz, Çakır, Cephe, Gül Peker, & Özkan, 2006) and used between 2005-2010. The curriculum was written according to the principles of the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment (CEFR) (2001) among which the most important principle is communication in the target language. Although the model is suggested for YLEs, it can also be used with adult learners who are, in fact, avid analysts of language.

In order to find the right methodology for teaching grammar, perhaps we should look at the past experiences of teaching grammar in our field. The traditional method which has dominated EFL for a long time rests on the assumption that learning a language means learning its rules (Ellis, 2006; Harmer, 2001; Larsen-Freeman, 2014; Scrivener, 2005). Today, we know better. The goal of teaching through the Communicative way or Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) is to enable students to communicate in the target language. It may be easier to compare these two models using two triangles as follows:

Page 86 TEACHING AND LEARNING GRAMMAR THROUGH THE SPOT (SLC) MODEL As can be seen in Figure 1, the first triangle on the left is a representation of the inductive approach. The learners see the context in which the new lan- guage is used. This is the inductive approach which is a top-down approach. This means that you start by giving the learners a meaningful context. You can then guide the learners into discovering meaning Figure 1. The Inductive Approach and function. This can follow with practice and pro- duction activities.

Figure 2 is a representation of the deductive approa- ch which is a bottom-up approach. You usually start by giving the “name” of grammar; in other words, the tense or structure. Then you can give the mea- ning of this structural point. This normally follows Figure 2. The Deductive Approach with a practice exercise

In the inductive approach, learning resembles real life and students are actively involved in the learning process. Rules are inferred from examples; in other words, learning is synonymous with rule-discovery. This however, needs good elicitation techniques. The deductive approach,traditionally associated with the Grammar Translation method (GTM), encourages the belief that learning a language means knowing the rules, initially thought as presenting and practicing grammar (Ellis, 2006). Learning, because of the explanation of rules, is seldom memorable. In addition, there are limited options for communication. In short, whilst the deductive approach focuses on grammatical accuracy, the inductive approach aims to develop communicative ability of language.

Reflection

1. What are the two approaches to teaching grammar?

2. Which approach do you favor?

3. Explain briefly what we can infer from research findings.

4. What is the goal of teaching grammar today?

TEACHING AND LEARNING GRAMMAR THROUGH THE SPOT (SLC) MODEL Page 87 Pre-reading Questions

Take a few minutes to think about the following issues related to grammar teac- hing before you start reading the next part.

1. To what extent do I explain grammar rules?

2. To what extent do I encourage students to discover things for themselves?

3. How much grammatical terminology do I use?

4. Do I refer to students’ L1?

The Spot Model: A Model for Inductive Grammar Teaching The Spot Model can actually bring together the two approaches of teaching grammar discussed above, which Crystal (2017) calls “the two sides of a coin”: the “dimension of structure” and the “dimension of use” (p. 135). In other words, learners can be guided towards meaning and dwell on the structure after they have become familiar with meaning. The Spot Model advocates the teaching of grammar as “skill development” which incorporates “both a cognitive and a behavioral aspect” whereby the learner can convert “the grammatical rules of the language system into fluent performance in real time” (Richards and Rodgers, 2001, 162). The emphasis is on learning grammar as a communication skill and not “just mastery of language forms” (Larsen-Freeman, 2000, p. 126), thus teaching “actual communication, not merely structures out of context” as stated in the 2006 Curriculum (p.168). In this new mode, the focus is no longer on form and the teacher, but on function and learners and “linguistic forms and rules are made available to learners in indirect ways, through reading and listening”. This, in fact, is a teaching mode that “often de-emphasizes, or even supplants, direct instruction” (Pica, 2000, p. 4).

The model is a three-tiered model of grammar teaching using three sections: Spot-Light, Language Spot and Check Spot. This model is also called the SLC model as it consists of the first letters of the three stages.

Page 88 TEACHING AND LEARNING GRAMMAR THROUGH THE SPOT (SLC) MODEL Spotlight More specifically, in the first part entitled the “Spotlight”, “without having met the rule”, the learner sees sample sentences taken from the input given through listening or reading texts which are presented for “analysis and reflection” (Thornbury, 2000, 4). This starts with the elicitation stage (Scrivener, 2005) where the teacher tries to elicit the new language instead of giving direct grammar explanation. We can do elicitation through two modes of analysis: comprehension of text and comprehension of meaning. For the first mode we can ask “context questions” (Scrivener, 2005) similar to the comprehension questions which may be asked when doing reading or listening. The second mode is a more important tool as you will be helping to learners to arrive at meaning by means of guiding “concept questions” (ibid) or statements (See Scrivener, 2005 for different ways of questioning). The sample that we will look is a unit about “Hobbies” (Spot-On, 2005). The reading text is about Tessa’s (one of the main characters in the book) hobbies which she writes about in her webpage.

A word of caution: It is important to use the sentences from the reading and listening texts in the unit. If you introduce additional sentences which are out of context, then the learners may be forced into unnecessary and additional effort to remember them.

In the Spotlight of this unit, the students are first asked to categorize Tessa’s hobbies into two categories: likes and dislikes (See Appendix 1, 3 Spotlight). After asking a few comprehension questions, we can move on to the concept checking stage for which the guiding questions can be as follows:

• Think about/Remember Tessa’s hobbies. • Look at the following sentences. • Can you guess the meaning of these expressions?

Alternatively, in class, the teacher can elicit the sentences that contain the new language (which are already in the book) and then use flashcards to present these sentences on the board. The aim of this phase is to enable learners to become “aware of how a particular meaning is encoded by a particular grammatical form” (Batstone & Ellis, 2009, p. 197). It is hoped that the learners will “notice” the new language presented in a context” through a reading or listening text (ibid, p. 162) by which learners will be “exposed to a lot of comprehensible new language” (Scrivener, 2005, p. 158). The symbol of a spotlight for this part of the model was chosen deliberately to reflect this process of awareness-raising.

TEACHING AND LEARNING GRAMMAR THROUGH THE SPOT (SLC) MODEL Page 89 Reflection

1. Why is this stage called “Spotlight”?

Language Spot The second part of the three-tiered model is called the “Language Spot”. Here, the meaning or function of the new structure is described without any grammatical terminology. To give an example, we can look at the unit on hobbies that we have previously looked at, the function is presented as follows: “When we ask for and express likes and dislikes, we use the following expressions (See Appendix 1, 4 Language Spot). As functions, likes and dislikes are presented in both positive, negative and question forms without any grammar explanation. The learners are asked to put the appropriate sentences in one of the three categories. And, as mentioned previously, it is important to work only with the sentences given in the reading and listening contexts. Thus, Spotlight will have helped learners to understand meaning and use.

To consolidate the meaning of the new language analyzed, a figure in the shape of a triangle (starting from the wide edge), is presented to help learners to become even more aware of the meaning of the new language of likes and dislikes. The figure is given in shades of red, white, gray and finally black to show a possible progression of the concept on a continuum from “crazy about” to “can’t stand”. This figure can also be turned into a class poster and hung on a wall in the classroom. It can be left there for some time, as it will beneficial for learners in terms of “peripheral learning” (Larsen- Freeman, 2000, p.81).

In the Language Spot, there is also another character that is introduced. It is Spotty the dog, who is symbolically carrying the “sack” of function. This is an image which I thought would best convey the meaning in a most visual way. She carries whatever language functions learned in her sack.

We may also wish to give the form through concept questions. The questions to ask would be those such as: Is that a verb? What does it come after?

Page 90 TEACHING AND LEARNING GRAMMAR THROUGH THE SPOT (SLC) MODEL Reflection

1. Is the stage called Language Spot new to you?

2. Why/Why not?

3. What is the main principle?

Check Spot The final part of the three-tiered model is the “Check Spot “(see Appendix I 5 Check Spot). Here, a short activity is given in order to check understanding of the new language. The activities to be used at this stage are mechanical and meaningful activities which are “restricted use” (Scrivener, 2005) activities as follows:

• Drills (as in the Audiolingual Method) Repetition drills Substitution drills • Gap-filling • Multiple-choice • Sentence completion • Question-and-answer format • Matching • Games Board/Word/Picture • Spot the Mistake

Most of us are quite familiar with drills, gap-filling, multiple-choice, sentence completion and question-and-answer activities. Some activities are more enjoyable than others; for example, matching and games. Spot the Mistake can be played as a game. Games are particularly energizing and motivating. Activities such as Chant Spot and Craft Spot (See Appendix 1) are also quite enjoyable for young learners. With this stage completed, we can assume that we have been able to direct learners’ attention on the meaning and use of new language.

TEACHING AND LEARNING GRAMMAR THROUGH THE SPOT (SLC) MODEL Page 91 We can then move on to the production stage of learning to do speaking and writing activities that would normally be given in a unit. It is best to opt for activities that resemble real-life activities which are called authentic use (Scrivener, 2005) activities as they provide opportunities for students to use “authentic language--language as it is used in a real context”, thus assessing their learning. This reminds us that language learning is “a process of communication rather than just mastery of language forms” (Larsen- Freeman, 2000, p.125). Using such activities, we can create contexts in which learners will interact with other learners using pair work or group work (Cullen, 2012; Richards and Rodgers, 2001; Scrivener, 2005). Some examples of these activities are as follows:

• Questionnaire • Information gap activities • Role play (Speaking) (E.g. an interview) • Writing (E.g. a letter to a specific audience)

We can design a simple questionnaire using statements like “I like playing computer games”; and I “don’t like swimming”. You can also write questions such as: “Do you enjoy going for a walk?” and “Are you good at dancing?” You can decide on the number of statements and questions but perhaps 15 would be a reasonable number. A Likert Scale can also be added. Alternatively, learners can also write their own statements and questions, which would be a great source of motivation for learning.

Information gap activities are particularly important as they reflect real life situations in which one of the speakers has information that the other does not. So, in an activity if both students have the same information on a task, then, this is not real communication. Imagine that one learner is describing the campus of a university and the other one drawing. This is a good example of an information gap activity. Imagine how boring and meaningless the task would be if both learners had the picture of that campus.

What can be real communication is role plays that derive from everyday situations. In such tasks, whether in speaking or writing, the learners will have a chance to use authentic language.

Page 92 TEACHING AND LEARNING GRAMMAR THROUGH THE SPOT (SLC) MODEL Reflection

1. Do you prefer mechanical, meaningful or communicative activities in checking unders- tanding?

2. Think about one example from each and reflect on how you would use it in class to teach likes and dislikes.

A Brief Look at Learner Experiences with the Spot Model I conducted a narrative study with a group of young learners who were learning English with the Spot On course book. A brief summary of the study (Gül Peker, 2015) is as follows. My informal visits to the 6th grade class in the first year enabled me to elicit their stories about learning grammar through the SPOT model a year later when they were in 7th grade. A group interview with the four volunteers from the class was followed by two rounds of individual interviews in order to understand “the ways humans experience the world depicted through their stories” (Webster & Mertova, 2007, p.3). Instead of research questions, as is the case in narrative inquiry (Clandinin & Connelly, 2000), one guiding question was whether the Spot Model was enjoyable or boring for learners and the reasons behind their opinions. In the second round of interviews, the learners were shown the transcriptions of the first interview in order to strengthen the truthfulness of results (Webster & Mertova, 2007). I also interviewed the teacher of this class after the completion of learner interviews. As was the case with the learners, the teacher was shown the transcription of the previous meeting. In addition, the teacher interviews were used to triangulate (Cohen & Manion, 1990) the themes emerging from the learner interviews.

It became clear that these learners do not like the traditional method of learning grammar and they find it boring because it makes them passive as confirmed by their teacher. In other words, when the rules are given to them directly, they do not have to do anything and that is boring for them. Learners seem to enjoy learning and understand better when they are actively engaged in learning. For this reason, they like “to solve the puzzles given in Spotlight” as worded by one learner who was referring to the time given by their teacher so that learners can think about the new language by answering teacher questions. It is active learning for them. Thus, the learners were able

TEACHING AND LEARNING GRAMMAR THROUGH THE SPOT (SLC) MODEL Page 93 to understand this approach and noticed that the important points were highlighted and color coded. The teacher also drew attention to the fact that it may take learners a while to register a certain grammar point because English grammar is quite different from Turkish grammar. In conclusion, however, the teacher thinks that the Spot Model reached its aim because it provided a bridge between traditional grammar teaching and the discovery method.

Reflection

1. Do you think that you will be able to use the Spotlight model when you are teaching grammar? Why/Why not?

Practice Activity 1: Functions and structures This activity will help you to become more aware of the relationship between functions and structures

Can you match the functions with the appropriate structures?

Functions Structures 1. Suggesting a. If I had known, I would have … 2. Giving advice b. I have never been to Canada. 3. Apologizing c. Shall we …? 4. Requesting d. I am sorry. 5. Expressing regrets e. Let’s … 6. Expressing personal experiences f. You should g. I can’t say how sorry I am for … h. Would you mind …?

As you will have noticed, there may be more than one structure or form that corresponds to a function.

Page 94 TEACHING AND LEARNING GRAMMAR THROUGH THE SPOT (SLC) MODEL Practice Activity 2: Asking the Right Concept Questions Imagine that you are going to teach the function of “expressing personal experiences”, an example of which was given in the above exercise (I have never been to Canada). This function is usually covered in the syllabus of Grade 8 (See also Spot on 8). Let us also imagine that this function was given through a listening text in which a journalist is interviewing a celebrity. Learners see statements and questions using this function in this text some examples of which are “I have made a few films”; “I have not had a chance to work with the film director, James Smith.”; “Have you been to the top of a mountain?” or “Have you ever done a Broadway show?”

Which of the following questions would you ask in order to help students understanding the meaning of this function?

1. Is the celebrity saying he is sorry? 2. The speaker says, “I have made a few films.” Do you think the event belongs to the past or present? 3. Does the speaker speak in a formal or informal way? 4. Where do we put “ever” in the question? 5. Is the time of the event mentioned definite or indefinite? 6. Is the celebrity warning the interviewer?

As you will have noticed, the type of questions that are asked are not too complicated. Preferably, they should be short questions in Yes/Format or questions.

Conclusions and Implications for Further Research In this chapter, I have argued for a model of grammar teaching that addresses both form and function in teaching young learners of grades 6-8. As noted, it is also possible to use this model with adult learners since they have a more analytical approach to learning.

It must, however, be acknowledged that language awareness is a developmental skill and that changes in thinking are influenced by “maturation, experience with the physical world” and “social experience” (Eggen & Kauchak, 1999, 30). In addition, we must also consider that learners may not be ready for the “less explicit role for the teaching of grammar” and are looking for “a higher prominence for grammar in their lessons.” (Hawkey, 2006, 247). Further, it may be that “learners with high efficacy beliefs

TEACHING AND LEARNING GRAMMAR THROUGH THE SPOT (SLC) MODEL Page 95 of grammar” (Inceçay & Kesli Dollar, 2011, 3394) believe in the importance of grammar teaching as well as teachers (Borg, 1999; Phipps & Borg, 2009).

Nevertheless, the Spot Model can provide a means for bridging the gap between the need for accuracy and fluency. One major implication for both teaching and teacher education is that more attention needs to be paid to designing models for learning grammar as skill, which, to use Larsen-Freeman’s (2003, 2014) words is grammaring. In this way, we will have met the needs of our learners, whatever level of learning they may be at and reach our goals in communicative language teaching.

Page 96 TEACHING AND LEARNING GRAMMAR THROUGH THE SPOT (SLC) MODEL References

Batstone, R., & Ellis, R. (2009). Principled grammar teaching. System, 37, 194–204.

Borg, S. (1998). Teachers’ pedagogical systems and grammar teaching: A qualitative study. TESOL Quarterly, 32(1), 9–38.

Borg, S. (1999). Teachers’ theories in grammar teaching. ELT Journal, 53(3), 157-167.

Cohen, L., & Manion, L. (1990). Research methods in education. London, UK: Routledge.

Clandinin, J. D., & Connelly, M. F. M. (2000). Narrative inquiry: Experience and story in qualitative research. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Crystal, D. (2017). Making sense: The glamorous story of English grammar. London, UK: Profile Books.

Council of Europe. (2001). The Common European framework of reference for languages: Learning, teaching, assessment. Strasbourg, France: Cambridge University Press.

Cullen, R. (2012). Grammar instruction. In A. Burns & J. C. Richards (Eds.), The Cambridge guide to pedagogy and practice in second language teaching (pp. 258-268). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.

Eggen, P., & Kauchak, D. (1999). Educational psychology: Windows on classrooms. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prenctice Hall.

Ellis, R. (2006). Current issues in the teaching of grammar: An SLA perspective. TESOL Quarterly, 4(1), 83-107.

Ersöz, A., Çakır, A., Cephe, P. T., Gül Peker, B., & Özkan, N. (2006). English Language Curriculum for Primary Education (Grades 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8). Ankara: Turkish Ministry of National Education, Board of Education.

Gül Peker, B. (2015). Smooth or rough ride? A case of curriculum change in terms of emotional appraisals of learning tasks in learning grammar through the SPOT model. International Journal of Pedagogy and Curriculum, 22(1), 1-18.

Gül Peker, B. (2006). (Ed.). Spot-On 6: Student’s book; Workbook and Teacher’s book. İstanbul: Ministry of National Education.

Gül Peker, B. (2006). (Ed.). Spot-On 8: Student’s book; Workbook and Teacher’s book. İstanbul: Ministry of National Education.

TEACHING AND LEARNING GRAMMAR THROUGH THE SPOT (SLC) MODEL Page 97 Harmer, J. (2001). The practice of English language teaching. Essex, England: Pearson Education Limited.

Hawkey, R. (2006). Teacher and learner perceptions of language learning activity. ELT Journal, 60(3), 242 - 252.

İnceçay, V., & Keşli Dollar, Y. (2011). Foreign language learners’ beliefs about grammar instruction and error correction. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 15, 3394– 3398.

Larsen-Freeman, D. (2000). Techniques and principles in language teaching (2nd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Larsen-Freeman, D. (2003). Teaching language: From grammar to grammaring. Boston, MA: Heinle, Cengage Learning.

Larsen-Freeman, D. (2014). Teaching grammar. In M. Celce-Murcia (Ed.) (4th ed.), Teaching English as a second or foreign language (pp. 535-552). Boston, MA: National Geographic Learning & Heinle, Cengage Learning.

Phipps, S., & Borg, S. (2009). Exploring tensions between teachers’ grammar teaching beliefs and practices. System, 37, 380–390.

Pica, T. (2000). Tradition and transition in English language teaching methodology. System, 28, 1 – 18.

Richards, J., & Rodgers, T. (2001). Approaches and methods in language teaching (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Scrivener, J. (2005). Teaching English. A guidebook for English language teachers (2nd ed.). Oxford: Macmillan.

Thornbury, S. (2000). How to teach grammar. Harlow, Essex: Pearson Education Limited.

Webster, L., & Mertova, P. (2007). Using narrative ınquiry as a research method: An introduction to using critical event narrative analysis in research on learning and teaching. New York: Routledge.

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CHAPTER 7

AUTOMATED SCORING OF PRODUCTIVE SKILLS IN LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

OKAN ÖNALAN INDEPENDENT RESEARCHER

Okan Önalan is a teacher trainer and an educational consultant. His work has mainly focused on areas such as effective classroom communication skills, learner motivation, classroom management, language assessment and practical issues in language teaching field. His doctoral dissertation has been published under the name “Excuse Me! Am I Too Indirect?” and he has co-authored two English proficiency books. Dr. Önalan currently delivers teacher training workshops at various levels.

Pre-reading Questions

1. How is assessment of productive skills different from assessment of receptive skills? 2. What are the challenges of testing speaking and writing? 3. What is automated scoring? 4. What are Constructed-Response items? What purposes are they used for? 5. What are the differences between human scoring and machine scoring? 6. What is the most feasible model in combining human and automated scoring? 7. What features should an automated speech scoring system need to possess? 8. What implications can automated scoring systems bring to ELT?

Introduction In language testing, receptive skills (listening, reading) are usually tested by multiple-choice items with a focus on the comprehension aspect. The use of multiple-choice paradigm in the assessment of reading and listening comprehension has thrived for a couple of research-based reasons. Multiple-choice questions can be scored objectively and rapidly, and they provide a rich framework of statistical theory and test methods. Moreover, they lend themselves to low-cost online administration and instant scoring. Productive skills (speaking, writing), on the other hand, are harder to test through multiple-choice items because the concept challenges the sole aim of the assessment. Despite the attempts to use approximations (such as linking incomplete sentences), they cannot really test how genuinely a test taker can speak or write in the target language. Therefore, ‘‘constructed response” (CR) items have been developed where test takers produce samples of speech and written essays relating to a pre-specified task on a given topic.

AUTOMATED SCORING OF PRODUCTIVE SKILLS IN LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT Page 105 In standardized language tests, the utilization of constructed-response items has recently proliferated since research shows that the inclusion of CR items increases the depth of a test, or its face validity. In CR items, the test-taker produces a response rather than choosing from provided options, and this allows for the testing of productive skills which cannot be achieved through the use of only multiple-choice items (Lane & Stone, 2006). In other words, the increasing use of constructed-response tasks results from the conviction that they measure aspects of a construct that are not adequately addressed through multiple-choice items. CR items may include open-ended questions, structured performance tasks, and other kinds of free-response items that require examinees to display certain skills and knowledge. The response is usually captured through a document written on a computer, an audio file recorded on the computer, a computer- simulated scenario or some other format (Wang, Zechner & Sun, 2018).

Compared to their multiple-choice counterparts, CR tasks take longer to administer and score, which in turn prolongs score reporting time. There are several challenges with human scoring. First of all, human graders require expensive and prolonged phases of recruitment and training. The process is costly. The reporting time is significantly lengthy. Also, there are considerations about objectivity and consistency of human scorers, even if multiple human graders are assigned for each response (Williamson et al., 2010). Consequently, test developers have always been in search of better and more practical solutions to the scoring of CR items for testing speaking and writing.

Constructed Response (CR) Tasks and Automated Scoring There is another option for scoring CR items. Current developments in artificial intelligence (AI) and computing technology have generated a number of systems in which computers give scores to CR items. Automated scoring systems gradually enjoy a more widespread use due to their capabilities in producing quicker scores with a less costly process compared to human scoring. Automated scoring has some other advantages over human scoring such as “constant availability of scoring, greater score consistency, a higher degree of tractability of score logic for a given response that is not feasible under operational human scoring” (Educational Testing Service - ETS, 2012, p. 2). Furthermore, since automated scoring systems are relatively consistent, they lend themselves to analyses that are longitudinal in nature. Some implementational variations of such systems offer comprehensive data and such information can be used to give classroom, school, district, or state level decisions (Klaus, Higgins, Xi & Williamson, 2009).

Page 106 AUTOMATED SCORING OF PRODUCTIVE SKILLS IN LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT Since Project Essay Grade (Page, 1966) proved how well automated representations of the construct of writing could predict human grading, research on automated scoring systems has increased. At the initial stages, such applications were in automated scoring of written work (ETS, 2004; ETS, 2005; Rudner, Garcia, & Welch, 2006). However, recent research in natural language processing (NLP) & speech recognition capabilities has expanded the nature of constructed response tasks that are automatically scorable to include short answer tasks requiring factual information (Leacock, 2004; Leacock Chodorow, 2003) and tasks eliciting highly predictable speech. Driven by the availability of sophisticated delivery mechanisms, statistical methods, and technological innovations, there are currently a number of systems designed to automatically score both written and spoken CR tasks. The expanding use of automated scoring systems for high-stakes assessment suggests that he fundamental question of automated scoring for such applications is no longer “Can it be done?” but “How should it be done?” Rather, the big question is “What procedures are the current best practice for the evaluation and implementation of automated scoring?” (Williamson, Xi & Breyer, 2012, p.5).

Assessing Writing: Human vs Automated Scoring Automated scoring systems are widely used for scoring written responses. They demonstrate levels of agreement between automated scores and human scores (Patz, Junker, Johnson & Mariano, 2002; Omar, 2010). Studies on the agreement of machine and human essay scores suggest that automated scores and human scores agree as well as two humans agree with each other (Attali & Burstein, 2006; Dikli, 2006). Agreement with humans must not be the only validity criterion for machine scoring, as humans may miss some aspects of the writing construct that are better evaluated by a machine

AUTOMATED SCORING OF PRODUCTIVE SKILLS IN LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT Page 107 (ETS, 1997). Nonetheless, it is evident that humans can evaluate some aspects of writing, such as the logical structure of arguments, which cannot be efficiently evaluated by automated scoring systems. In investigating the quality of the machine scores, it is usually assessed how well machine and human scores from one occasion predict human scores on a different essay administered at a different time. Attali and Burstein (2006) used the automated essay scoring system developed at the Educational Testing Service (ETS), e-rater®, to compare pairs of essays from 1,987 students in grades 6–12. The average of two human scores from the first administration correlated 0.58 with two human scores from the second administration while the e-rater score correlated 0.56 with the same criterion.

Some other studies have been carried out on the connection as well as the difference between automated and human scoring (ETS, 2007; Attali & Burstein, 2006; Burstein & Chodorow, 1999; Chodorow & Burstein, 2004). Attali, Bridgeman and Trapani (2010) found that common e-rater scoring models created comparable scores to human scores. Ramineni and Williamson (ETS, 2018) found significant differences among mean scores between machine scoring and human raters for essays written by certain demographic groups and investigated the reasons of these differences. Ramineni et al. (ETS, 2012) designed a study using a version of e-rater® and evaluated the performance of automated scoring against human raters across different demographic groups. Although these studies reveal that certain automated scoring systems perform about as well as human raters in operational scoring, both need to be monitored carefully for quality assurance, especially for high-stakes test.

There may be various approaches to score the writing tests using automated scoring systems. Haberman (ETS, 2011), for example, concludes that adding additional human scoring is needed only when machine scores and human scores show discrepancy and such scoring should be minimized as much as possible. Similarly, Williamson et al. (2012) have suggested “a generalizable framework for the evaluation and use of automated scoring . . . through summaries of operational criteria, policies, and practices” for the evaluation and use of automated scoring (p. 11). What is more, they have discussed how a combination of automated scoring and human scoring might differ from other methods of automated scoring (Attali, 2014). Consequently, agreement with humans remains as an important consideration in the evaluation of automated scores, even though it should not be the only consideration (Bridgeman, Trapani & Attali, 2012).

Page 108 AUTOMATED SCORING OF PRODUCTIVE SKILLS IN LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT Assessing Speaking: Human vs. Automated Scoring There are two general models of automated scoring systems for speech: machine scoring of predictable and unpredictable (high-entropy) speech. Tasks that assess comparatively predictable speech involve read-aloud tasks, short answers to specific questions, repeating spoken prompts, paraphrasing spoken texts, and tasks in which the student describes a picture or other situation in which there is a specific range of possible correct responses. When the automated scoring systems are appropriately trained and standardized, automated scoring for predictable speech can provide sufficient results for consequential assessment (Wang, Zechner & Sun, 2018). The responses are scored primarily for the intelligibility and linguistic forms of spoken English, but they also can assess domain content (Cheng, Chen & Metallinou, 2015). Automated scoring systems on unpredictable speech, on the other hand, have not yet been prevalent for high-stakes assessments.

An automated speech scoring approach can produce more valid results if it is applied to speaking tasks that can be effectively assessed by current automated scoring capabilities. In this sense, there are some features that an automated speech scoring system needs to possess for unpredictable speech responses with essay features (Zechner, Higgins, Xi & Williamson, 2009). First of all, it should accurately recognize the words spoken by the test-taker using automatic speech recognition (ASR). Also, it needs to distinguish the opinion and supporting ideas in the speech. Finally, they need to be able to evaluate the relevance and appropriateness of the justifications provided by the student. Unless the automated scoring system can collect evidence on these three aspects and evaluate them, then the task scoring capabilities cannot be evidence-based. If the automated scoring system, thus, cannot evaluate the construct that the task is intended to elicit, the test will eventually have low validity (ETS, 2017).

AUTOMATED SCORING OF PRODUCTIVE SKILLS IN LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT Page 109 Automated scoring technology can be utilized for testing speaking through several means to improve English-language learning and assessment. Certain modes of scoring and score reporting need to be used, depending on how automated scoring is implemented. The main question here is whether automated scoring is to be used as the only scoring mechanism for a speaking assessment (a fully automated approach) or in combination with human rating (a hybrid approach). A fully automated approach is appealing due to rapid scoring capabilities and low-cost it brings. Nevertheless, if the construct cannot be properly assessed by task types that automated scoring can provide valid results, some degree of human involvement will be indispensable to safeguard the validity of the test (ETS, 2013).

Hybrid approaches can take various forms. In the first approach, human raters act as backup to the automated system when the response is flagged by the machine scoring. Another approach is called the hybrid approach, where both human and machine scoring is combined. There are two variations in this category depending on whether the automated score is used as a contributory score or a confirmatory score (Yoon & Zechner, 2017). A complementary hybrid scoring approach, each spoken response is scored by either a human rater or the automated scoring system and the score for the speaking section is further computed based on a weighted combination of the scores from all of the responses. This format can be applied when the automated scoring system can produce valid scores for a portion of the items in the speaking section. However, this variation may require construct-relevant features to score the others (ETS, 2017).

Page 110 AUTOMATED SCORING OF PRODUCTIVE SKILLS IN LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT Implications on ELT Research shows that instructional and constructive feedback is a significantly efficient way of improving speaking and writing skills (e. g., Wilson, Olinghouse & Andrada, 2014; Graham, Harris & Hebert, 2011). Unfortunately, this process places an enormous workload on classroom instructors who are in charge of reading and correcting a large number of essays and listening to numerous spoken presentations as well as preparing clear and transparent evaluation rubrics for such tasks. Here, giving instructional feedback is not only time-consuming but also problematic due to inconsistency and instructor- centeredness (Wilson et al., 2014; Grimes & Warschauer, 2008; Lee, Wong, Cheung & Lee, 2009). The degree to which instructors provide accurate and comprehensive feedback also remains unclear. To overcome such issues automated scoring systems can be utilized as a part of foreign language instruction.

Teachers can assign students written or spoken tasks and ask them to complete the assignments using automated scoring systems. Later, the teacher can select good or poor essays/performances based on the evaluation of the automated scoring systems and comment on them in class. Individualized feedback, as well as group work, is feasible. Teachers can summarize and comment on the problems concerning the performances and then help students to solve these problems. In fact, the use of automated scoring system can save the teachers’ time and energy to help the students to improve their productive skills more efficiently. This, in turn, may facilitate student autonomy through the use of personalized process-based feedback. In terms of the language instruction, higher levels of improvement can be achieved in productive skills by a combination of computer scoring and teachers’ evaluation.

AUTOMATED SCORING OF PRODUCTIVE SKILLS IN LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT Page 111 References Attali, Y. (2014). Reliability-based feature weighting for automated essay scoring. Applied Psychological Measurement, 39(4), 303-313. Attali, Y., & Burstein, J. (2006). Automated essay scoring with e-rater V.2. Journal of Technology, Learning, and Assessment (JTLA), 4(3), 1-31. Attali, Y., Bridgeman, B., & Trapani, C. (2010). Performance of a generic approach in automated scoring. Journal of Technology, Learning, and Assessment, 10(3), 1–16. Bridgeman, B., Trapani, C., & Attali, Y. (2012). Comparison of human and machine scoring of essays: Differences by gender, ethnicity, and country. Applied Measurement in Education, 25(1), 27-40. Burstein, J., & Chodorow, M. (1999). Automated essay scoring for nonnative English speakers. In M. Broman Olsen (Ed.), Computer mediated language assessment and evaluation in natural language processing (pp. 68–75). Morristown, NJ: Association for Computational Linguistics. Cheng, J., Chen, X., & Metallinou, A. (2015). Deep neural network acoustic models for spoken assessment applications. Speech Communication, 73, 14–27. Dikli, S. (2006). An overview of automated scoring of essays. The Journal of Technology, Learning, and Assessment, 5(1), 1-36. Educational Testing Service (ETS). (1997). Validity and automated scoring: It’s not only the scoring (ETS RR- 97–13). Princeton, NJ: Bennett, R., & Bejar, I. Retrieved from https:// www.ets.org/research/policy_ research_reports/publications/article/1998/cnof Educational Testing Service (ETS). (2004). Beyond essay length: Evaluating e-rater’s performance on TOEFL essays (TOEFL Research Report No. RR-73, ETS RR-04-04). Princeton, NJ: Chodorow, M., & Burstein, J. Retrieved from https://www.ets.org/ research/policy_research_reports/publications/report/2004/hsh Educational Testing Service (ETS). (2005). Automated essay scoring with e-rater V.2.0 (ETS RR-04-45). Princeton, NJ: Attali, Y. & Burstein, J. Retrieved from https://www. ets.org/research/policy_research_ reports/publications/report/2005/hyzh Educational Testing Service (ETS). (2007). Construct validity of e-rater in scoring TOEFL essays (Research Report No. RR–07–21). Princeton, NJ: Attali, Y. Retrieved from https:// www.ets.org/research/policy_research_reports/publications/report/2007/hsmn Educational Testing Service (ETS). (2011). Use of e-rater in scoring of the TOEFL iBT writing test (Research Report No. RR–11–25). Princeton, NJ: Haberman, S. Retrieved from https://www.ets.org/research/ policy_research_reports/publications/report/2011/itjk

Page 112 AUTOMATED SCORING OF PRODUCTIVE SKILLS IN LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT Educational Testing Service (ETS). (2012). Evaluation of e-rater for the GRE issue and argument prompts (Research Report No. RR–12–06). Princeton, NJ: Ramineni, C., Trapani, C., Williamson, D. M., Davey, T., & Bridgeman, B. Retrieved from https:// www.ets.org/research/policy_research_reports/publications/ chapter/2014/jsos Educational Testing Service (ETS). (2013). Creating a next‐generation system of K–12 English learner language proficiency assessments. Princeton, NJ: Hauck, M. C., Wolf, M. K. & Mislevy, R. Retrieved from https://www.ets.org/research/policy_research_ reports/publications/report/2016/jvzx Educational Testing Service (ETS). (2017). Approaches to automated scoring of speaking for K–12 English language proficiency assessments. (Research Report No. RR–17–18). Princeton, NJ: Evanini, K., Hauck, M. C. & Hakuta, K. Retrieved from https://www.ets. org/research/policy_research_reports/ publications/report/2017/jxrn Educational Testing Service (ETS). (2018). Understanding Mean Score Differences Between the e-rater® Automated Scoring Engine and Humans for Demographically Based Groups in the GRE General Test (ETS GRE Board Research Report No. RR–18–12). Princeton, NJ: Ramineni, C. & Williamson, D. Retrieved from https://www.ets.org/research/ policy_research_reports/publications/report/2018/jzbh Graham, S., Harris, K. R., & Hebert, M. (2011). Informing writing: The benefits of formative assessment. Washington, DC: Alliance for Excellence in Education. Grimes, D., & Warschauer, M. (2008). Learning with laptops: A multi-method case study. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 38(3), 305-332. http://dx.doi.org/10.2190/ EC.38.3.d. Klaus, Z., Higgins, D., Xi, X., & Williamson, D.M. (2009). Automatic scoring of non-native spontaneous speech in tests of spoken English. Speech Communication, 51, 883-895. Lane, S., & Stone, C. A. (2006). Performance assessment. In R. L. Brennan (Ed.), Educational measurement (4th Ed., pp. 387–431). Westport, CT: Praeger. Leacock, C. (2004). Scoring free-responses automatically: A case study of a large-scale assessment. Examens, 1(3), 1-9. Leacock, C., & Chodorow, M. (2003). C-rater: Scoring of short-answer questions. Computers and the Humanities, 37(4), 389–405. Lee, C., Wong, K., Cheung, W., & Lee, F. (2009). Web-based essay critiquing system and EFL students’ writing: A quantitative and qualitative investigation. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 22, 57-72. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09588220802613807 Omar, M. H. (2010). Statistical process control charts for measuring and monitoring temporal consistency of ratings. Journal of Educational Measurement, 47(1), 18–35.

AUTOMATED SCORING OF PRODUCTIVE SKILLS IN LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT Page 113 Page, E.B. (1966). The imminence of grading essays by computer. Phi Delta Kappan , 47, 238–243. Patz, R. J., Junker, B. W., Johnson, M. J., & Mariano, L. T. (2002). The hierarchical rater model for rated test items and its application to large-scale educational assessment data. Journal of Educational and Behavioral Statistics, 27, 341–384. Rudner, L. M., Garcia, V., & Welch, C. (2006). An evaluation of the intellimetric essay scoring system. Journal of Technology, Learning and Assessment, 4(4), 1-22. Wang, Z., Zechner, K., & Sun, Y. (2018). Monitoring the performance of human and automated scores for spoken responses. Language Testing, 35(1), 101–120. Williamson, D. M., Xi, X., & Breyer, F. J. (2012). A framework for evaluation and use of automated scoring. Educational Measurement: Issues and Practice, 31(1), 2–13. Williamson, D. M., Bennett, R. E., Lazer, S., Bernstein, J., Foltz, P., Landauer, T.K., Rubin, D. P., Way, W. D., & Sweeney, K. (2010). Automated Scoring for the Assessment of Common Core Standards. Retrieved from https://www.ets.org/research/policy_ research_reports/publications/paper/2010/izph Wilson, J., Olinghouse N. G., & Andrada, G. N. (2014). Does automated feedback improve writing quality? Learning Disabilities: A Contemporary Journal, 12, 93-118. Yoon, S.Y., & Zechner, K. (2017). Combining human and automated scores for the improved assessment of non-native speech. Speech Communication, 93, 43-52. Zechner, K., Higgins, D., Xi, X., & Williamson D.M. (2009). Automatic scoring of non- native spontaneous speech in tests of spoken English. Speech Communication, 51(10), 883-895.

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Page 114 AUTOMATED SCORING OF PRODUCTIVE SKILLS IN LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT CHAPTER 8

SOME PATTERNS OF LANGUAGE ALTERNATION PRACTICES BY TURKISH EFL LEARNERS

Vildan İNCİ KAVAK GAZİANTEP UNIVERSITY

Vildan İnci Kavak works as an instructor in the School of Foreign Languages at Gaziantep University. She received her BA and MA degrees in ELT from Muğla Sıtkı Koçman University and continues her PhD in ELT at Çukurova University. She is also a holder of Cambridge DELTA, which she received from Leeds Metropolitan (Beckett) University, England. Among her research interests are Conversation Analysis, teacher professional development, first & second language acquisition and teaching English to young learners.

Eda ÜSTÜNEL MUĞLA SITKI KOÇMAN UNIVERSITY

Eda Üstünel is a Professor of Applied Linguistics at Muğla Sıtkı Koçman University, Turkey. She is the Director of School of Foreign Languages. She holds an MA (Lancaster University, UK, 2001) and a PhD (Newcastle University, UK, 2005). She published a book entitled “EFL Classroom Code-Switching” by Palgrave MacMillan in 2016. She has presented at various international conferences and published several book chapters at international academic books. Her research interests are code- switching in language classrooms, foreign language teacher education and conversation analysis methodology.

Pre-reading Questions

1. What is language alternation? What are the functions of language alternation?

2. What are the participant-related and discourse-related functions of language alternation?

3. What is the difference between the language of the product and the language of the pro- cess?

4. What is Sociocultural Theory and its impact on education?

5. What is Social Constructivism and its impact on education?

6. What do we mean by actual developmental level and potential development level? Is there any difference between them?

7. What is the relationship between ZPD and scaffolding?

8. How can teachers decide on the amount of scaffolding?

9. What are the advantages of language alternation?

10. What is CA-for-SLA? What is the difference between CA-inspired approaches and CA-in- formed approaches to SLA?

11. What does CA offer to researchers in analyzing data?

12. What is teacher-induced code-switching?

Introduction This chapter aims to show how English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners alternate between a foreign language (L2) and their native language (L1) to perform certain pragmatic functions and counter-balance their language deficiencies. With this aim in mind, EFL classroom extracts featuring learners’ language alternation are categorized according to their pedagogical functions. In addition, the study exemplifies three pedagogical categories in relation to the functions of learners’ language alternation practices.

SOME PATTERNS OF LANGUAGE ALTERNATION PRACTICES BY TURKISH EFL LEARNERS Page 117 Research shows that switching between different languages is a common language behaviour that occurs in any normal interaction between speakers who share knowledge of the same languages (Bozorgian & Fallahpour, 2015). Language alternation in the current study refers to any employment of switching between two distinctive languages which EFL learners use during the classroom interaction. They may employ language alternation as a medium or as a deviance (which is either medium repair or interactional otherness) for local interactional purposes (Gafaranga, 2000; Gafaranga & Torras, 2002). Interactional otherness can be an instance of medium-switching or an instance of medium-suspension. Gafaranga (2000) and Gafaranga & Torras (2002) refer to these two categories as code-switching. Following Gafaranga’s definitions, examples of ‘interactional otherness’ phenomena are treated as examples of switching in this chapter. Our analysis is thus framed within an interactional perspective on switching from a conversation analytic perspective. This allows us to view EFL learners’ switching as an instance of locally emerging and contingent accommodation between participants in the institutional context of L2 classroom interactions.

Learners’ Language Alternation Practices In the literature, the studies on learners’ language alternation practices focus on different perspectives, including language learning opportunities (Kasper, 2004; Mori, 2004), discourse-related and participant-related functions (Dailey-O’Cain & Liebscher, 2009; Fuller, 2009; Kunitz, 2013; Liebscher & Dailey-O’Cain, 2005) and as the medium of instruction that is co-constructed by the participants (Bonacina & Gafaranga, 2011; Cromdal, 2005; Kunitz, 2013; Nevile & Wagner, 2011).

Firstly, focusing on and revealing how learners’ language alternation and conduct create opportunities for L2 learning, Mori (2004) investigated a peer interactive task in a Japanese as a Foreign Language classroom in North America. Her analysis demonstrated the nature of collaboration that takes place in learner interactive talk, showing how different types of talk generated side-sequences, which were socially constructed to deal with language problems. Her findings reveal that the learners tended to employ language alternation (specifically, switches to the L1) as a resource for managing the sequential boundaries of talk when moving in and out of side-sequences. The vocal and non-vocal conduct of Mori’s participants during these sequences demonstrated their converging and diverging orientations towards the various types of learning

Page 118 SOME PATTERNS OF LANGUAGE ALTERNATION PRACTICES BY TURKISH EFL LEARNERS opportunities that emerge in and through talk-in-interaction. In addition, there were moments when the learners switched to the L2 in front of the teacher. These actions, as Mori explained, indicated their respect for or orientation to the “target language only” policy. Their language alternation, thus, demonstrates the unnecessary hindrances that this policy may cause.

Similarly, Kasper (2004) also examined the initial segment of a Gesprächsrunde, a dyadic “conversation-for-learning” (p. 552) conducted between a beginning learner of German as a Foreign Language and a native speaker of German. During their conversation, a German-only policy was not enforced. In this study, Kasper focused on how native and non-native participants in a conversation used language shift as a resource for L2 learning. Her findings demonstrated various patterns of language switches in the participants’ orientations to social identities, discourse-related issues and learning activities. In addition, the participants’ language alternation (specifically the switches to the L1) was used in two ways: one, as a resource to manage their participation within limited L2 means and two, to initiate a metalingual exchange so that they could have more access to language learning opportunities and maintain the flow of the ongoing interaction.

Using conversation analysis (CA), other researchers also show that L2 learners employ language alternation in L2 classroom interaction not only as a solution for L2 learning opportunities but also for other participant-related and discourse-related functions (Dailey-O’Cain & Liebscher, 2009; Liebscher & Dailey-O’Cain, 2005). In the interactional context, language alternation has participant-related functions that correspond to the linguistic preferences and proficiencies of the interlocutors in the conversation. In addition to the participant-related functions, language alternation has discourse-related functions as well. For instance, it serves as a resource for promoting better interactional meaning of a particular participant’s utterance in the structural organization of interactions (Auer, 1984). These functions of language alternation have been revealed in a number of studies focusing on learners of different proficiency levels. Focusing on learners at a lower level of proficiency (4th and 5th grade classrooms in German-English bilingual programmes in Germany), Fuller (2009), for example, found that these learners used language alternation both to structure conversation and to construct social identities (discourse-related functions). Both discourse-related and participant-related functions were identified during the alternation of languages by intermediate language students in a Canadian university (Dailey-O’Cain & Liebscher, 2009), advanced learners in a content-based German language classroom (Liebscher & Dailey-O’Cain, 2005), and

SOME PATTERNS OF LANGUAGE ALTERNATION PRACTICES BY TURKISH EFL LEARNERS Page 119 learners of different language proficiency levels in an Italian as a Foreign Language classroom (Kunitz, 2013). For instance, when given permission to alternate between languages the students in Liebscher & Dailey-O’Cain’s (2005) study not only switched to the L1 when dealing with language trouble in L2, they also did so to indicate their change in orientation towards the interaction and towards each other, thus serving participant- related functions. They also employed language alternation to achieve topic shifts, role shifts, asides, quotations, punch lines and disagreements—all discourse-related functions. In other words, the functions of these learners’ language alternation emerged as a consequence of their participation in a community of practice (Wenger, 1998, as cited in Liebscher & Dailey-O’Cain, 2005, p.236) in which there was shared understanding about the purpose of interaction in L2 learning. What can be concluded from these studies is that regardless of differences in language proficiency, learners employ similar patterns of language alternation for both participant and discourse-related functions as interactional skills in the organization of their conversation.

In some CA studies, researchers found that there was a distinction between the language of the product and the language of the process when learners employed language alternation. Cromdal’s (2005) study of a fourth grade classroom at an English school in Sweden provides such an example. This study reveals that there was a division of labour between the two languages, which learners were free to choose to speak while engaged in the production of a written report. Specifically, English was used exclusively to produce the proper text (the final required product) while Swedish was used for other forms of interaction. Similarly, Fuller (2009) also identified the process versus product distinction as a common pattern of language alternation in German-English bilingual programmes in Germany. Moreover, in describing the local interactional order constructed by groups of children in a French complementary classroom in Scotland, Bonacina & Gafaranga (2011) found three different patterns of language choice. In this classroom, the policy-prescribed medium of instruction was French. However, during talk that was actually observed in this classroom, French, English or both French and English were used to achieve different functional goals. Consequently, Bonacina & Gafaranga (2011) defined the notion of medium of classroom interaction as an alternative to that of medium of instruction; “as the ‘linguistic code’ that classroom participants actually orient to while talking as opposed to the policy-prescribed medium of instruction” (pp. 330-331). Thus, as Cromdal (2005) noted, there is the need to attend to the situated practices through which language alternation is produced as a meaningful type of action within the local order of interaction.

Page 120 SOME PATTERNS OF LANGUAGE ALTERNATION PRACTICES BY TURKISH EFL LEARNERS In conclusion, the studies focusing on learners’ language alternation practices in L2 classroom interaction reviewed above have revealed that this kind of practice is employed either for creating opportunities for L2 learning or for serving specific participant or discourse-related functions. The data analysed in this chapter exemplify various language alternation practices of Turkish EFL learners, confirming the findings of previous research. The original contribution of this study to the literature is in its examination of a classroom where the teacher never switches while the students are free to alternate between L1 and L2 whenever they find it appropriate to do so. The study is located within a social constructivist paradigm that draws on CA research approaches.

Sociocultural Theory and its Applications in the L2 Context Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory (SCT) has hugely influenced the field of education. It would not be wrong to say that his most remarkable contribution to the field is the concept of the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD). Vygotsky (1978) defines ZPD as “the distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem-solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers” (p. 86). The learner’s actual developmental level represents her/his mental functions at present, while the level of potential development shows the functions that are not currently ready to use, as they have not matured yet. In the EFL context, fluency in L2 can be regarded as the level of potential development while students’ current level is the one at which they use L1 as a resource to reach the level they aim for.

Vygotsky’s ideas have been widely referenced in the field of education. Wertsch and Hikmann (1987, as cited in Ohta, 2000) claim that a teacher can only decide on a learner’s ZPD by negotiating through collaborative interaction. This helps the teacher notice what the learner can do on their own versus with assistance. Knowing the limitations of their students can help teachers encourage them to fulfil their potential to the limits of their ZPD (Shayer, 2002), as well as to decide on the level of scaffolding needed, because scaffolding can be “used most effectively when it is tailored depending on learners’ needs in response to learner development” (Lantolf & Aljaafreh, 1996).

The ZPD should not be considered as a non-interactive interpersonal space (Ohta, 2005). Instead, knowing how the mechanisms of ZPD work in the process of development will help learners manage their own ZPD. Hence, they become aware of their own needs and

SOME PATTERNS OF LANGUAGE ALTERNATION PRACTICES BY TURKISH EFL LEARNERS Page 121 start to look for solutions. In this research, the learners fulfil all these needs by asking for scaffolding by alternating the language.

Sociocultural theory also puts forward that education is not only about theories, but about teaching learners how they can learn on their own and continue to learn (Williams & Burden, 1997). Vygotsky (1962, p. 150) argues that “direct teaching of concepts is impossible and fruitless. A teacher who tries to do this usually accomplishes nothing but empty verbalism, a parrot like repetition of words by the child, simulating a knowledge of the corresponding concepts but actually covering up a vacuum”.

Scaffolding and its Use in the Language Classroom Assistance in ZPD is called scaffolding in L2 classrooms (Wood et al., 1976). ZPD and scaffolding have often been used interchangeably and they refer to the same notion in this study. In the most general terms, scaffolding works as an instructional structure in the classroom. For example, teacher models the target language or demonstrates tasks and then gradually decreases the assistance and encourages learners to take more responsibility. That’s why, teacher manages the amount of scaffolding as well as the amount of CS in the class. Scaffolding and language alternation offer the following advantage (McKenzie, 1999):

• provide clear directions for students; • clarify purpose of the task; • keep students on task; • offer assessment to clarify expectations; • point students to worthy sources; • reduce uncertainty, surprise and disappointment; • deliver efficiency; • create momentum.

Vygotsky suggests that more capable peers “nudge” their peers perform better or undertake a task in the ZPD in a social interaction. The participants in this study have also shown that a more able learner assists a less able one by scaffolding. The learner tries to improve conditions in which her/his peers (novice) can participate in and extend their skills. In his defense of this phenomenon, Donato (1994) also advocates that collaborative

Page 122 SOME PATTERNS OF LANGUAGE ALTERNATION PRACTICES BY TURKISH EFL LEARNERS work among learners give them opportunity as much as the scaffolded help provided by teacher as in expert-novice relationships in real life. However, “peer assistance” (Ohta, 2001, p. 88) becomes unnecessary if a learner is capable of performing a task on her/his own, so it may not be validated by the teacher.

Social Constructivism as a Research Paradigm A ‘paradigm’ (Lincoln, Lynham, & Guba, 2011) offers a fundamental set of beliefs that direct our actions, affect our research perspectives (Creswell, 2013), and affect how knowledge is examined and interpreted (Mertens, 1998). The selection of an appropriate paradigm is essential as it helps researchers to identify “the intent, motivation and expectations for the research” (Mackenzie & Knipe, 2006, p.194). For the present purposes, we may differentiate between four kinds of research paradigms: post- positivism, interpretivist/constructivism, transformism, and pragmatism (Creswell, 2014). Among these paradigms, constructivism or social constructivism (Creswell, 2013) is the philosophical stance that underpins the present study. According to Lincoln, Lynham, and Guba (2011), social constructivism is a set of beliefs on ontology, epistemology, methodology and axiology.

This study uses an approach called CA-for-Second Language Acquisition (CA-for-SLA) (Markee & Kasper, 2004) that aims to show “how the social organization of talk-in- interaction either shapes or contributes to language learning processes” (Mori & Markee, 2009, p. 1). At the centre of this approach is language learning behaviour, which “is presumed to be a fundamental social enterprise, jointly constructed and intrinsically linked to learners’ repeated and regular participation in their classroom activities” (Hall & Verplaetse, 2000, p. 11). CA-for-SLA is not a homogeneous approach or theory (Markee & Kasper, 2004), although an emerging number of CA-related studies dealing with second and foreign language learning have been carried out. A key question for CA practitioners in the field is whether, and to what extent, external theories have to be considered. Mori & Markee (2009) distinguish between two emerging tendencies: CA-inspired approaches to SLA, which are (relatively) purist or CA native; and CA- informed approaches to SLA, where CA is used “as a technical tool that provides the methodological muscle for a priori theories of SLA” (Mori & Markee, 2009, p. 2). In this study, we use CA as an aid that helps us to see the patterns that eventually allow us to draw a valid conclusion about the functions of language alternation.

SOME PATTERNS OF LANGUAGE ALTERNATION PRACTICES BY TURKISH EFL LEARNERS Page 123 The social constructivists’ fundamental intention is to understand social phenomena from a context-specific perspective through the participants’ views (Creswell, 2014; Lodico et al., 2010). Reality is socially constructed by multiple individuals (Lodico et al., 2010); therefore, researchers need to be involved in the reality of the participants (Lodico et al., 2010) to understand and interpret what people say or do in the specific contexts of their own life settings (Creswell, 2014). From a CA perspective, “learning is situated; learning is social; and knowledge is located in communities of practice” (Brouwer & Wagner, 2004, p. 33). Learning is also conceptualized as an “interactional phenomenon”. So, language learning and teaching, and language alternation practices can be considered as social processes that constitute aspects of the social world through social interaction (Brouwer & Wagner, 2004). Regarding the methodology of social constructivism, the methodological procedures for this research are characterized as inductive, emerging and context-based (Creswell, 2013). With a special focus on the context of the study, we examine data which is locally situated and naturally emerging during EFL classroom interaction.

Conversation Analysis as the Main Methodological Approach Micro-analyses of the data in this study were conducted in keeping with the CA approach to language alternation proposed by Auer (1984). The purpose was to reveal the detailed moment-by-moment development of EFL learners’ language alternation sequentially organized in and through their talk-in-interaction in the L2 classroom. The main reason for adopting this methodological approach is that researchers in the CA tradition are interested in analysing the details of language as naturally-occurring interactions, embracing both verbal and non-verbal conduct in talk. In particular, by adopting the emic perspective to interaction, which is a fundamental analytical principle in CA (Heritage, 1987; ten Have, 2007), conversation analysts can make the details of learners’ orientations to language alternation visible; they can also show how it is sequentially organized, and when and how learners perform it.

Research Context: EFL in Turkish Private Schools The most commonly taught foreign language in Turkey is English. It is offered in public schools from the second grade (age 7) onwards (until the end of high school), making it a core subject throughout the 12 years of compulsory primary and secondary education (4+4+4). A second foreign language is also introduced to learners if they choose a language-based module in high school.

Page 124 SOME PATTERNS OF LANGUAGE ALTERNATION PRACTICES BY TURKISH EFL LEARNERS At private schools and colleges, where a policy of ‘the earlier the better’ is frequently adopted, learners begin learning English as early as the kindergarten years. It is not rare to see that very young learners such as those aged four to five have English lessons two or three times a week in the private system. Increasing numbers of parents and learners in Turkey are coming to terms with the criticality of learning a foreign language such as English for a successful professional career. Indeed, in addition to bringing high status to the individual in social terms, foreign language proficiency is seen to play an important role in extending job opportunities for individuals. It is one of the most apparent motives behind the growing number of families’ insistence on registering their children in private language schools in Turkey. However, a study carried out by the British Council in 2015 with the support of the Economic Policy Research Foundation of Turkey (TEPAV) and the Turkish Ministry of National Education (British Council, 2015), has revealed that the practice of teaching English in Turkish public schools is in urgent need of improvement.

Language schools cater to the needs of different learners, who prefer to learn English in better equipped, more modern classrooms with teachers who are more motivated than those who teach in public schools. Language schools also provide a wide range of English language classes, including English for Specific Purposes (ESP), and university- level language courses which focus on academic, vocational or general language skills. The majority of English teachers in private and public institutions are native Turkish speakers. However, in a recently observed trend in the country, one or more native English speaking teachers, as well as non-native English speaking teachers of different nationalities other than Turkish, have begun to be recruited in language schools.

The use of the mother tongue by teachers and learners in this context varies considerably in correspondence to the educational focus and policy of the language school. For example, in the case of an exam-based language course, the main concern is the student’s overall success in the specific components of the exams such as the YDS (Foreign Language Exam by the Student Selection and Placement Centre). This exam assesses the level of learners by using reading, vocabulary and grammar questions but does not assess listening, speaking and writing skills. In such a context, the use of English as the medium of teaching does not serve a communicative purpose. In contrast, in EFL classes where the focus is on communication, the use of the target language is generally a requirement as set out in the institutional policy, and it constitutes the key element of the institution’s marketing strategy. In these cases, the use of the L1 is discouraged in the classroom because L2 is considered the default language.

SOME PATTERNS OF LANGUAGE ALTERNATION PRACTICES BY TURKISH EFL LEARNERS Page 125 The language school where the data for this study have been collected is an example of the latter. The school offers English classes where lessons are planned and taught in accordance with the criteria of the European Language Portfolio. Speaking and listening are prioritized over other language skills in order to generate an environment for students to advance their communication skills in L2.

Background Information on the Data In Turkey, most of the learners are exposed to English in the classroom as they have limited opportunities for practicing foreign languages in their daily lives. According to Macaro (2001, p. 537), “after a certain threshold of teacher L1 use, there is a rise in student L1 use with possible effects on learning”. Consistent with this statement, some language schools in Turkey have a general policy of requiring the teacher to speak English as the medium of instruction to maximize students’ contact with the target language. On the other hand, there is generally encouragement, or at times a teacher’s insistence that students should make their decisions about whether to use English or Turkish in EFL classes at private language schools. In this research context, teacher’s switching is discouraged in the classroom unless students are at a very low level such as A1 in the European Common Framework of Reference for Foreign Languages (Council of Europe, 2001). In the data for this study, the teacher avoids switching between L1 and L2 to ensure that learners receive the maximum L2 exposure. Nevertheless, the students often switch between Turkish and English. The data also confirm that switching is frequently employed by students in various situations such as answering questions, talking to or in discussion with their peers, commenting on topics and asking permission.

The Dataset The extracts analysed in this study are derived from the dataset of an MA thesis (İnci- Kavak, 2016). The data come from MP3 recordings of learners while performing various tasks alone, in pairs or in groups in the classroom. In the selected research setting, there is no official teaching method that the teacher is supposed to follow; however, there is an institutional policy that encourages as much L2 use as possible in teaching. Lessons are designed to integrate four skills, so the teacher is expected to plan her lessons focusing on the development of reading, writing, speaking, and listening equally in the lessons.

Page 126 SOME PATTERNS OF LANGUAGE ALTERNATION PRACTICES BY TURKISH EFL LEARNERS The class was recorded for two months. Sixteen teaching hours (40 minutes each) have been transcribed and studied to identify the patterns featuring the different functions of learner’s language alternation. Questionnaires were also utilized to describe the profile of the learners in greater detail. However, the results of questionnaires are not used in this study as the purpose here is to document the language alternation patterns that learners use in the immediate context of classroom interaction. Thus, classroom recordings are used as the only source of data in this chapter.

Some Patterns of Language Alternation Practices by Turkish EFL Learners 1. Language alternation as a means of scaffolding

Vygotsky (1978, p. 6) defines the zone of proximal development (ZPD) as “the distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem- solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers”. The learners’ actual developmental level represents what they are currently capable of, while the level of potential development refers to the functions that are not currently ready to be used. In the research context of this study, namely, in a Turkish EFL classroom, the teacher is a competent user of the L2 who functions as an expert. In relation to the teacher, students are novices. However, that some students are more proficient than others, which means that they are able in certain cases to scaffold their peers by switching to the L1 within their peer’s ZPDs. Extracts 1 and 2 are examples of such cases.

In the empirical examples that follow, we can see how a more proficient learner assists a less able peer by switching in order to scaffold his/her peer’s talk. Extracts 1 and 2 are examples of such cases. Scaffolding is the support given during the learning process, which is tailored to the needs of the learner with the intention of helping the learner achieve his/her learning goals (Sawyer, 2006). In his discussion of this phenomenon, Donato (1994) argues that collaborative work among learners gives them as much of an opportunity to learn as the kind of scaffolding that is provided by teacher-experts.

SOME PATTERNS OF LANGUAGE ALTERNATION PRACTICES BY TURKISH EFL LEARNERS Page 127 Practice Activity 1

Analyse the following extract and identify the language patterns where a more proficient learner assists a less proficient one by scaffolding.

Extract 1:

1 T : um so: well you can say I can help

2 L4 : help olur mu?

Trans : is help acceptable?

3 T : well you can say yeah

4 → L2 : ya da sonunda for help gibi bişey ekleyebilirsin

Trans : or you can add `for help’ in the end

5 T : uh huh

(İnci-Kavak, 2016, p.52)

The classroom can be regarded as a community in which learners share some common goals. One of these goals is linked to their main reason for enrolling in the course and being present for instruction in the same setting. Learners scaffold for each other continually through actions such as giving each other prompts, providing Turkish or English equivalents or explaining the task procedure. They do all of these for three reasons: The first one is that they belong to the same community, the second is that the teacher asks them to do so, and the third is because they are the participants in the interaction, and so for the sake of conversation, they have to cooperate (Grice’s 1975 Cooperative Principle).

It is generally thought that scaffolding can be provided by the teacher in the classroom. Wood, Bruner & Ross (1976) claim that support can be given by the teacher or a more knowledgeable peer in providing comprehensible input and moving the learner into the ZPD. However, “peer assistance” (Ohta, 2001, p.88) becomes unnecessary if a learner is capable of performing a task on her/his own, so it may not be validated by the teacher. Extract 2 illustrates this point below.

Page 128 SOME PATTERNS OF LANGUAGE ALTERNATION PRACTICES BY TURKISH EFL LEARNERS Extract 2: An EFL learner’s peer scaffolding

1 T : for example I say ↑ swap if you support Galatasaray (a Turkish

2 football team) so if you support you you know ↑change your

3 L3 : ne::?

Trans : what?

4 T : so you understand ↑no?

5 L8 : if not?

6 L9 : Türkçe olarak bir anlatabilir misiniz?

Trans : can you explain it in Turkish?

7 T : I don’t speak in Turkish in B1 class in B1 class no

8 → L3 : şimdi şey söylicek Galatasaray’ı destekliyorsan sen kalkacaksın

9 yani o düşünceye katılıyorsan kalkıp yer değiştireceksin

Trans : she will say something if you support Galatasaray you stand up if you agree you swap with somebody

10T : you change your seat

(İnci-Kavak, 2016, p.58)

In Extract 2, the learners play a game during the final phase of the lesson. In lines 1 and 2, the teacher gives procedural information but the learners struggle to understand the instructions. In the next line, Learner 3 switches to Turkish to ask for repetition. The teacher tries to check the learner’s comprehension in next turn by saying ‘no’ with rising intonation. Learner 8 takes a turn and asks a question to elicit more procedural information about the game in line 5. Learner 9 switches to Turkish to request the teacher to give instructions in the mother tongue in line 6. The teacher disaligns with the request and prefers to use the target language due to the English-only policy in the EFL classroom. Although there is no request from the teacher to Learner 3 to give instructions in Turkish, the learner does so in her/his turn. S/he may have done so because s/he thinks that another participant (Learner 9) needs it to be explained further so Learner 3 provides peer scaffolding in lines 8 and 9 by giving the Turkish equivalent of all the instructions. This action does not receive any praise or feedback from the

SOME PATTERNS OF LANGUAGE ALTERNATION PRACTICES BY TURKISH EFL LEARNERS Page 129 teacher because the teacher may have considered this to be an ‘unnecessary’ use of the first language after her rejection of L1 use. This action by the teacher emphasizes that the learners should be competent enough to comprehend basic instructions like this (Line 1). In the final turn of this extract, the teacher only summarizes the activity by simplifying it.

Extract 3: EFL learners invite the teacher to scaffold

1 L1: independently ne demek?

Trans : what does independently mean (in Turkish)?

2 T : what does independent mean?

3 → L3 : = bağımsız

Trans : independent

4 → L7 : = bağımsız

Trans : independent

5 T : huh uh

6 car dealer and you go there and he tells lies I tell lies and we

7 sell the car (.) but if you go to a ↑ different car dealer

8 different repairman so: that’s an ↑ independent

(İnci-Kavak, 2016, p.59)

In Extract 3, the topic is shopping for a car. The learners have read a text about mistakes that people make when they buy a car. After reading, the teacher checks the learners’ comprehension and the learners ask questions about the text. In the first line, Learner 1 takes a turn to ask about a word that s/he is struggling to understand. In line 2, the teacher directs the question to the class without selecting any specific learner to take a turn. She omits the suffix ‘ly’ to simplify the word. This line is a good example of ‘teacher- induced code-switching’ (Üstünel & Seedhouse, 2005) as T encourages the learners to provide the Turkish equivalent of the word ‘independent’. The learners (Learner 3 and Learner 7) align with the teacher’s request and reply to Learner 1.

Learner 3 and Learner 7 receive the teacher’s positive vocalization ‘huh uh’ that shows that their contribution is validated by T. While Learner 3’s turn, who aligns with

Page 130 SOME PATTERNS OF LANGUAGE ALTERNATION PRACTICES BY TURKISH EFL LEARNERS the teacher in this extract, is acknowledged, the same learner does not receive any acknowledgement in Extract 2 above as s/he disaligned with the teacher and directed her/himself to support another learner in the L1. In Extract 2, the teacher found support in English to be unnecessary considering the level of the learners and the pedagogical purposes of the lesson, so Learner 3’s explanation of the teacher’s instructions in Turkish was ignored and the teacher continued as if she had not heard them.

The data here show that the more proficient learners tend to alternate between languages for reasons such as commenting on the activity (Extract 4) or supporting another peer in the conversation (Extract 2) while the less proficient learners remain silent.

Practice Activity 2:

Carry out a sequential analysis of the following extract and discuss how an EFL learner comment on the task.

Extract 4:

1 T : huh uh to let your hair down good good huh uh ok: I would pass

2 Hamdi because he’s just came I would come back to you ↑Fevzi?

3 → L7 : ne çabuk geldi ya sıra?

Trans : how quick is it my turn?

4 (laughter) ehh if I had a five thousand Turkish liras in my

5 pocket I would go to Spain and I would (.) watch ne dicem

6 Barselona’nın maçı ne demek?

Trans : what will I say what does ‘Barcelona match’ mean?

7 T : ok Barcelona match football match huh uh

8 → L7 : yes ehh dört tane değil mi?

Trans : isn’t it four?

9 (.) if I had umm five thousand Turkish liras in my pocket I

10 would buy a new smart phone

(İnci-Kavak, 2016, p.39)

SOME PATTERNS OF LANGUAGE ALTERNATION PRACTICES BY TURKISH EFL LEARNERS Page 131 The data in this section shows that learners alternate between languages as a means of scaffolding to create a ZPD for a particular focus of a lesson. The learners alternate to provide scaffolding for their peers or to invite teacher scaffolding; these are actions which seem to serve specific pedagogical functions (For a detailed discussion of these functions see Üstünel, 2016.).

2. Language alternation as a communicative strategy

It is evident that alternation takes place more often in situations where the learners feel that they do not need to use the L2, and in situations when learners need to check their understanding of the teacher’s instructions against those of their peers (Extracts 4 and 5). Meaning is created, negotiated and constantly changed in the course of the interaction, so the learners constantly check each other’s contributions and design their own actions accordingly. The data also reveal that participants work collaboratively on the meaning of each conversational turn, and language alternation is closely associated with these conversational structures where it is used by learners as a communicative strategy (Auer, 1984, 1995) or as a contextualization cue (Gumperz, 1982). Extract 5 is an example of the former.

Extract 5: EFL learners negotiate meaning

1 L5 : coat of paint ↑ne::?

Trans : what?

2 T : paint well painting

3 → L2 : paint boyama paint

Trans : paint

4 L5 : ↑ coat of?

5 → L2 : coat ceket olarak buldum ama=

Trans : but I have found `coat’ as jacket

6 T : for example you umm polish your nails one coat and then second

7 coat what’s that?

8 → L5 : İkinci tur boyuyo üstüne boyuyo

Trans : she paints for the second coat second turn

Page 132 SOME PATTERNS OF LANGUAGE ALTERNATION PRACTICES BY TURKISH EFL LEARNERS 9 T : yes huh uh that means coat for example I paint the wall and one 10 coat and then second coat I ↑again to make it you know all clean 11 and nice 12L2 : huh uh (İnci-Kavak, 2016, p.45)

In Extract 5, learners are examining short form advertisements about houses. In line 1, Learner 5 does not understand the collocation ‘coat of paint’ and so switches to Turkish to ask its meaning. The teacher replies by simplifying it. In line 3, another learner tries to process the word by saying its name in both languages. However, both Learner 5 and Learner 2 are not satisfied with the simplified answer so Learner 5 asks about the part of the collocation that is omitted by the teacher. Learner 2 also checks it in her/his dictionary, and finds a first definition of coat as ‘a part of clothing’ (line 5). The teacher explains it again and encourages learners to contribute by inviting them to switch to be able to check their understanding. After Learner 5 gives the Turkish equivalent of the teacher’s utterance, the teacher provides positive feedback and then suggests another example by adapting the lexical item to the context in lines 9 and 10. Finally, Learner 2 shows that s/he has understood by using the vocalization ‘huh uh’. This extract thus shows how learners switch to the L1 in EFL classrooms both to negotiate meaning and to achieve an outcome by working together.

Practice Activity 3:

Analyse the following extract and illustrate how EFL learners show their comprehension about task procedures.

Extract 6:

1 T : page twenty and then you write ↑two more you write ↑two more 2 what do you think about moving out ok:? please read it you’ve 3 got two minutes 4 (LL start reading in silence) (2.0) 5 → L1 : gene anlamadım (.) napcamızı anlamadım Trans : I didn’t understand again (.) I didn’t understand what to do

SOME PATTERNS OF LANGUAGE ALTERNATION PRACTICES BY TURKISH EFL LEARNERS Page 133 6 T : you will write two more tips advice 7 → L2 : anladın mı? Trans : do you understand? 8L1 : anladım (laughter) (.) Trans : I understand (İnci-Kavak, 2016, p.49)

3. Language variation as a communicative tool to address EFL learners’ needs

EFL learners become aware of their own needs and start to look for ways of meeting them. To this end, learners frequently ask questions for clarification (Extract 7); they also want to show comprehension (Extract 5). In the following extract, language alternation is used for clarification (Extract 7).

Extract 7: An EFL learner asks for clarification

1 → L1 : what kind of refund is Ella willing to give ↑ yani? Trans : it means? 2 T : so she said if I don’t like the dress if I give it back do I get 3 ↑ full refund and she said ↑ no you ge:t (.) ↑ partial partial? 4 we’ve got ↑ two types of refund it can be partial that means you 5 get the part of the money back ↓ not all money and that’s full 6 refund that’s a hundred percent what about partial? it can be 7 you ↓ know

(İnci-Kavak, 2016, p.44)

Extract 7 is taken from a lesson where learners are doing a listening activity which requires them to answer some comprehension questions about what they have heard. Learner 1 reads the question first but cannot understand it so asks ‘yani?’ in Turkish. Note that ‘yani’ is a discursive item that does not have a specific meaning in Turkish. Its meaning can only be inferred from the context. This can vary depending on its intonation even in

Page 134 SOME PATTERNS OF LANGUAGE ALTERNATION PRACTICES BY TURKISH EFL LEARNERS the same context. The rising intonation which characterizes this particular instance of ‘yani’, signals that the speaker has not understood and needs clarification. Furthermore, in this extract, Learner 1 specifically expects the teacher to clarify. Between lines 2-7, the teacher gives a lengthy explanation of the question and the lexical item ‘partial’. In the data studied here, Turkish EFL learners always prefer switching to the L1 when a clarification is required. To summarize, learners frequently switch to the L1 to show their comprehension (Extract 6) and to ask questions for clarification (Extract 7).

Conclusion In the EFL context, fluency in the L2 can be regarded as a level of potential development, while students’ current level is the one at which they switch as a resource to reach the level they aim for. Using sociocultural theory in this study, we have investigated how learners’ language alternation is used as a way of scaffolding in L2 classrooms. The chosen extracts were analysed by examining how learners’ language alternation made them generate their own ZPDs. Thus, the study has shown the pedagogical functions of self/other (peer)-initiated switching as a scaffolding aid to create the ZPD. The data has revealed that the EFL learners alternated between languages to provide scaffolding for their peers and to invite the teacher to scaffold. The data has also verified that switching was used by EFL learners as a communicative strategy (Auer, 1984, 1995). That is, EFL learners worked collaboratively on the meaning of each conversational turn, and language alternation was closely associated with these conversational structures.

It has also been found that less proficient learners are more likely to use their L1 to gain support from peers, to solicit feedback from their teacher or to work on their own comprehension themselves. Learners who switch do not signal an unwillingness to communicate in the L2 as the use of switching is not essentially related to learners’ language levels. In fact, the data show that the more proficient learners tend to switch for reasons such as commenting on the activity or supporting a peer in the conversation. That is, when the less proficient learners go silent or express difficulty, the more proficient ones engage in classroom interaction and often alternate between the languages.

Finally, the data analysed in this chapter have shown that EFL learners’ language alternation practices address various needs through the actions of requesting, clarifying, asking for feedback and showing comprehension. Through these actions, the learners seemed to display an awareness of the academic focus of the lessons as they

SOME PATTERNS OF LANGUAGE ALTERNATION PRACTICES BY TURKISH EFL LEARNERS Page 135 made frequent use of switching to indicate the changes in their orientation towards general classroom interaction or towards specific individuals in the classroom (Üstünel, 2016). They did this despite the fact that the teacher deliberately avoided modelling or displaying switching behaviour.

Implications This study is based on Socio-Cultural Theory which adopts the view that “learning arises not through interaction but in interaction” (Ellis, 2000). This view closely relates to the Conversation Analysis, the main concern of which is the “fine details” of interaction. Scaffolding plays a vital role in education because learning in an L2 context is a collaborative achievement and not an isolated effort where the learner works unassisted. According to Van Lier (1988 cited Donato 1994), L2 teaching methodology can benefit from a study of L1 scaffolding to see how learners tacitly take advantage of it strategically. In this study, language alternation is considered as a way of scaffolding. The data has illustrated that learners use it as a means of scaffolding to create a ZPD for particular focus of a lesson. The fact that some learners use L1 to self-scaffold, provide scaffolding for their peers or invite teacher for scaffolding were detected. All these forms seem to serve to specific pedagogical functions such as asking for clarification, noticing and asking for feedback.

As Üstünel states (2016), Language alternation in EFL classrooms must be both planned and strategic to be effective. Developing an optimal switching pedagogy is a must in today’s bilingual world. As stated by Avery (2013, pp.6-7) “code-switching pedagogy is beneficial when planned and used strategically, but that maximizing L2 input is still a central aim of EFL classrooms”. Within these parameters, switching can be used practically to aid language acquisition through practices such as bilingual teacher talk, scaffolding and consciousness raising, not to mention its usefulness as a classroom management and relational tool (p. 177).

The teacher in this case by no means uses L1, due to the institutional policy, which adds another dimension to this study. Teacher’s choice of language definitely has an effect on their students’ choice of language. The power of the teacher as the speaker, who holds the floor, is undeniable because s/he has control over the classroom rules and also over the processes of code-switching to a certain extent. It can be expected that

Page 136 SOME PATTERNS OF LANGUAGE ALTERNATION PRACTICES BY TURKISH EFL LEARNERS learners would switch to L1 more often if the teacher also alternated between L1 and L2. Granted permission to code-switch by the teacher, the students (featured in this study) do not merely fall back on the L1 every time they encounter a deficiency in their L2 learning. Most of them seem to be aware of the academic focus of lessons, and so, make frequent use of language alternation to indicate the changes in their orientation towards general classroom interaction or individual members. They do this despite the fact that the teacher does not deliberately model or display the switching behavior.

The exclusion of L1 from the language classroom would be unfavorable in terms of the positive effects of the classroom interaction on learning. Language alternation can facilitate successful teaching if used carefully and judiciously. It can be used for organizing, enhancing and enriching students’ speech, and thus, their learning. Ignoring such a resource in language teaching would mean to take away one of learners’ learning aid from them.

This study also offers an insight into the classroom interactions in terms of how learners use L1 for different purposes. Reflecting on learners’ use of mother tongue in the classroom would be beneficial for learners in helping them to recognize their own language habits, raise awareness of their use and show how often they occur. Therefore, we suggest that this kind of reflection in the lesson can help learners understand the processes of spoken language and make them more aware of their own speech patterns. I believe that teachers may also benefit from awareness of students’ speech habits, their reasons for using them, and their limitations. This would help teachers be more cognizant of the interactional and pedagogical dynamics of their students’ learning and their teaching habits in the classroom, which, in turn, may allow them to plan their practices and classroom activities accordingly.

Post-reading Activity

1. What do you think about the functions of language alternation mentioned? In your expe- rience, which are more useful and more frequent? 2. Do you think that a teacher’s use or non-use of L1 affects the level of learners’ L1 use? Discuss why. 3. What approaches in ELT do not allow learners to use their L1? Discuss why. 4. What are the potential problems relating to overuse of L1 in the classroom? 5. What are the implications of L1 use in the language classroom?

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SOME PATTERNS OF LANGUAGE ALTERNATION PRACTICES BY TURKISH EFL LEARNERS Page 141

CHAPTER 9

AFFECTIVE STATES AND LEARNING OUTCOMES IN EFL EDUCATION

SELAMİ AYDIN İSTANBUL MEDENİYET UNIVERSITY

Selami Aydın is a professor in the Department of English Language Teaching at Istanbul Medeniyet University, Istanbul, Turkey. He researches on EFL writing, testing, affective states, technology use and social media effects on language learning and teaching processes. Currently, he teaches ELT courses for pre-service EFL teachers and graduate students.

Pre-reading Questions

1. What difficulties did you encounter in your foreign language learning adventure? Is it possible to categorize those problems as linguistic, social and psychological aspects? How? 2. As a language learner, do you think that your emotions affect the language learning process? Do those effects contribute to language learning positively or negatively? 3. What are your reasons to learn a new language? Reading a book in the target culture or having a better career? Or both? What reasons motivate you to learn a foreign langua- ge? What reasons prevent learning the language? Classify your reasons. 4. Do you think that your values and beliefs affect language learning? How? Should you learn a language with its culture or without its culture? 5. What reasons make you feel worried or anxious when you are learning learn a foreign language? Your personality, examinations or your classmates’ behaviors? What results do you encounter when you feel anxious? Success or failure? How? 6. How can you motivate a new language learner? What strategies can you use to make language learners have positive attitudes? How can you decrease the level of anxiety among language learners?

Introduction This chapter introduces the affective factors in the foreign language learning process. For this purpose, the chapter first briefly mentions the importance of psychological aspects of the field of foreign language learning and teaching. After the term, affect is introduced; Krashen’s Affective Filter Hypothesis is discussed. Then, the chapter presents information about motivation, its types and components. In addition, the term, attitude is defined and what factors relate to attitudes is discussed. Next, a brief discussion about anxiety, foreign language anxiety and its varieties is noted. After a brief summary of the chapter, some recommendations for practice are listed.

In recent years, research has focused on psychological aspects of the field of foreign language learning and teaching. In other words, for a deeper understanding of affective factors, research has gained new dimensions regarding linguistic and psychological

SOME PATTERNS OF LANGUAGE ALTERNATION PRACTICES BY TURKISH EFL LEARNERS Page 145 analysis at a deep level of description. The reason behind this interest was mainly that affective factors are of a crucial importance in terms of individual differences that may have a considerable influence on the foreign language teaching processes (Ellis, 1994; Ni, 2012). To conclude, it can be stated that affective factors, namely motivation, attitude and anxiety can be seen as the most powerful predictors that have influences on foreign language learning and have significant effects on the learner’s ability to learn a new language (Ellis, 1994).

Affect In addition to social and cognitive factors, affective states have profound effects on the foreign language learning process. “The affective component contributes to at least as much and often more to language learning than cognitive skills” (Stern, 1983, p. 386), whereas emotions and cognition are partners: minds without emotions are not really minds at all” (Damasio, 1994, p. 25). Affect is defined as “aspects of emotion, feeling, mood or attitude which condition behavior” (Arnold, 1999). In other words, “affect is a term that refers to the purposive and emotional sides of a person’s reactions to what is going on (Stevick, 1999, p. 55).

Affect, referring to feelings, emotions, attitudes, beliefs and moods that have considerable effects on human behaviors (Arnold, 1999), plays an important role in the foreign language teaching and learning processes. In the foreign language context, learning depends less on materials, techniques and linguistic analyses, and more on what goes inside and between the people in the classroom (Stevick, 1999, p. 4). Within the broadest perspective, these individual factors that exist inside people are motivation, attitudes and anxiety. While these factors constitute strong factors that have influences on the foreign language learning process, research still lacks data on affective variables and their effects on the mentioned processes. Most importantly, it is obvious that the efficiency of the foreign language teaching and learning processes directly relates to a better understanding of affect, affective states and their influences on learning, as Ellis (1994, as cited in Ni, 2012) notes:

Learners “affective factors are obviously of crucial importance in accounting for individual differences in learning outcomes. Whereas learners” beliefs about language learning are likely to be fairly stable, their affective states tend to be volatile, affecting not only overall progress but responses to particular learning activities on a day-by-day and even moment-by-moment basis.” (p. 483)

Page 146 SOME PATTERNS OF LANGUAGE ALTERNATION PRACTICES BY TURKISH EFL LEARNERS In other words, as learning and affect are considerably interrelated, teachers and teacher trainers should raise their awareness of the mentioned factors and their effects on the teaching and learning processes. That is because new techniques with old attitudes may amount to no change, while new attitudes even with old techniques can lead to significant change (Underhill, 1999, p. 131).

Affect involves two dimensions; intrinsic and extrinsic. While the former relates to personality factors that may contribute to the success of foreign language learning, the latter includes some social and cultural issues that help to connect the native and target languages. In a more specific context, affect begins with receiving that requires being aware of the environment; then, it goes beyond responding to phenomena or people. Valuing is the next level that involves beliefs and attitudes, whereas organization creates a hierarchy of values. Last, value system that characterizes individuals in accordance with the values internalized (Krathwohl et al, 1964).

Affective Filter Hypothesis In the scope of foreign language learning, Krashen’s Monitor Model consists of five hypotheses. Acquisition-learning hypothesis suggests that learning is aided by error correction and consciously developed by instruction, whereas monitor hypothesis proposes that conscious learning is limited with regards to being used as a monitor that can make corrections in output before the learner produces the language. Natural order hypothesis implies that the learner acquires structures in the target language in a predictable order that is similar in the first language. Next, according to the input hypothesis, learning is focused on meaning; the structure is learned a result of message being conveyed. Last, affective filter hypothesis suggests that the affective filter that depends on the learner’s state of mind limits learning and acts as a mental block (Krashen, 1981, 1982).

Affective filter is a psychological barrier that prevents the learner from receiving input completely. Affective factors that function as a filter reduces the amount of input. As a result of the reduced amount of input, the learner experiences difficulties in understanding the message. Furthermore, these factors prevent the processing of the language input and reduce the output. This results in difficulties in producing spoken and written language. Conversely, it is evident that a low filter created will contribute to effective language teaching and learning. Thus, foreign language teachers

SOME PATTERNS OF LANGUAGE ALTERNATION PRACTICES BY TURKISH EFL LEARNERS Page 147 should raise their awareness of those predictors that contain several emotions such as attitudes, motivation and anxiety. This is also strongly necessary to create comfortable and confident learning environments (Ni, 2012). In addition to the contribution on the learning and teaching processes, the awareness of affective variables will facilitate the whole-person development (Arnold, 1999). To conclude, the factors, namely motivation, attitudes and anxiety, constitute a significant role in reducing the affective filter, facilitating the foreign language teaching and learning processes whereas it contributes to personal development.

Motivation Motivation constitutes the most important factor in the language learning process (Van Lier, 1996). In other words, motivation, a predictor of performance and the main determinant that influences the foreign language learning process (Dörnyei, 1994), is one of the most important factors that affect the learner’s language input and output. It can be defined as the extent to which you make choices about goals to pursue and the effort you will devote to that pursuit (Brown, 2001, p. 24.) Another definition is that it involves time, energy and interest while achieving certain goals (Williams & Burden, 1997). Probably, motivation is one of the most crucial factors that may affect achievement in foreign language learning, as it is an emotion, drive or desire that draws the learner’s attention and increases interest in learning. Thus, it can be stated that motivation is an affective factor that controls the learning process (Schuman et al., 2014). However, it is a complex phenomenon due to its dynamic nature and varieties in learning contexts and tasks.

As motivation depends on the behavior originated outside or inside the individual (Van Lier, 1996), it has been categorized as extrinsic and intrinsic in the general sense. Intrinsic motivation arises from an inner drive in relation to humans’ needs, whereas extrinsic motivation arises from a promise of reward, punishment or need (Tukiainen, 2003). Extrinsic motivation, as noted above, comes from the outside of the learner who studies for grades, rewards or needs. On the other hand, intrinsic motivation is voluntary and spontaneous, as it depends on psychological needs that are innate in the learner. It relates to intentionality, choice and consciousness (Van Lier, 1996). However, it is not possible to isolate extrinsic motivation from intrinsic motivation, as they are correlated. For example, external factors can increase the level of intrinsic motivation or vice versa.

Page 148 SOME PATTERNS OF LANGUAGE ALTERNATION PRACTICES BY TURKISH EFL LEARNERS Another categorization is integrative and instrumental motivation. Learners who feel integratively motivated are mainly interested in communication and the culture of the target language (Gardner & Lambert, 1959). It is evident that the learner who is integratively motivated can be more successful than the one who is instrumentally motivated. That is because the learner who is instrumentally motivated learns a language for practical reasons such as a better career, passing examinations or a higher salary.

After the 1980s, several identifications of motivation components have appeared. Among them, Course specific components include learning tasks, teaching methods, materials uses and teaching programs. Next, teacher-specific components involve teacher feedback, teachers’ relations with their students and personality. Last, group-specific components relate to class goals, learning groups, norms and reward system (Dörnyei, 1990). The categorization of motivation may be also be proposed for language, learner and situational levels (Dörnyei, 1994). In another three-step categorization, the central is the “decision to act” in a social context that requires interactions within the scope of the learning environment, interests, beliefs and developmental factors (Williams & Burden, 1997).

Attitudes Learners develop beliefs about the foreign language learning process, abilities and learning strategies that have facilitative and debilitative effects. Given that their attitudes to foreign language learning constitute a considerable variable that may have a profound influence on the learning process, teachers need to understand their attitudes, expectations, beliefs and needs to help them overcome debilitative effects. In addition, teachers should enhance learners’ awareness of weaknesses and strengths to provide assistance to their students (Wenden, 1991). Else, it is clear that negative attitudes towards language learning may result in unwillingness to communicate, dissatisfaction with the course and frustration.

In the broadest perspective, attitude can be defined as a mental orientation involving dispositions, feelings, values and beliefs to act in a certain way. From a psychological perspective, attitude is an emotional and evaluative reaction and has three dimensions: behavior, cognition and affect (Zimbardo, & Leippe, 1991). These components mainly depend on mental constructions of experience that guides human behaviors (Sigel, 1995). Within the scope of foreign language learning, attitude represents general

SOME PATTERNS OF LANGUAGE ALTERNATION PRACTICES BY TURKISH EFL LEARNERS Page 149 assumptions that students hold about themselves as learners, about factors influencing language learning and about the nature of language learning and teaching” (Victori & Lockhart, 1995, p. 224).

There are several factors that relate to attitudes in the foreign language learning process. First, learners may experience a language shock that results in dissatisfaction with language learning. Second learners may encounter a culture shock that may lead to communication apprehension. Third, they may feel stress that causes loss of self-esteem (Schumann, 1975). Moreover, learners’ needs, expectations, learning styles, preferences and backgrounds may lead to negative reactions towards the target language. This self-schemata stems from the effects of the native culture, social and educational background, peer effect and past experiences (Wenden, 1991).

Anxiety Anxiety is an affective state that is defined as an uncomfortable emotional state in which the learner feels powerless, experiences tension and perceives danger (Blau, 1955, as cited in Aydın, 2008). Among the types of anxiety, trait anxiety is an aspect of personality and viewed a more permanent disposition (Scovel, 1978), whereas state anxiety is experienced as a response to a definite situation at a particular moment. The third type of anxiety, situation-specific anxiety relates to an apprehension to specific events and situations (Ellis, 1994).

Language anxiety is seen as a complex of behaviors, beliefs, perceptions and feelings in relation to the language learning process (Horwitz et al, 1986). It is an apprehension experienced by the learner who does not feel fully proficient during a specific situation that requires the use of the target language (Gardner & MacIntyre, 1993). Within this scope, it can be noted that language anxiety is a situation-specific anxiety.

Language anxiety holds three varieties. First, communication apprehension is experienced by the learner who lacks mature communication while he has mature thoughts and ideas (Aydın, 2008). In other words, the learner has a fear of communication with teachers, peers or native speakers. Second, test anxiety is an apprehension that involves a fear of failing in tests during, before and after the academic evaluation processes and based on the fear of failure (Horwitz & Young, 1991). Third and last, fear of negative evaluation is felt by the learner who feels incapable of making a proper social impression and, thus, avoids evaluative situations during the learning process.

Page 150 SOME PATTERNS OF LANGUAGE ALTERNATION PRACTICES BY TURKISH EFL LEARNERS Research shows that classroom procedures, teachers’ and learners’ beliefs about teaching and learning a foreign language, personal and impersonal worries and testing are some of the anxiety-provoking sources (Young, 1991). The level of a language course, learners’ proficiency levels, low level of motivation, amotivation, demotivation, language skills, teachers and learning cultures are some other sources of foreign language anxiety (Oxford, 1992; Price, 1991; Young, 1990). To this end, the mentioned sources result in foreign language anxiety and profoundly affect the foreign language learning process. This effect has two dimensions: facilitative and debilitative: Facilitative anxiety can be seen as one of the keys to success, since it has a positive influence on the progress, whereas debilitative anxiety prevents learning as it creates a physical, cognitive or mental barrier.

Summary A summary of this chapter is provided below. Today, the psychological aspects constitute a significant place in the field of foreign language learning and teaching. In this sense, the term affect refers to feelings, emotions, attitudes, beliefs and moods that have considerable effects on human behaviors. In addition to linguistic, social and cognitive factors, affective states, namely motivation, attitude and anxiety are the most powerful predictors that may have influences on the foreign language learning process. Affect that has intrinsic and extrinsic dimensions relates to personality and cultural issues. In addition, affective filter is a psychological barrier that prevents the learner from receiving input completely. Thus, the factors, namely motivation, attitudes and anxiety, constitute a significant role in reducing the affective filter.

Among those factors, motivation is one of the predictors of performance and the main determinants that influence the foreign language learning process. It can be categorized as extrinsic and intrinsic in the general sense. Another categorization is integrative and instrumental motivation. In addition, course specific, teacher-specific and group-specific components relate to the level of motivation in the foreign language-learning context.

Attitude, a mental orientation that instructs dispositions, feelings, values and beliefs to act in a certain way has three dimensions: behavior, cognition and affect. These components mainly depend on mental constructions of experience that guides human behaviors. Several factors such as language shock, culture shock and stress are the sources of negative attitudes towards foreign language learning.

SOME PATTERNS OF LANGUAGE ALTERNATION PRACTICES BY TURKISH EFL LEARNERS Page 151 Anxiety, an uncomfortable emotional state in which the learner feels powerless, experiences tension and perceives danger, has three dimensions in a general context. These are trait anxiety, state anxiety and situation-specific anxiety. Foreign language anxiety is under the category of situation-specific anxiety and defined as a complex of behaviors, beliefs, perceptions and feelings in relation to the language learning process. In addition, foreign language anxiety has three varieties: communication apprehension, test anxiety and fear of negative evaluation. When its results are considered, anxiety may be facilitative or debilitative.

All of the above-mentioned affective states are closely related to each other in some ways. The main point is that all of those factors have profound influences on the foreign language learning process. In other words, the level of input and output, success, proficiency and competence are directly affected by affective states. Within this scope, it is obvious that one affective state may trigger another. That is, affective states, regarding their sources and effects, play a negative role in their language learning adventure. As an example, consider that students suffer from test anxiety. A probable failure at a language test may also result in negative attitudes toward language learning. Alternatively, negative attitudes towards language learning may cause the loss of motivation. This chain reaction may bring failure in foreign language learning. Thus, teachers should have a holistic approach to affective states in order to decrease the level of anxiety, obtain a high level of motivation and influence them to have positive attitudes. Below, some recommendations are presented.

Recommendations for Practice It is evident that affective factors have profound effects on the foreign language learning process. Thus, teachers should know the ways of overcoming those negative emotions. To begin with, teachers should foster empathy, reduce inhibition and increase self- evaluation (Dickinson, 1987). For this purpose, teachers should tend to have emotional reactions in learning situations and know how to reflect on relationships (Stanley, 1999). In other words, teachers, in a student-centered approach, should allow their students to express their expectations, needs, perceptions and beliefs towards language learning. To conclude, teachers should act as a counselor in addition to their roles.

From that point, we can see that the teacher has a crucial role in fostering motivation, lowering anxiety and positive attitudes towards language learning. Teachers should first

Page 152 SOME PATTERNS OF LANGUAGE ALTERNATION PRACTICES BY TURKISH EFL LEARNERS set personal examples of behaviors and aim at creating a positive learning atmosphere. Then, the tasks should be properly presented to increase linguistic self-competence among learners and find the ways of making the class interesting. Another point is that teachers should promote learner autonomy and personalize the language learning process. They should also increase goal-orientedness. Finally and most importantly, the teacher should aim to familiarize learners with the target culture (Dörnyei, 1998).

Some more practical recommendations for teachers can be noted. First, the teacher should notice that their students have been studying a new language. Thus, the teacher should express why they should study that new language. Then, to obtain data about the levels of their affective filter, they should administer valid and reliable tools. In addition to surveys and questionnaires, portfolios, reflections and interviews, for instance, can be used to see how students feel about language learning. In this way, teachers can understand the problematic issues that may increase affective filter in the learning process. Second, teachers should shape learners’ beliefs about foreign language learners. For this purpose, they should create realistic goals for their students and be aware of individual differences regarding learning styles. In addition, the content should be arranged to increase cultural awareness. Third, to keep learners at a moderate level of affective filter, teachers should understand the psychological needs of learners and use positive teacher-talk (Oxford & Shearin, 1996). To be brief, teachers should know their students’ needs, expectations and beliefs before using strategies to decrease the level of affective filter before implementing and designing their content and programs. In other words, they should design and implement language programs which can help learners leave preconceived notions on foreign language learning.

Reflection

1. What are the sources of foreign language anxiety, amotivation, demotivation and nega- tive attitudes in the foreign language learning process? From the perspective of teacher or student, what are your strategies to reduce their effects on learning and teaching?

2. How do you think that affective factors relate to linguistic and social factors that may have positive and negative effects on learning and teaching?

3. How do you think affective states influence the input and output processes?

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Page 156 SOME PATTERNS OF LANGUAGE ALTERNATION PRACTICES BY TURKISH EFL LEARNERS CHAPTER 10

PRE-SERVICE AND IN- SERVICE EFL TEACHERS AS RESEARCHERS

KENAN DİKİLİTAŞ UNIVERSITY OF STAVANGER, NORWAY

Kenan Dikilitaş is an associate professor of TESOL in the Faculty of Arts and Education at the University of Stavanger, Norway. He has published articles in various peer-reviewed journals on topics such as research mentoring, self-efficacy beliefs about doing research, teacher identity and autonomy through research engagement, and language learning and teaching.

Pre-reading Questions

1. What do you know about Action Research?

2. What does Action Research mean to you?

3. Who might need to do Action Research? Where and why?

Introduction Teaching is a challenging profession since it involves with humans who might have different challenges and priorities in learning, which teachers need to consider. Preparing teachers for such a context of work requires an approach that empowers them with the freedom to generating new ways of teaching rather than simply equipping them with a certain set of teaching skills, possibly limiting them to certain practices. Pre- service teachers learn to teach through various ways, including reading and writing, as well as observation and reflection on the practicum experiences. Although these well- established approaches are potentially effective depending on how they are adopted, engaging in a small-scale action research is another way of contributing pre-service teachers’ process of learning to teach.

Action research is viewed as a research-driven professional development strategy (Çelik & Dikilitaş, 2015) which involves problematizing pedagogical issues to reach deeper understandings of classroom practices (Dikilitaş & Griffiths, 2017). Although AR is aimed at developing practical teaching knowledge (Wyatt, 2010), it may also foster critical thinking, new beliefs about and insights into teaching, and develop the ability to deal with teaching and learning challenges.

Action research, as the name suggest, is conducted to take an action which addresses a problematic issue (e.g., the failure of the selected activities to generate motivation and enthusiasm). However, before taking an action, the approach suggests engaging with a critical and extensive process of exploring initial questions, as in exploratory action research (Smith, 2015) and pedagogical puzzles, as in exploratory practice (Hanks & Dikilitaş, 2018). More specifically, at this early stage, teachers need to make sure that the issue can and should be problematized and investigated systematically through a research design.

SOME PATTERNS OF LANGUAGE ALTERNATION PRACTICES BY TURKISH EFL LEARNERS Page 159 Action research is seen as a cyclical process (Burns, 2009) by which researchers complete the research and reflection cycles, and then return to the beginning to repeat the exploration and intervention. Learning is not a linear process but follows a complex, flexible and adaptive process; similarly, research conducted to promote learning of teaching is not a straightforward step-by-step process. These cycles can change depending on the context and researcher expectations. However, regardless of the process, the key to success in an action research is, firstly, identifying an issue through deep reflection and elaboration, and secondly, a feasible research process leading to insightful evidence that helps the teacher make informed pedagogical decisions and evidence-driven practical changes. The first requires the teacher to undergo modifications and developments in mind, while the second implies that any amendments in teaching are made on the basis of the insightful exploration and critical reflection occurring during the research process. Since learning to teach is highly complex, research could be key to understanding its intricacies. The knowledge discovered and generated while engaged in research could enable teachers to process a type of knowledge unavailable from formal courses. This knowledge directly from the classroom, students and other teachers could be valuable in inform teachers’ future practices. A basic overview of the potential beneficial aspects of action research for pre-service teachers is as follows:

• Curiosity Personal interest in some issues could produce appropriate research topics and provide intrinsic motivation to drive the process, so pre-service teachers should think about what they are curious to know more about. • Need for understanding an issue Sometimes teachers might have questions to which they have never found a satisfactory answer, so AR could offer a unique opportunity to explore and search for alternative answers. • Exploration in the classroom Some pedagogical questions can be answered through revealing or accessing evidence through initial informal talks with students, but when this falls short, teachers need to construct a research plan that includes further data collection. • Critical reflection of issues Once teachers have sufficient evidence on the issue in focus, then we need to critically reflect on it and construct answers to our questions.

Page 160 SOME PATTERNS OF LANGUAGE ALTERNATION PRACTICES BY TURKISH EFL LEARNERS • Collecting evidence Collecting evidence requires essential skills such as understanding data collection tools. The most frequently used include observations, interviews and questionnaires. • Analysing evidence Data analysis is another key skill for pre-service teachers. Although initially challenging, teachers can easily learn to develop practical ways of categorizing, grouping, thematizing, or classifying verbal data, or doing calculations such as average, percentage or score ranking. • Interpreting and discussing Once categorized or calculated, the data can potentially reveal meanings and messages that teachers can use to guide the development of their teaching practices. These messages or implications can be divided into two themes: what I have learnt, and what I will do in relation to the research. • Re-planning and resuming In the light of the newly learnt knowledge, and consequent potential readjustment in the classroom practices, teachers may re-plan their practices and resume another research process on the basis of these reorganized instructional decisions.

A research journey based on initial curiosity can open up new questions for researchers, which implies the cyclical process, and life-long learning. Developing research and inquiry skills at the very early stages of a teacher’s career could lead to a stronger sense of teacher identity, which implies commitment to continuous learning and development. Teachers undertake the role of researcher, and thus show a willingness to approach language instruction in the light of evidence from their own classroom. This involves the collaborative collection of data from their learners, other teachers and materials. Pre-service teachers need to be aware that they will:

• continue to engage in learning and development even when they become practicing teachers; • need to create new ways of dealing with classroom issues; • need a critical lens to become problem-analyzers; • deal with unpredictable pedagogical challenges depending on teaching contexts.

SOME PATTERNS OF LANGUAGE ALTERNATION PRACTICES BY TURKISH EFL LEARNERS Page 161 Their initial teaching experiences will bring new needs for learning, and new skills to create a dynamic form of instruction capable of changing or adapting according to the students’ needs. Therefore, developing the researcher role may in fact facilitate the process of developing the teacher role, and promote teaching practices, and implicitly provide motivational support.

Action research can be described by the following characteristics:

• Reflective: the research process cultivates a deep and critical thinking process; • Systematic: the issues are investigated through a research methodology; • Exploratory: teachers are expected to explore the nature of the research issue; • Developmental: learners and teachers gain insights into learning and teaching process for the development of in-class pedagogy; • Critical: teachers become critical of their actions, and understand how and why they act; • Empowering: teachers develop a sense of knowledge generation as they understand the classroom context; • Transformative: the knowledge resulting from AR might lead to new understandings and practices in the classroom; • Liberating: teachers can rely on the knowledge they discover and generate, rather than on experts’ prescribed knowledge.

Pre-service teachers’ awareness of these key characteristics can be developed through supported AR. Pre-service teachers can be guided to plan, design, and conduct an AR during their practicum by their university supervisors. This may lead to the following benefits for teachers:

• becoming life-long learners of teaching; • being better able to deal with expected and unexpected challenges of teaching and learning; • valuing learners’ needs and expectations in language learning; • creating a positive classroom environment in which learners feel comfortable; • adopting a learner-engaging pedagogy, i.e., seeing learners as co-researchers to their AR; • prioritizing learner-based and learner-driven lessons where learners and teachers share ownership of the classroom issues.

Page 162 SOME PATTERNS OF LANGUAGE ALTERNATION PRACTICES BY TURKISH EFL LEARNERS Engaging Pre-service Teachers In Doing AR Since AR is essentially a strategy to develop effective practical knowledge aimed at improving teaching and increasing student learning, pre-service teachers first need to be aware of how they can explore research topic.

TASK 1: Exploring the classroom environment and selecting the key issue of research

Selecting the key issue of research requires a process of observation and interaction, and keeping a journal regarding the research context. Therefore, when you visit your practicum classroom:

• Observe and take notes of the aspects of teaching and learning that: do not seem to work well; might require alternative approaches; could be improved; could be even abandoned.

• Discuss with students their experiences while learning English;

• Interview teachers about their teaching, and issues that emerge in their classroom;

• Find common challenges or issues in what teachers and learners said, as well as in observational notes.

Exploring issues or challenges in the classroom on the basis of an exploratory approach will generate many ideas and routes to follow in your research. You are highly likely to identify issues related to lack of motivation to participate in the lesson, a sense of failure, disengagement in learning as well as pedagogical issues such as difficulty in speaking and writing or challenges in comprehension. However, the issues you identify will probably depend on the context.

Identifying the focus of research is key to developing appropriate action for change. You will probably have a number of issues in mind. However, it is important is to identify the issue that needs most attention and action, and that will have most influence on learning and teaching.

SOME PATTERNS OF LANGUAGE ALTERNATION PRACTICES BY TURKISH EFL LEARNERS Page 163 TASK 2: Identifying further information about the issue

Once you identify the key issue of AR considering the most needed area of improvement, you can begin thinking about how to design an action plan. While you can see the classroom issue, you might not be able to see its potential causes, so you need to:

• observe the classroom again with this particular issue in mind; • identify the potential causes from your own perspective; • talk to students about this particular issue and get their understanding; • interview the teacher and ask questions to get a general understanding regarding the issue identified for AR.

In the next stage, you will collect specific data and evidence for the identified AR issue, which will guide your development of a plan for a pedagogical intervention.

TASK 3: Developing a plan for the design of AR intervention

Having gathering sufficient evidence about the AR issue, you can now develop a lesson plan that will address the potential challenges you have identified. This plan could include a series of lessons over several weeks in which the teaching approach addresses a pedagogic challenge. For instance, particular activities may be aimed at improving affective factors (e.g., lack of motivation and participation, or of attention and interest).

The intervention you will integrate into your practicum lessons needs to:

• be clearly and carefully planned; • include activities that your students are already offered; • directly address the focus of the AR; • awake the curiosity and interest of students; • be implemented over a particular period.

For example, if you want to include a motivation-boosting lesson plan, as you identified this as an issue when exploring the classroom through observation and reflection, you might develop a series of interventions that includes both new pedagogical activities and different teaching materials. The former might include using developing a lesson plan that integrates technology in innovative ways, while the latter may involve using authentic audios, videos or pictures to stimulate interest and motivation.

Page 164 SOME PATTERNS OF LANGUAGE ALTERNATION PRACTICES BY TURKISH EFL LEARNERS TASK 4: Reflecting on AR intervention

Conducting the interventions themselves is of critical importance. However, equally important is understanding how successful it was, and to what extent the key focus of the AR issue was addressed.

Because you identified the key AR issue based not on your assumptions, but on the living data collected from teachers and students, as well as your observations, the intervention might have helped students. At this stage it is important to understand whether this is actually the case, and identify any potential improvements you could make on the intervention itself.

TASK 5: Seeking other relevant challenges

Questioning or inquiry is a never-ending process, so teachers need to follow the cycle in quest of new or improved teaching practices that address the key classroom issues. Every AR opens spaces for new research and inquiry challenges.

Teachers who engage in action research need to make sure that they:

• Explore the issue before they investigate; • Reflect critically and thoroughly on the identified issue; • Develop a feasible research plan, including an intervention; • Introduce an alternative way of teaching; • Collect and analyze data in appropriate ways; • Assess and interpret the influence of the intervention; • Draw implications that inform understandings and practices; • Develop new questions to investigate.

Post-reading Activity

1. What have you found interesting and relevant about Action Research? 2. How do you think you could use Action Research as a teacher? 3. Can you tell us about an issue which you can investigate through Action Research? How would you design your Action Research? 4. What insights do you think Action Research could help you gain into your teaching?

SOME PATTERNS OF LANGUAGE ALTERNATION PRACTICES BY TURKISH EFL LEARNERS Page 165 References

Burns, A. (2009). Doing action research in English language teaching: A guide for practitioners. Routledge: USA.

Çelik, S., & Dikilitaş, K. (2015). Action research as a professional development strategy. In International perspectives on teacher research (pp. 125-138). Palgrave Macmillan: London.

Dikilitaş, K., & Griffiths, C. (2017). Developing language teacher autonomy through action research. Springer: Switzerland.

Dikilitaş, K., & Hanks, J. (Eds.). (2018). Developing language teachers with Exploratory Practice: Innovations and explorations in language education. Springer: Switzerland.

Smith, R. (2015). Exploratory action research as workplan: why, what and where from. In Dikilitaş, K., Smith, R., and Trotman, W. (eds.) Teacher-researchers in action. 37-45. IATEFL: Kent

Wyatt, M. (2010). Teachers researching their own practice. ELT Journal, 65(4), 417-425.

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