Managing Defense, Air, and Space Programs During the Cold War

Reflections of a Technocrat Managing Defense, Air, and Space Programs during the Cold War DR. JOHN L. MCLUCAS with KENNETH J. ALNWICK AND LAWRENCE R. BENSON FOREWORD by MELVIN R. LAIRD Air University Press Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama August 2006 Air University Library Cataloging Data McLucas, John L. Reflections of a technocrat : managing defense, air, and space programs during the Cold War / John L. McLucas with Kenneth J. Alnwick and Lawrence R. Benson ; foreword by Melvin R. Laird. p. ; cm. Includes bibliographical references. ISBN 1-58566-156-2 1. McLucas, John L. 2. Aeronautics—United States—Biography. 3. Aeronautical engineers—United States—Biography. 4. United States. Dept of the Air Force— Biography. 5. United States. Federal Aviation Administration—Biography. 6. Astronautics and state—United States—History. I. Title. II. Alnwick, Kenneth J. III. Benson, Lawrence R. 629.130092—dc22 Disclaimer Opinions, conclusions, and recommendations expressed or implied within are solely those of the author and do not necessarily represent the views of Air University, the United States Air Force, the Department of Defense, or any other US government agency. Cleared for public release: distribution unlimited. All photographs are courtesy of US Government or family photos except as noted. Air University Press 131 West Shumacher Avenue Maxwell AFB, AL 36112-6615 http://aupress.maxwell.af.mil ii Contents Chapter Page DISCLAIMER . ii FOREWORD . vii ABOUT THE COAUTHORS . xiii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS . xv INTRODUCTION . xix Notes . xxv 1 FROM COUNTRY BOY TO COMPANY PRESIDENT . 1 Whose Son Am I? . 1 Attending Davidson College and Tulane University . 6 Employing Radar in the Navy . 9 Growing a High-Tech Enterprise . 16 Notes . 29 2 CAREER BROADENING IN SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY . 31 Defense Management under McNamara . 31 Promoting Innovations in Tactical Weapons . 37 My Role in the Controversial TFX Program . 40 Progress and Problems with Other Systems . 43 An Interlude with NATO in Paris . 45 Closing a Circle at the MITRE Corporation . 49 MITRE Goes to War—Igloo White and Other Projects . 54 Accomplishments and Angst . 57 Notes . 60 3 MY AIR FORCE YEARS: PEOPLE AND POLITICS . 63 Joining the Laird-Packard Team . 63 My Roles as Undersecretary . 65 iii CONTENTS Chapter Page Defense Management in the First Nixon Administration . 72 Serving as Secretary . 80 Notes . 94 4 MODERNIZING THE FORCE: NEW SYSTEMS FOR FUTURE AIR SUPREMACY . 97 Reforming Acquisition Management . 97 Sustaining Basic and Applied Research . 106 Developing Weapon Systems . 110 Notes . 147 5 WHAT CAN NOW BE TOLD: THE NATIONAL RECONNAISSANCE AND AIR FORCE SPACE PROGRAMS . 169 Directing the National Reconnaissance Office in Its Golden Age . 170 Key NRO People and Organizations . 176 Selected Reconnaissance Programs . 183 Some Thoughts on Secrecy and Bureaucracy . 188 The Air Force in Space . 191 The NRO and Air Force in Retrospect . 204 Notes . 207 6 FACING OTHER ISSUES—OVERSEAS AND AT HOME . 213 Trying for Peace with Honor in Vietnam . 213 Turning toward Europe and the Middle East . 229 The Air Force and American Society . 234 My Farewell to Arms . 250 Notes . 253 7 MANAGING CIVIL AVIATION AND COMMERCIAL SPACE PROGRAMS . 257 Heading the Federal Aviation Administration . 257 Connecting the Global Village at Comsat Corporation . 270 Chairing the Arthur C. Clarke Foundation . 278 Launching the International Space University . 280 Notes . 282 iv CONTENTS Chapter Page 8 PROMOTING SPACE, SCIENCE, AND TECHNOLOGY . 285 Defending the Free Exchange of Scientific Information . 286 Advancing International Cooperation in Space . 289 Overseeing QuesTech, Inc. 292 Fostering Space Commerce . 293 Mission to Planet Earth . 298 Looking Farther into the Space Age . 302 Final Years . 305 Notes . 307 Appendix A Selected Organizational Affiliations . 315 B Letter on Declassifying the Existence of the National Reconnaissance Program . 317 ABBREVIATIONS. 323 BIBLIOGRAPHY. 331 INDEX . 353 Photographs follow page 151. v THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK Foreword In the final decade of the twentieth century, our nation fo- cused attention on the noble and courageous men and women who, 50 years earlier, had participated in World War II. Thanks to a best-selling book by newscaster Tom Brokaw, the Ameri- cans who came of age in the 1930s and early 1940s became known as “the greatest generation.” Many of those who fought or supported the war effort humbly disavowed such a superla- tive. No one, however, can deny the achievements of our citizens who grew up in the hard times of the Great Depression. These young people helped win the largest conflict in world history and went on to make further contributions to our country during the long Cold War that followed. Despite all of its death and destruction, World War II acceler- ated the growth of scientific knowledge and the march of technology. As one consequence of this, our military services—in partnership with the nation’s universities—trained many young Americans, especially those with a background in science and engineering, to operate and maintain the new technologies so important to the war effort. Others contributed as civilian scien- tists and engineers. After the war, many veterans who had been exposed to these new technologies took advantage of the G. I. Bill to seek advanced degrees in science, engineering, mathematics, and related disciplines. When the Cold War set off a prolonged arms race and space competition with the Soviet Union, this well-educated cadre of the greatest generation was ready to pro- vide the technical and managerial expertise needed to meet the Soviet challenge. Combining patriotism with a desire to be on the cutting edge of technology, these “technocrats” played key roles in the defense industry, university and federal research centers, the military services, and other government agencies. Dr. John L. McLucas was one of the finest examples in this group of influential public servants. After a poignant childhood in the rural South, John took advantage of educational oppor- tunities by earning a master’s degree, served as a radar officer in the Navy, earned a PhD in physics, became president and chief executive officer of an innovative technology company, managed research programs in the Pentagon, served as the top vii FOREWORD scientist in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), and headed an eminent electronic systems engineering corporation. These were some of the achievements listed on John’s résumé in early 1969 when I, as the newly appointed secretary of defense, was looking for some good people to help me lead our nation’s military through a very difficult period. One of my preconditions for accepting Richard Nixon’s request for me to take charge of the Department of Defense was being granted full authority to choose my own team of appointees, both civilian and military. I selected them based on competency and compatibility, not politics. Being a nontechnical person myself, I made sure I hired some top managers with scientific and engineering expertise, starting with my deputy, the esteemed David Packard. To be secretary of the Air Force (the most technically oriented of the services), I selected Bob Seamans. Then a profes- sor at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Bob had re- cently served as deputy administrator of NASA. Dave, Bob, and I wanted someone else astute in technology and experienced in defense matters to work with Bob as undersecretary of the Air Force and with Dave and me as director of the National Reconnaissance Office—a job that was then totally secret. I was extremely pleased when John McLucas—at a considerable sacrifice to himself and his family—agreed to return to Washington and fill this dual posi- tion. I believe his willingness to serve the country rather than pursue only private interests was a hallmark of the postwar generation of executives that John exemplified. With inherited responsibilities for the divisive war in Viet- nam, which was proving difficult to end on favorable terms, with Americans in uniform being ostracized by many of their fellow citizens, and with the defense budget declining steadily, the Pentagon of 1969 certainly did not seem like a pleasant place to work. I was determined, however, to help our defense establishment weather this difficult period, restore the public’s faith in our military personnel and institutions, and prepare for the continuing Cold War challenges we knew lay ahead. Well aware of the acrimony and infighting that had often tarnished defense policies in the past, and realizing that a dictatorial approach to running the Pentagon quickly becomes counter- productive, I was determined to instill a sense of teamwork among the services and between them and the Office of the viii FOREWORD Secretary of Defense (OSD). I intended to take full advantage of the military experience of our top-ranking generals and admirals, whose advice had often gone unsought in previous administra- tions. I also wanted to restore authority to the service secretaries and their staffs, who, since the 1950s, had lost much of their prestige and influence as a result of centralized decision mak- ing at OSD. As one example of my philosophy, Dave Packard and I met regularly, both as a group and individually, with the service secretaries and undersecretaries to develop policy and keep each other informed. I also worked closely with the Joint Chiefs of Staff to make operational decisions and to seek their opinions on defense issues. I called this cooperative relation- ship with the services

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