chapter 1 The Appearance of “” Consciousness during the : On One of the Origins of Modern Nationalist Ideology

1 A Discourse of China, a Discourse of Orthodoxy: Definite Emergence of China Consciousness

There are two literary documents from the Northern Song dynasty of special interest to intellectual history. The first is “On Zhongguo” by Shi Jie, which re- mains to this date the earliest-known political essay with “Zhongguo” in the title. Not only is the author of this piece an important figure in the history of Northern Song scholarship, but the nationalistic tone of the piece is un- usually fervent, even extreme, revealing a previously unheard-of concern for Zhongguo.56 The other piece is “On Orthodoxy,” by Ouyang Xiu.57 This work is certainly influential in the current moment, and not only because its author was a piv- otal figure in intellectual, literary and political history; but because Ouyang Xiu’s opinions are related to his deep historical understanding of the previ- ous dynasty and the practice of writing. The way history was understood and

56 In this and another piece titled “Guaishuo” (On the strange), Shi Jie strictly distinguished “China” and “the four ” based on both the spatial difference and cultural differ- ence. Shi Jie 石介, “Zhongguo lun” 中国论 (On Zhongguo), in Julai Shi xiansheng wenji 徂徕石先生文集 (The collection of Master Shi of Culai) (Beijing: Zhonghua shuju, 1984), juan 10, 116. Also see “Guaishuo” 怪说 (On the strange), the first, second, and third pieces, in Julai Shi xiansheng wenji, juan 5, 60–62. 57 Ouyang Xiu 欧阳修, “Zhengtong lun” 正统论 (On orthodoxy), 3 pieces, in Ouyang Xiu Quanji 欧阳修全集 (The complete collection of Ouyang Xiu) (Beijing: Zhonghua shu- ju, 2001), vol. 16, “jushi ji” 居士集 (Collection of the hermit), juan 16, 265–273. Also see his “Zhengtong bian” 正统辩 (Debating on orthodoxy), in Ouyang Xiu Quanji, vol. 60, “Jushi waiji” 居士外集 (Other collections of the hermit), juan 10, 863–865. The rise of the de- bate on ‘orthodoxy’ in historiography has to do with the reconstruction and confirmation of history. It is also to do with the establishment of a cultural and ethnic identity for the Song dynasty which was located, in history, in the critical moment of “respecting the em- peror and dispelling the barbarians.” See Rao Zongyi 饶宗颐, Zhongguo shixue shang zhi zhengtong lun 中国史学上之正统论 (The discussions of the orthodoxy in Chinese historiography) (Shanghai: Shanghai yuandong chubanshe, 1996), especially 35–42.

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­written about affected the way in which the intellectual class of the time or- ganized historical lessons and experiences so as to affirm the legitimacy of the government of the time. Modern scholars see in these documents the great change of the age, one involving what it means to be Xia (Chinese), as distinct from Yi (), as well as attendant concepts of minzu (nation), guojia (state), and the tribu- tary system of (all under Heaven). The rise of a nationalism centered on notions of selfhood dates back to the time of the great setback to the self- centered ideology of ‘all under Heaven’. This indicates an interesting contrast between the real world and certain ideal ones: the self-awareness of a nation and a state grows even as the fortunes of that nation and state decline. To this day, such a pattern is apparent in Chinese intellectual history. Many scholars have discussed such a shift, one that occurred between the Tang and Song dynasties. Fu Lo-cheng, for example, points out that, just after the An Lushan rebellion,

The Chinese were especially cautious of the barbarians. However, it is always difficult to change long-established ideas in a short period of time. Therefore, the distinction between Chinese and barbarian was not as strictly defended in the late as during the Song.58

Fu sees that the distinction between Chinese and barbarians became more and more acute. In “Tang xing wenhua yu Song xing wenhua,” he cites specific factors contributing to this new situation.

The first reason was the alien ethnic groups’ rebellions and invasions… The second reason was the development of the civil service examination. The trend of valuing literacy over militarism was gradually cultivated in the society. Subsequently the idea that Chinese culture was supreme emerged… Based on these two reasons, the disparaging attitude of the Chinese towards the alien ethnic groups and their cultures became ex- tremely clear. Meanwhile, the passion for Chinese traditional culture gradually helped establish the culture that was based upon China.59

58 Fu Lo-cheng, 傅乐成 “Tangdai yixia guannian zhi yanbian” 唐代夷夏观念之演变 (Evolution of the Barbarian/Chinese distinction during the Tang dynasty), originally printed in Dalu zazhi 25:8 (October, 1962), later reprinted in his Han Tang shi lunji 汉唐史论集 (The collected essays on the history of the Han and Tang dynasties) (Taipei: Lianjing chuban shiye gongsi, [1977] 1995), 209–226. 59 Fu Lo-cheng, “Tangxing wenhua yu Songxing wenhua” 唐型文化与宋型文化 (Tang- type culture and Song-type culture), originally printed in Guoli bianyi guan kan 1:4