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Analysis of Chinese Narrative of World Order and Foreign Policy: Is China a Revisionist Or Reformist Power?

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Analysis of Chinese Narrative of World Order and Foreign Policy: Is China a Revisionist Or Reformist Power? ИССЛЕДОВАТЕЛЬСКИЕ ЗАМЕТКИ http://dx.doi.org/10.18611/2221-3279-2017-9-3-154-161 ANALYSIS OF CHINESE NARRATIVE OF WORLD ORDER AND FOREIGN POLICY: IS CHINA A REVISIONIST OR REFORMIST POWER? Ka-Ho Wong Independent Researcher, Hong Kong Article history: Abstract: China has altered its global posture from “keeping a low profi le” to “striving for achievement” since President Xi came Received: to power. The adjusted approach to Chinese foreign policy is in 16 March 2018 the context of growing China’s state capabilities and shrinking American global leadership under Trump’s presidency. Given Accepted: these structural changes in the international system, China is 8 May 2018 expected to play a bigger role in the world politics. Accordingly, questions have raised that how China perceives the world and About the author: whether rising China is a reformist or revisionist power. The Independent Researcher; paper would address these questions by fi rst revisiting the ancient Freelance Writer, Stand News; Chinese idea of Tianxia, which is both a concept and practice in MA Student, MGIMO University ancient times. As Tianxia is not applicable in the modern world, the concepts are reinvented by Chinese scholars, which are similar e-mail: [email protected] to ideas proposed by President Xi, offering an ideal worldview. Key words: In the third part, an empirical analysis of the Chinese foreign Chinese worldview; Tianxia; confucianism; tributary policy would check whether China’s behaviors correspond to system; Belt and Road; revisionist power; China threat Xi’s vision and whether China is a revisionist power. Introduction offering an ideal worldview. In the third part, an empirical analysis of the Chinese foreign China has altered its global posture policy would check whether China’s behaviors from “keeping a low profi le” to “striving for correspond to Xi’s vision and whether China is 1 achievement” since President Xi came to power. a revisionist power. The adjusted approach to Chinese foreign policy is in the context of growing China’s state capabilities and shrinking American global Ancient Chinese narrative of world order leadership under Trump’s presidency. Given First and foremost, this section illustrates these structural changes in the international the concept of Tianxia, which is the worldview system, China is expected to play a bigger role and system of ancient Chinese. One would start in the world politics. Accordingly, questions from conceptualizing the defi nition of Tianxia have raised that how China perceives the and then the practice of Tianxia referring to world and whether rising China is a reformist the relations between ancient China and the or revisionist power. The paper would address peripheries. At the end of the section would these questions by fi rst revisiting the ancient illustrate the end of Tianxia. Chinese idea of Tianxia, which is both a concept and practice in ancient times. As Tianxia is not The concept of Tianxia applicable in the modern world, the concepts Tianxia, literally translated as the “all- are reinvented by Chinese scholars, which under-heaven”, could refer to both ancient are similar to ideas proposed by President Xi, China and the whole world. Tianxia, in the 1 Yan, X. From Keeping a Low Profi le to Striving for narrow sense, is a Sinocentric concept referring Achievement // The Chinese Journal of International to ancient China that is a civilizational state Politics, 2014, No. 7(2), pp. 153-184. with Chinese culture. The superiority of 154 СРАВНИТЕЛЬНАЯ ПОЛИТИКА . 2018 Т.9 № 3 ИССЛЕДОВАТЕЛЬСКИЕ ЗАМЕТКИ Chinese culture has ancient China positioned relatively stable relations between ancient China itself as the core of the concentric circles and the peripheries. Confucianism emphasizes surpassing other civilizations. Thanks to the inclusiveness and harmony by encouraging the superior Chinese culture, ancient Chinese are preservation of cultural differences and mutual the most civilized people and most capable of interactions with other cultures. To be more governing Tianxia under the principle of elite precise, the Confucian’s thoughts of harmony governance. Ancient China is surrounded by include the harmony between heaven and the peripheries when people living there are people (tianren heyi), the harmonious whole described by ancient Chinese as the barbarians, (tianxia datong), harmony in diversity (he e rbu namely the “four barbarians” of the Dongyi, tong) and benevolent rule (wangdao). At the Nanman, Xirong, Beidi. same time, Confucianism proposes the doctrine Ancient China could be understood as a of the mean (zhongyong) that ways run parallel network-based political and cultural community without interfering with one another. In practice, when the Chinese culture instead of descents act Confucianism demonstrates tolerance and as the linkage within this community.2 In this coexists with other philosophies and religions. sense, Tianxia has no geographical limitation Thus, Confucianism proposes moral guidance and is expandable by cultural assimilations to ancient China to peacefully deal with cultural when the peripheries become accustomed to differences between civilizations.4 In contrast the Chinese culture. There is a Chinese proverb to the Western imperialism and colonialism, illustrating the blurred boundary between there is little inter-civilizational confl icts and no ancient China and the peripheries that once religious war ever initiated by ancient China for the barbarians adapt to the Chinese culture, Confucianism. The emphasis of inclusiveness, they become ancient Chinese. The ancient harmony, and the mean in Confucianism is the Chinese are confi dent to their culture that the fundamental element to maintain peace within peripheries would be assimilated into Chinese Tianxia. culture voluntarily through persistent cultural In the Chinese tributary system, countries exchanges, which in some sense prevent inter- are obligated to send tribute missions to ancient civilizational warfare. Therefore, in the broad China regularly to develop economic relations sense, Tianxia is equivalent to the whole with the Middle Kingdom. The Chinese world consisting of ancient China plus the tributary system shows the grace mentality peripheries.3 ancient Chinese have given that ancient China is believed to be a self-suffi cient economy. As a Tianxia in practice result, the economic relations between ancient Tianxia, as explained consisting of the China and the peripheries are asymmetric, core and peripheries, is a hierarchical concept even though both sides enjoy mutual benefi ts denoting the asymmetric status between ancient in trade. In exchange, the tributary entities China and the surrounding states. In practice, would have political autonomy and security ancient China managed to preserve harmonious guarantee from ancient China against external relations with the peripheries because of threats. The practice of the peripheries paying Confucianism and tributary system. tributes to ancient China is the external Confucianism offers philosophical recognition of ancient China’s cultural and foundations to Tianxia, which help to create economic predominance in the world, which 2 also transforms to the legitimacy of the Zhao, T. Tian xia zhi xu de wei lai xing (The Future Chinese emperor domestically. Accordingly, of the World Order) / Tan suo yu zheng ming, 2015, No. 11. Mode of access: http://www.cssn.cn/zhx/ the tributary system has ancient China enjoyed zx_zhyj/201706/t20170629_3565234_22.shtml supreme status in the world without territorial 3 Wang, H.; Su, H. Lun zhong xi wen ming zhong expansions. Military forces are implemented de tian xia guan he shi jie guan (China and the West: Two Kinds of World Views) / Zhong guo 4 Guo, Y. Tian xia zhu yi: Shi jie zhi xu zhong jian ren min da xue xue bao, 2015, No. 1. Mode of de ru jia fang an (Universalism: A Confucian access: http://www.cssn.cn/zgs/zgs_zms/201601/ Scheme for Reestablishing World Order) / xue t20160128_2847963.shtml shu qian yan, 2013, March, pp. 28-35. COMPARATIVE POLITICS RUSSIA . 2018 Vol.9 No. 3 155 ИССЛЕДОВАТЕЛЬСКИЕ ЗАМЕТКИ only if the peripheries attempt to compete for new concepts of the neo-Tianxia and neo- ancient China’s supreme status. cosmopolitanism. Neo-Tianxia proposes an ideal worldview The end of Tianxia that considers the whole world as one entity Preserving the Tianxia nominally, the instead of the state-dominant vision, while posits Qing dynasty delayed the end of Tianxia until China as a member of this community equally the 19th century. The actual end of Tianxia alongside with other countries.6 The relations refers to the termination of the ruling by within neo-Tianxia are governed by the rules Chinese civilization in ancient China, which that are constructed mutually by the members could trace back to Qing dynasty when based on consultations, compromises, and ancient China was no longer ruled by Chinese mutual trust. Meanwhile, neo-cosmopolitanism civilization but by Manchurian. Noteworthy criticizes Sinocentrism of neo-Tianxia and is that the dynastic change in ancient China suggests the trans-civilizational universalism does not necessarily mean the real end of which attempts to eliminate all centrism of Tianxia as long as Chinese civilization still civilizations.7 Neo-cosmopolitanism highlights rules it. Nevertheless, the Qing emperors kept inter-cultural interactions and the universalism adopting the concept of Tianxia nominally constructed by dialogues between civilizations. for pragmatic reasons to maintain excellent
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