THE MOBILISATION AND TRANSMISSION OF MEMORIES WITHIN THE PIED-NOIR AND HARKI COMMUNITIES, 1962-2007 Claire Eldridge A Thesis Submitted for the Degree of PhD at the University of St Andrews 2010 Full metadata for this item is available in St Andrews Research Repository at: http://research-repository.st-andrews.ac.uk/ Please use this identifier to cite or link to this item: http://hdl.handle.net/10023/903 This item is protected by original copyright The Mobilisation and Transmission of Memories within the Pied-Noir and Harki Communities, 1962-2007 Claire Eldridge This thesis is submitted in requirement for the degree of PhD at the University of St Andrews August 2009 I, Claire Eldridge, hereby certify that this thesis, which is approximately 80,000 words in length, has been written by me, that it is the record of work carried out by me and that it has not been submitted in any previous application for a higher degree. I was admitted as a research student in September 2005, and as a candidate for the degree of PhD in September 2006; the higher study for which this is a record was carried out in the University of St Andrews between 2005 and 2009. date 10 August 2009 signature of candidate I hereby certify that the candidate has fulfilled the conditions of the Resolution and Regulations appropriate for the degree of PhD in the University of St Andrews and that the candidate is qualified to submit this thesis in application for that degree. date 10 August 2009 signature of supervisor In submitting this thesis to the University of St Andrews we understand that we are giving permission for it to be made available for use in accordance with the regulations of the University Library for the time being in force, subject to any copyright vested in the work not being affected thereby. We also understand that the title and the abstract will be published, and that a copy of the work may be made and supplied to any bona fide library or research worker, that my thesis will be electronically accessible for personal or research use unless exempt by award of an embargo as requested below, and that the library has the right to migrate my thesis into new electronic forms as required to ensure continued access to the thesis. We have obtained any third-party copyright permissions that may be required in order to allow such access and migration, or have requested the appropriate embargo below. The following is an agreed request by candidate and supervisor regarding the electronic publication of this thesis: Access to all or part of printed copy but embargo of all or part of electronic publication of thesis for a period of 3 years on the following grounds: publication would preclude future publication date 10 August 2009 signature of candidate signature of supervisor ii Abstract Focusing on the legacies of the Algerian War of Independence (1954-62), this thesis challenges the perception that this was the ‘war without a name’ by exploring the ways in which memories have been preserved, mobilised, and transmitted by those who experienced the conflict, but who have generally operated under the radar of public consciousness. In particular, it examines the pieds-noirs, the former European settlers of Algeria, and the harkis, Algerians who fought for the French as auxiliaries during the war. Finding their lives in Algeria untenable upon independence, both populations migrated en masse to France where they have organised collectively as diaspora communities to challenge the hegemony of official narratives in order to legitimate their own interpretations of this contentious past. The purpose of such an investigation is to re-evaluate the conventional historical periodisation of a ‘forgotten’ war that made a dramatic return to public attention during the 1990s by revealing a continual presence of memory and commemorative activity within these communities. Through consultation of a wide range of sources, including extensive use of previously neglected audiovisual material, the historical recollections of these two communities are reconstructed in detail and examined from a comparative perspective. This thesis also seeks to analyse and historicize the present guerres de mémoire phenomenon whereby as the public profile of the war has risen in recent years, the different historical interpretations held by groups such as the pieds-noirs and harkis have increasingly come into open conflict, particularly over the issue of commemoration with each seeking to see their version of the past enshrined in official rituals and monuments. Finally, the thesis offers new historical context intended to contribute to enhancing understanding of the ongoing process by which France continues to ‘face up’ to its colonial past and deal with the complex contemporary legacies of this era. iii Acknowledgements Although it is a cliché, it is also true that this thesis was only made possible by the help and support of a great number of people. My thanks must firstly go to Stephen Tyre who, as my supervisor, has been a constant source of knowledge and guidance. Within the School of History I would also like to express my gratitude to Michael Bentley, Frank Müller, and Bernhard Struck for the interest they have taken in my research and the advice they have offered along the way. The generous financial support of the Arts and Humanities Research Council, the School of History at the University of St Andrews, the Society for the Study of French History, and the Roddan Trust enabled this project in a practical sense, something for which I am very grateful. Long periods of time spent in the Bibliothèque de documentation internationale contemporaine, the Bibliothèque nationale de France, and the Institut national de l’audiovisuel were made both productive and pleasant by continually helpful staff. I would further like to acknowledge the contribution of the various pied-noir and harki associations who responded to my enquiries and who were so generous with their time and resources. Special mention must also go to Regis Terrier for whom no book was too specialised and no publisher too obscure to track down. On the other side of work I have been lucky enough to find many people, often in unexpected places, who have made this whole experience far more enjoyable. I therefore owe a great deal to Naomi and Malcolm, Linda and Mike, Tessa and Wojtek, Katie, Giora, Elizabeth, Rob, Sarah and, last but not least, Sara who has been a particularly invaluable source of support in the past few years. I also count myself lucky to know Tony Williams and to have known his wife Pauline, who I will always remember for her kindness to me. And then there is Owen, who puts everything in perspective. However, it is my family to whom I owe the most. My brother, who I admire more than I would ever let him know; my Dad, whose creativity has taught me to look at the world from new perspectives; and my Mum, who is my role model and my best friend. Sadly my Grandma did not live to see the completion of this work, but her influence has indelibly marked every page, as it has every part of me. I dedicate this thesis to her. iv List of Abbreviations Associations and Organisations AAE Amicale des Algériens en Europe AFMRA Association des français musulmans rapatriés de l’Avesnois AFRA Association des français rapatriés d’origine algérienne AJIR Association, Justice, Information, Réparation ANFANOMA Association nationale pour des français d’Afrique du Nord, d’outre- mer, et de leurs amis AOCAZ Amicale des Oraniennes du Côte d’Azur BDIC Bibliothèque de documentation internationale contemporaine BNF Bibliothèque nationale de France CAOM Centre des archives d’outre-mer CDHA Centre de Documentation Historique sur l’Algérie CEPN Centre d’études pied-noir CFMRAA Comité des français musulmans rapatriés d’Afrique du Nord et leurs amis CNFM Convention nationale des français musulmans CNLH Comité national de liaision des harkis CNSR Conseil national supérieur des rapatriés FIS Front islamique du salut FLN Front de libération nationale FN Front national FNACA Fédération nationale des anciens combattants en Algérie FNR Front national des rapatriés FPA Force de police auxiliaire GNPI Groupement national pour l’indemnisation des biens spoliés ou perdus outre-mer INA Institut national de l’audiovisuel JPN Jeune pied-noir v LDH Ligue des droits de l’Homme MADRAN Mouvement d’assistance et de défense des rapatriés d’Afrique du Nord MJA Mouvement jeunesse Algérianiste MNA Mouvement national Algérien MRAP Mouvement contre le racisme et pour l’amitié entre les peuples OAS Organisation armée secrète PPN Parti pied-noir PS Parti socialiste RANFRAN Rassemblement national des français d’Afrique du Nord et d’outre- mer RECOURS Rassemblement et coordination unitaires des rapatriés et spoilés UDARFM Union départemental des anciens rapatriés français-musulmans USDIFRA Union syndicale de défense des intérêts français repliés d’Algérie Journals and Periodicals EO L’écho d’oran, later L’écho de l’Oranie EA Aux échos d’Alger FH France Horizon: le cri du rapatrié, H&M Hommes et Migrations LV La lettre de Véritas PNM Pieds-Noirs Magazine, later Pieds-Noirs d’Hier et d’Aujourd’hui, MCF Modern and Contemporary France SH Sétif de l’hexagone vi Contents Declaration ii Abstract iii Acknowledgements iv Abbreviations v Introduction 1 The Pied-Noir Community: 1. From Practical Beginnings to the Cultural Turn, 1962-1991 27 2. Developing the Pied-Noir Lexicon 34 French Algeria 34 The War of Independence 49 The Social and Physical Dimensions of Memory 57 3. Evolutions in Activism: Guerres de mémoire, 1991-2007 66 External Manifestations 66 Internal Dimensions 86 4. Transmission: The Next Generation 98 The Harki Community: 5.