THE ARCHAEOLOGY OF SILENT SNAKE SPRINGS HUMBOLDT COUNTY, NEVADA
THOMAS N. LAYTON AND DAVID HURST THOMAS
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jfJ Tl. 4. V 4.1 THE ARCHAEOLOGY OF SILENT SNAKE SPRINGS, HUMBOLDT COUNTY, NEVADA
THOMAS N. LAYTON Assistant Professor, Department of Anthropology San Jose State University
DAVID HURST THOMAS Chairman and Associate Curator, Department of Anthropology The American Museum of Natural History
VOLUME 55: PART 3 ANTHROPOLOGICAL PAPERS OF THE AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY NEW YORK: 1979 ANTHROPOLOGICAL PAPERS OF THE AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY Volume 55, part 3, pages 249-270, figures 1-12, tables 1-5
Issued January 4, 1979 Price. $1.90
ISSN 0065-9452
Copyright © The American Museum of Natural History 1979 ABSTRACT Silent Snake Springs is a small midden site lo- that hunting and butchering were the major aborigi- cated in Humboldt County, Nevada. Test nal activites at Silent Snake Springs. A somewhat excavations indicate that the major occupation at later component is characterized by the presence of Silent Snake Springs occurred during the so-called Rose Spring series projectile points and grinding Pinto time period. This chronology is supported by stones. The settlement pattern in the Silent Snake 25 obsidian hydration readings, and a single radi- Springs region is poorly understood, but preliminary ocarbon date of 4100 B.C. + 380 (corrected). indications suggest a shift toward spring resources Nearly all the identifiable faunal remains are bighorn during the Altithermal period, roughly 5000 to 2500 sheep, and the associated tool assemblage indicates B.C.
INTRODUCTION Silent Snake Springs is one of several sites find any evidence of climatic change in excava- discovered and tested by the authors during the tions at Danger and Hogup caves. summer of 1967. Layton was conducting a site More recent discussion of the Altithermal survey of the High Rock area (Layton, 1970, issue has stressed the importance of gathering 1972, 1973) and Thomas was studying the fau- additional data, and developing regional clima- nal materials recovered from these sites tic and cultural sequences (see O'Connell and (Thomas, 1968, 1969, 1970b, 1971). Hayward, 1972; Davis and Elston, 1972; Silent Snake Springs was occupied primarily Elston, 1976). In addition, the long-term ex- during the so-called Pinto period (Hester, cavations by the American Museum of Natural 1973). Well-documented Pinto age occupations History at Gatecliff and Triple T Shelters in are relatively rare in the Great Basin, the most Nye County, Nevada, indicate that any encom- notable examples being the Stahl site (Har- passing, basin-wide interpretation of climatic rington, 1957), Hidden Cave (Roust and change is bound to be overgeneralized and mis- Clewlow, 1968), King's Dog (O'Connell, 1975) leading. The so-called Pinto period witnessed a and Gatecliff Shelter (Thomas, MS.). Pinto number of settlement and subsistence changes series projectile points also occur at both Dan- in the Desert West. Fagan (1974), for instance, ger and Hogup Caves in western Utah, but the has suggested that Altithermal age sites will components are not stratigraphically distinct tend to be in association with spring localities. (Aikens, 1970). A great deal of confusion ex- We present results from limited excavations at ists regarding projectile point terminology for Silent Snake Springs because they provide this time period (see Hester, 1973, pp. 26-28); comparative evidence regarding Altithermal pe- for the purposes of the present report, we retain riod occupation in the northwestern Great the term "Pinto," recognizing that a revision Basin. will be in order as more data come to light. Some investigators, most- notably Baumhoff and Heizer (1965), have argued that the scarcity ACKNOWLEDGMENTS of Pinto-age sites can be explained as the result The Silent Snake Springs excavation was of hotter and/or drier environmental conditions. jointly sponsored and financed by the Peabody This argument contends that the Altithermal pe- Museum, Harvard University and the Nevada riod rendered the Great Basin virtually unin- State Museum in Carson City. We are grateful habitable from about 5000 B.C. to 2500 B.C. to Mr. James C. Calhoun, Director Emeritus These findings have been disputed by Jennings and Mr. Donald R. Tuohy, Curator of An- (1957, 1964) and Aikens (1970), who failed to thropology, both of the Nevada State Museum.
251 252 ANTHROPOLOGICAL PAPERS AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY VOL 55
Dr. Stephen Williams and Dr. J. 0. Brew at the Peabody Museum provided good council and helped arrange financial backing for the project. Dr. Martin A. Baumhoff at the Univer- sity of California, Davis assisted us in securing a three-quarter ton truck for the 1967 fieldwork. The 1967 crew consisted of the authors, Mr. Dan Andrews, Mr. Arnold Green, Mr. Steve Hayden, Mr. Steve Lent and Mr. Marc Young. Assisting Layton in 1968 were Mr. Dwight Burnham, Mr. Michael Evans, Ms. Eileen Moffat and Ms. Anne Stephenson. The artifacts were illustrated by Ms. Sarah Bandes and the additional artwork was provided by Mr. Dennis O'Brien. Obsidian hydration measurements were made by Paul Aiello of the University of California, Los Angeles. Mr. Philip Rasch, Ms. Lisa Cook, Ms. Jane Epstein, and Ms. Susan Bierwirth assisted in the preparation of the manuscript. THE SETTING Silent Snake Springs (designated as site 26Hu201 in the Nevada State Museum system) is located in the rugged High Rock Country of FIG. 1. Archaeological map of the High Rock northwestern Nevada, approximately 63 km. Country. 1. Silent Snake Springs (26Hu201); 2. east of the California border and 100 km. south Smokey Creek Cave (26Hu46); 3. Calico surface site of the Oregon border (fig. 1). (26Hu202); 4. Little Smokey Shelter (26Wal501); 5. The High Rock Country is the most south- Swallow Marsh Shelter (26Wal503). erly extension of the Columbia Lava Plateau. It is a vast tableland of lava beds which are layered one above the other and average 1829 than rapid invasion of the area by polar air m. (6000 ft.) in elevation. The lava has been masses (Aschmann, 1958, p. 25). Precipitation warped, faulted, eroded, and exposed as varies greatly from year to year. However, rimrock in the walls of canyons. The name mean annual precipitation is about 30.5 cm. (12 High Rock Country refers to these vertical lava in.) and occurs mainly during the winter, al- exposures. The highest elevations are Granite though local and unpredictable cloud bursts oc- Peak 2760 m. (9056 ft.) and Division Peak cur throughout the area in the late spring and 2588 m. (8491 ft.) at the base of which lies the summer (Brown, 1960). Winter and spring Silent Snake Springs site at 1920 m. (6300 ft.). storms are generally due to the mid-latitude The High Rock Country is a high desert. cyclone which brings moisture-laden air from For January, daily mean maximum temperature the west and northwest (Aschmann, 1958, p. ranges from 1°C. (34°F.) to 3°C. (38°F.), while 27). Precipitation is closely correlated with ele- the mean minimum temperature is about -9°C. vation, and the rain shadow effect is pro- (16°F.). For July, the mean maximum tempera- nounced to the east of major mountains. ture ranges from 27°C. (80°F.) to 31°C. (88°F.), Snowmelt provides a major source of water for while the mean minimum temperature ranges streamflow, but since snowfall is rarely heavy, from 7°C. (44°F.) to 11°C. (520F.) (Brown, most streams flow only during the winter and 1960). Low temperatures are caused primarily spring. Low humidity and abundant sunshine by radiational cooling of stagnant air rather cause rapid evaporation which far exceeds pre- 1979 LAYTON AND THOMAS: SILENT SNAKE SPRINGS 253 cipitation. Although year-round springs may be pp. 38-39). In those isolated situations where found throughout the area, few watersheds have standing water is present, aquatic plants such as precipitation sufficient to maintain year-round tules (Scirpus spp.), cattails (Typhus latifolia), standing water. and reeds (Phragmites spp.) may be found. Most of the High Rock Country is subsumed Willows occur along streams, and areas of under the Sagebrush Zone, described by Bil- spring seepage produce small lush meadows of lings (1951) and Cronquist et al. (1972, pp. native grasses, reeds, roots, and tubers. The 122-126). But such blanket descriptions tend to only broadleaf trees present are quaking aspen ignore the presence of discrete micro-environ- (Populus tremuloides), which grow on high ments which, although rarely recognized and mountain slopes and in well-watered canyons mapped by plant geographers, were certainly and cottonwood (Populus trichopatra) is found exploited by people throughout prehistory. along the lower water courses. Western juniper In the well-drained portions of the High (Juniperus occidentalis) occurs in sparse stands Rock Country, native ground cover consisted at somewhat higher elevations. The highest ele- primarily of sagebrush (usually Artemisia tri- vations of the High Rock Country support dentata) supplemented by rabbitbrush stands of mountain mahogany (Cercocarpus (Chrysothammus spp.) and clumps of perennial ledifolius). bunchgrasses. Native bunchgrasses have now It is important to note that the High Rock been reduced by overgrazing and replaced by Country is well north of the known range of annuals such as cheatgrass. On more saline pinion pine (Pinus monophylla), the nuts of soils, greasewood (Sarcobatus vermiculatus), which provided a dietary staple to aboriginal saltbush (Atriplex spp.), and spiny hop-sage groups south of the Humboldt River (Steward, (Grayia spinosa) are dominant (Pease, 1965, 1938).
FIG. 2. The Silent Snake Springs site, facing west. Arrow points to location of the 1967-1968 excavations. 254 ANTHROPOLOGICAL PAPERS AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY VOL 55
FIG. 3. View of Silent Snake Springs site and field camp, facing north. All excavations were in the dark bulldozed area in the center of the picture. The arrows point to the locations of Smokey Creek Cave (#1) and the area of the Calico surface collection (#2).
THE SILENT SNAKE SPRINGS SITE named by Thomas when he found himself standing on a rattlesnake which stubbornly re- Silent Snake Springs is a midden site located fused to rattle. on an outwash fan at the mouth of a steep The site itself consists of an area of black canyon near the base of Division Peak (figs. 2, midden measuring approximately 39 by 20 m. 3). Several small springs discharge year-round (fig. 4). The Bureau of Land Management had from the western edge of the fan upon which bulldozed the ground cover and some of the the midden is situated. Division Peak rises to surface deposit in an effort to create a fenced an elevation of 2588 m. (8491 ft.) and provides test plot, in which vegetation could be pro- the drainage to keep these springs permanently tected from grazing. Regrettably, the enthusi- supplied with clear, cold water. The Silent asm of the bulldozer operator far exceeded the Snake Springs site is at an elevation of 1920 m. area to be fenced and much of the archaeologi- (6300 ft.). Along the southern boundary of the cal deposits were unnecessarily exposed. The site is a steeply gullied streambed which re- site probably extends an additional 18 m. (60 ceives winter and spring runoff. The streambed ft.) to the north and 9 m. (30 ft.) to the east of has been dry during the months from July to the bulldozed area. October when visited by the authors. Silent Snake Springs is one of the few reliable water EXCAVATION PROCEDURE sources in the area today. The site was discovered and tested during The site was first surveyed, and a grid of 5- the summer of 1967 and excavations were com- foot squares was established across the bull- pleted during the summer of 1968. The site was dozed area (fig. 4). Consecutive letters were 1979 LAYTON AND THOMAS: SILENT SNAKE SPRINGS 255
FIG. 4. Contour map of Silent Snake Springs. The contour interval is 1 foot, and the dashed line marks area disturbed by bulldozer. 256 ANTHROPOLOGICAL PAPERS AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY VOL 55 assigned for south-north rows, and numbers a dense root mat. Unit 1 occurred only on the were applied to the east-west rows, so that each western units at Silent Snake Springs and at- excavation unit was designated by alphabetic tained a maximum thickness of about 2.5 ft. and numerical coordinates. The underlying Unit 2 was identical, except The original surface configuration of the site that the root mat was absent. Unit 2 was found had been badly disrupted by the bulldozer, so in all excavated units and comprised the upper- we attempted to reconstruct these original con- most stratigraphic level in the eastern units. tours in the initial test pits of 1967. Once we Within midden Unit 2 was a discontinuous thin determined the slope of the sub-midden sterile lens of sterile yellow flood debris about 3 in. deposits, it was possible to project the arbitrary thick. This lens was recognized at a depth of 6-inch excavation levels along a similar pitch. about 1 ft. below the present surface, and We attempted to find all specimens in situ sloped downward to the west at a rate of about and plot their proveniences in three dimensions. 10 in. per 5 ft. The basal stratigraphic unit Since the moist black midden often stuck to the consisted of a sterile yellow subsoil. obsidian specimens with such tenacity, only about 25 percent of the artifacts were actually MATERIAL CULTURE found in place. All excavated deposits were PROJECTILE POINTS: A total of 73 typable sifted through 1/4-in. mesh screen, and all bones projectile points was excavated at Silent Snake and chipping debris were saved. Springs. An additional two specimens were STRATIGRAPHY found on the surface of the site, and four more were surface collected within 200 m. of the The stratigraphy at Silent Snake Springs was site. All points are illustrated on figures 7-11. not complex (fig. 6). The uppermost unit con- The Great Basin projectile point sequence sisted of greasy black midden which contained has been discussed in detail by a number of
FIG. 5. Excavations at Silent Snake Springs, looking east. 1979 LAYTON AND THOMAS: SILENT SNAKE SPRINGS 257
FIG. 6. Stratigraphic profile of north wall of J trench, Silent Snake Springs. Stratigraphic Unit 1 is black midden with heavy root concentration. Unit 2 is identical with Unit 1, except that roots are absent. Unit 3 is a lens of sterile yellow slopewash. Unit 4 is sterile yellow subsoil.
mens are tabulated on table 2. These figures exclude specimens found in the badly disturbed unit J-00. Although a great deal of stratigraphic mixture has occurred in the deposits at Silent Aa~~111~ b Z d Snake Springs, we do note that the earlier Pinto and Humboldt series tend to be stratigraphically inferior to the later Rose Spring and Elko Series points. BIFACES: This category includes bifacially flaked stone implements (other than projectile e A points) that are less than 10 cm. long. The 4VZZZ:Z:S~~~f 0 12cm4 symmetrical bifaces are either triangular or oval, and the asymmetrical bifaces have lan- FIG. 7. Eastgate and Rose Spring series projectile ceolate outlines (fig. 12). The Silent Snake points from Silent Snake Springs. a. 101-303; b. Springs bifaces undoubtedly represent various 101-328; c. 101-209; d. 101-194; e. 101-257; f. manufacturing stages for the production of pro- 101-201; g. 101-204. jectile points as well as finished products. Forty-two specimens (mostly bases) were suffi- investigators, most notably Heizer and ciently intact for analysis, and they can be Baumhoff (1961), Lanning (1963), O'Connell described in three morphological types. Table 3 and Ambro (1968), Clewlow (1967), Gruhn provides the provenience of these bifaces. (1961), Layton (1970), and Hester (1973). The Biface type] (19 specimens: 18 obsidian, 1 chert). points from Silent Snake Springs have been Type 1 bifaces are symmetrical and triangular in analyzed according to quantitative criteria de- form, with straight or slightly convex base (see fined elsewhere (Thomas, 1970a; Thomas and fig. 12k). The specimens are characterized by fine Bettinger, 1976), and detailed attribute data are peripheral secondary retouch and seem to be fin- provided on table 1.1 ished products. The base is generally thinned, The proveniences of the excavated speci- suggesting that many were hafted and used as knives. 'The key published by Thomas (1970a) and Thomas and Biface type 2 (18 specimens: 16 obsidian, 2 Bettinger (1976) is currently being revised on the basis of chert). Type 2 bifaces are symmetrical and oval data generated at Gatecliff Shelter. For the present paper, in form, with a markedly convex base (see fig. 12 the old designations will be followed, except that the Bare 1-o). The flaking is rough and peripheral retouch Creek Eared type is combined into the Pinto series. is rare. Basal thinning is generally absent. These + + + I _ + + +i i i +i + ot U: t t e It t ott
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259 260 ANTHROPOLOGICAL PAPERS AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY VOL 55
/I 101-353 and 101-340; see fig. 12 e-h). The other two specimens were recovered from the dis- turbed Unit J-00 (nos. 101-186 and 101-187; (see fig. 12). All specimens were made of chert, except 101-187, which is of obsidian and ap- pears to be a reworked Humboldt Series proj- a b ectile point. 41~iz GRAVER: One bifacially retouched chert C flake had been worked into a graver (Unit H-2, 3 in. below surface). This subcircular flake (101-278) is 3.5 cm. at maximum diameter and 0.3 cm. thick. The nipple-like graver projection is 0.6 cm. in length. d e CHOPPER: One chopper (101-161) is made on e22: <20.2.. a rectangular basalt flake with bifacial retouch along both long edges and one short edge (which is battered from use). The chopper was I#t % / %, Its % i recovered in Unit H-6, in the 0.6 in. level. III i i TABLE 2 h --ZEZZ!Z-,n- .> Projectile Point Provenience (Specimens from Unit J-OO and Surface Excluded) TYPE Rose
-j. Spring Northem % k Comer- Elko Pinto Side- Humboldt 40.2. h / I\ I II" 1% / \ /, \N II I /t x f % i/ k % k A r s t W L] v w x I ib /-\Z I^% 0 1 2cm4 FIG. 9. Pinto series projectile points from Silent Snake Springs. a. 101-132; b. 101-82; c. 101-167; d. 101-111; e. 101-6; f. 101-218; g. 101-29; h. 101-119; i. 101-112; j. 101-237; k. 101-110; 1. 101-141; m. 101-302; n. 101-4; o. 101-120; p. 101-216; q. 101-224; r. 101-27; s. 101-63; t. 101-10; u. 101-168; v. 101-343; w. 101-176; x. 101-217; y. 101-274; z. 101-219; aa. 101-149; bb. 101-231; cc. 101-148. 262 ANTHROPOLOGICAL PAPERS AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY VOL 55 (101-285) was recovered from Unit H-2 in the 0.6 in. level. GRINDING STONES: Two manos and frag- ments of seven millingstones were recovered. Both manos are roughly rectangular, made of basalt, with bifacially ground working surfaces (see fig. 12 s-t). The edges are battered, espe- cially along the ends. The millingstones are made of naturally tabular basalt slabs, roughly 2 to 14 cm. thick. The source of these slabs is probably the lava cap surmounting a hill ap- proximately 250 m. northeast of the site. All specimens are broken, but most appear to have an elongated oval grinding surface. OBSIDIAN COBBLES: Three unmodified obsi- 1-I I,1f lzo> 9 EZZ0711 f I i % z t', /f k\ I k 4j I II c <=.>a ..l. I -421m n,> 0 1 2cm4 II FIG. 10. Humboldt series projectile points from Silent Snake Springs. a. 101-295; b. 101-247; c. % 101-330; d. 101-205; e. 101-324; f. 101-95; g. e \ ,-) f 9 1- -/ 101-133; h. 101-335; i. 101-322; j. 101-331; k. ft degrees (after Knudsen, 1975, p. 17). The Silent Snake Springs scraper-planes range in length from 5.9 to 9.6 cm., and vary from 1.0 cm. to 2.3 cm. in thickness. The working edge is con- vex on all specimens. N Simple retouched flakes (18 specimens: 12 obsi- I dian, 3 chert, 3 basalt). I i Retouched flakes vary in length from 2.4 cm. to <. <222;Nk 0 1 2cm4 5.6 cm. and range from 0.3 cm. to 2.3 cm. in thickness. Six of the flakes have a concave work- FIG. 11. Miscellaneous projectile points from Si- ing edge; the remainder have convex or straight lent Snake Springs. Northern Side-notched: a. working edges. 101-140; b. 101-336; c. 101-36; d. 101-65. Untypable: e. 101-207; f. 101-199; g. 101-39; h. 101-101; i. OCHER PEBBLE: One pebble of red ocher 101-323; j. 101-61; k. 101-163. 1979 LAYTON AND THOMAS: SILENT SNAKE SPRINGS 263 Al I 4> e f h b c d ,,.og qm.-- <.> QZ23M qzzmppl II Y 'II a'. m n -Zz.. 0 1 2cm4 z -.. 1, , -q22m>- 0 4 cm 8 FIG. 12. Miscellaneous artifacts from Silent Snake Springs. a.-d. leaf-shaped bifaces; e-h. drills; i-j. bone awls; k. biface type 1; l-o. biface type 2; p-q. biface type 3; r. obsidian float cobble; s-t. manos. dian cobbles were excavated, all of them in the and probably served as raw material for most 12-18 in. level of Unit J-5 (see fig. 12 r). Such of the obsidian artifacts found at the site. The cobbles occur as natural float through the im- cobbles range in weight from 158 to 310 grams. mediate area surrounding Silent Snake Springs, CHIPPAGE: The chippage from Silent Snake 264 ANTHROPOLOGICAL PAPERS AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY VOL 55 Springs has not been analyzed, but table 4 burnt, but no butchering marks were noted. presents the quantitative summary of debitage Rabbit and hare bones were nearly absent, and recovered from excavation Unit 1-5. All depos- only occasional rodent bones were found in the its in this unit were passed through a ¼/4-in. midden. No bird or reptile bones were found at mesh screen. The heavy use of obsidian in Unit Silent Snake Springs. I-5 is characteristic of the entire site, probably because of the availability of float obsidian DATING THE DEPOSITS cobbles nearby. Chert was used much less fre- Seventy-five fragments of unidentifiable ar- quently; basalt flakes occurred infrequently, and of Unit no basalt was found in Unit I-5. tiodactyl bones from the 12-18 in. level A number of utilized flakes were noted in I-5 were submitted for radiocarbon dating at the chippage from Silent Snake Springs, but it Washington State University. The bone col- is extremely difficult to distinguish between lagen determination is 5250 ± 380 radiocarbon use-breakage and edge damage resulting from years B.P. (WSU-994). The bristlecone correc- jumbling about in the level bags after excava- tion converts this raw date to a figure of tion. 4070-4120 B.C. (Ralph, Michael and Han, BONE AwLs: Two awl fragments were re- 1973). covered (fig. 12 i-j). Both awls are made from Obsidian hydration was also used to provide of bone shaft, with the sequence dates for Silent Snake Springs. This splinters long cancellous method has been previously used by Layton side ground smooth. Specimen 101-52 has a (1970, 1972, 1973) for chronological ordering fire-hardened tip. of both excavated and surface collections REMAINS elsewhere in the northwestern Great Basin. The FAUNAL underlying theoretical basis for obsidian hydra- The faunal remains at Silent Snake Springs tion analysis has been discussed elsewhere by were relatively well preserved, considering the Friedman and Smith (1960) and Taylor (1976). moist soil conditions which characterized the Twenty-five typable projectile points from midden deposit. Table 5 lists the bones re- Silent Snake Springs were processed by the covered from all units excavated in 1967 (with Obsidian Hydration Laboratory at the Univer- the exception of the disturbed Unit J-00). sity of California, Los Angeles. The results of Most of the bones were artiodactyl long these measurements are presented on table 1. bones, which had been fragmented beyond No analysis of the chemical composition of identification. Of the artiodactyl bones com- these specimens has been attempted, but all the plete enough for identification, most were artifacts were candled and only those with iden- bighorn sheep (Ovis). Deer (Odocoileus) and tical color and translucency were submitted for antelope (A4ntilocapra) were also present, but hydration measurements. Because the obsidian quite rare. Many of the artiodactyl bones were artifacts probably were made of local float obsi- dian, it would seem that the chemical composi- TABLE 4 tion would be roughly constant. Debitage Recovered from Unit 1-5 at Silent The various projectile point categories are Snake Springs associated with the following obsidian hydra- tion readings: Obsidian Chert X S n Depth frequency weight frequency weight Rose Spring Series 1.90 microns 1.13 2 0-6" 498 456 grams 19 30 grams Northern Side-notched 3.85 microns 0.78 2 6-12" 548 757 7 4 Elko Series 4.22 microns 0.36 5 12-18" 587 503 13 18 Pinto Series 4.53 microns 0.78 10 18-24" 134 162 2 8 Humboldt Series 4.80 microns 0.47 6 24-30" 56 48 2 3 The chronological ordering obtained through Total 1823 1926 43 63 obsidian hydration measurements is roughly r- 00e Ioo- a,C"r--""0 o I It - )" - o 0)oo m CA - 1 LO 00 riA rj -o0i N~~~ _~ ~ ~ ~ ~ C 0 o t::o IC 'U (A *0 _ oo cn -br-t) en W o) o> t --4 't ---o C4 4 C4 £NC1 ', C ,t 0X0 sc r-oo-4r_fr-- Cl0 o n tO} 04- ,0 -t--^, ~ o ~%-"CT£__NN ,u - d -- 00 z - z: Z: zt Z: :: t: t 40C0 - t 00Wc-t X: b zt to - - X - to t O £o ms0. 0O C Xt X CO 00 00 0 C 0 CO 0toCO 0Z C O 00 b _ M _ _ A en -f V 266 ANTHROPOLOGICAL PAPERS AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY VOL 55 what dne would expect to find based on previ- were the major site functions. Bone debris was ous stratigraphic studies. The Rose Spring abundant, consisting mainly of broken artiodac- Series is significantly younger than all the oth- tyl long bones. Thomas (1970b) has shown that ers (except the Northern Side-notched points; in over 99 percent of the faunal diet at Silent this case, the small sample sizes preclude an Snake Springs consisted of artiodactyls (and adequate test). The Elko, Pinto, and Northern bighorn sheep comprised 85% of the total). Side-notched Series' are all statistically indis- Marmot was poorly represented, and both rab- tinguishable in age. The Humboldt Series is bit and hare were virtually absent. The few statistically more ancient than all other pro- grinding stones present were restricted to the jectile point categories.1 upper 13 in. of the deposit, suggesting that The radiocarbon evidence indicates that the vegetable processing was rather late in the se- initial occupation at Silent Snake Springs began quence pnd, even then, only of peripheral im- somewhat before 4100 B.C., and the projectile portance. point types suggest a significant occupation The Silent Snake Springs site does not from Pinto times into the Pinto-Elko transi- represent the earliest occupation in the immedi- tional period. A later occupation, represented ate area. The Calico surface site (Layton, 1970, by Rose Spring Series points, seems to postdate 1973) 3 miles to the north northwest, covering 500 B.C. an irregular area over 1 km. in diameter on a Our dating of the termination of the Pinto stretch of rolling sagebrush covered plateau, period occupation at Silent Snake Springs represents an extensive earlier occupation. No comes from indirect evidence. At present, relia- midden deposits were found here, but the scat- ble dates on Pinto points are available from tered lithic debris may represent deflated camp- only two sites in the northern and central Great sites. The Pinto projectile points so abundant at Basin, namely Kramer Cave (26-Wa-196) situ- Silent Snake Springs were absent in the Calico ated at Falcon Hill on the west shore of Lake collection. Humboldt series points made up Winnemucca, and Gatecliff Shelter, in Monitor more than 50 percent of the Calico assembly. Valley, central Nevada. The wooden shaft of a Black Rock Concave-base, Cougar Mountain hafted Pinto projectile point recovered from and Parman types made up another 18 percent Kramer Cave has been radiocarbon dated to of the collection. (Layton, 1970, 1972). No 2400 B.C. corrected (1880 + 100 B.C., seed grinding tools were recovered at the Cal- GaK-2387, Donald R. Tuohy, personal com- ico site. mun.). The on-going American Museum of Evidence of intensive occupation imme- Natural History excavations at Gatecliff Shelter diately postdating the Silent Snake Springs site have encountered Pinto points on living sur- comes from Smokey Creek Cave, 1.6 km. to faces which date between about 4000 B.C. and the east of the Calico surface site (Layton, 1600 B.C. These dates seem to be good esti- 1966, 1970). The cave, measuring 11 m. long mates for the Pinto period occupation at Silent and 6 m. wide at the mouth, contained approx- Snake Springs. imately 1 m. of moist midden deposit lacking visible stratification. Of the typable projectile IMPLICATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS points recovered at Smokey Creek Cave, 46 Although the purpose of the present report is percent were of Elko Series, whereas only 8 largely descriptive, a few conclusions and spec- percent were of the Pinto series common at ulations seem in order. It seems that Silent Silent Snake Springs. Another 30 percent of the Snake Springs was a temporary, seasonal Smokey Creek Cave collection was comprised camp. The artifact assemblage consists mainly of the much more recent Eastgate, Rose of projectile points, bifaces, drills and bone Spring, Desert Side-notched and Cottonwood awls, suggesting that hunting and butchering types that were virtually absent at Silent Snake Springs. 'These relationships have been tested using the standard The major occupation at Smokey Creek t-test for significant difference between sample means. Cave thus postdates that at Silent Snake 1979 LAYTON AND THOMAS: SILENT SNAKE SPRINGS 267 Springs. Faunal evidence from these two sites jectile points from the site suggest only a located less than 2 km. apart demonstrates a scanty reoccupation postdating 500 B.C. gradual shift from hunting of artiodactyls, par- The shift in occupation from the presently ticularly mountain sheep, toward intensive waterless (in summer) Calico site to the pres- hunting of rodents. Artiodactyls provided more ently wet (year-round) Silent Snake Springs site than 99 percent of the meat diet at Silent Snake and then to the presently waterless (in summer) Springs, but at nearby Smokey Creek Cave Smokey Creek Cave neatly matches Antev's their relative dietary importance rapidly dimin- (1948, 1955) model of postglacial climatic ished as rodents, such as ground squirrels and change with appropriate occupational shifts. Of cottontail rabbits, were increasingly relied upon course, correlation is not causation, and the for meat. The increased dietary importance of required settlement pattern studies to explore rodents may possibly be related to the invention such a model have not been conducted. and use of snares as Thomas (1969, p. 399) has We have recognized direct evidence of only suggested. one weather related event at Silent Snake In summary, it appears that the earliest in- Springs. The discontinuous lens of sterile slope tense occupation in the immediate vicinity of wash or flood debris (fig. 6) recognized at a Silent Snake Springs was at the deflated Calico depth of 12 in. suggests that at least once, circa surface site where Humboldt series projectile 4100 B.C. runoff (possibly from a cloudburst) points predominate. Some time before 4100 exceeded either the absorbency of the adjacent B.C. (corrected), occupation shifted from the hillside or the drainage capacity of the nearby Calico site to Silent Snake Springs where Pinto streambed. At present, this dry (in summer) Series points reached a peak in popularity. Fi- streambed is deeply entrenched and could carry nally, some time after 2400 B.C. (corrected) a large volume of water. At our current state of occupation shifted to Smokey Creek Cave knowledge it is not possible to devise a predic- which continued to be occupied up to the pro- tive model relating ground cover, precipitation, tohistoric period. Following its earlier period of and runoff in any meaningful way; and at pres- intense occupation circa 4100-2400 B.C. (cor- ent no association of sparse ground cover with rected) the Silent Snake Springs site was never high runoff and resulting deposition of slope again intensely occupied. Rose Spring pro- wash on the site has been demonstrated. LITERATURE CITED Aikens, C. Melvin des zones andes, Paris, Union Internatl. 1970. Hogup Cave. Univ. Utah Anthrop. Pa- Soc. Bio. pp. 101-122. pers, no. 93. Brown, Merle Aschmann, Homer 1960. Climates of the states: Nevada. U.S. 1958. Great Basin climates in relation to human Dept. of Commerce, Weather Bur., Wash- occupance. Berkeley, Univ. California Ar- ington, D. C. chaeol. Surv. Rept., no. 42. Cronquist, Arthur, Arthur H. Holmgren, Noel H. Baumhoff, M. A., and R. F. Heizer Holmgren, and James L. Reveal 1965. Postglacial climate and archeology in the 1972. Intermountain flora: vascular plants of the Desert West. In Wright, H. E., Jr. and Intermountain West, U.S.A., vol. I. David G. Frey (eds.), The Quaternary of N.Y., Hafner Pub. Co., Inc. the United States, Princeton, Princeton Clewlow, C. W., Jr. Univ. Press. 1967. Time and space relations of some Great Billings, W. G. Basin projectile point types. Berkeley, 1951. Vegetational zonation in the Great Basin Univ. California Archaeol. Surv. Rept., of western North America. In Compt. no. 70, pp. 141-150. Rend. du Colleque sur les bases ecolo- Davis, J. O., and R. Elston giques de la rdgdneration de la vegetation 1972. New stratigraphic evidence of late Quater- 268 ANTHROPOLOGICAL PAPERS AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY VOL 55 nary climatic change in northwestern Ne- of the prehistory of the northwestern Great vada. In Fowler, Don D. (ed.), Great Basin. Unpubl. doctoral dissertation, Har- Basin cultural ecology: a symposium, vard Univ. Desert Res. Inst. Pub. Soc. Sci., no. 8, 1972. A 12,000 year obsidian hydration record pp. 43-55. of occupation, abandonment and lithic Elston, Robert (ED.) change from the northwestern Great 1976. Holocene environmental change in the Basin. Tebiwa, vol. 15, no. 2, pp. 22-28. Great Basin. Nevada Archaeol. Surv. Res. 1973. Evidence for pottery manufacture on the Paper no. 6. northwestern periphery of the Great Basin. Fagan, John Lee The Masterkey, vol. 47, no. 1, pp. 23-27. 1974. Altithermal occupation of spring sites in O'Connell, James F. the northern Great Basin. Univ. Oregon 1975. The prehistory of Surprise Valley. Ballena Anthrop. Papers, no. 6. Press Anthrop. Papers, no. 4. Friedman, Irving, and Robert L. Smith O'Connell, James F., and R. D. Ambro 1960. A new dating method using obsidian: part 1968. A preliminary report on the archaeology I, the development of the method. Antiq- of the Rodriguez site (CA-LAS-194), uity, vol. 25, no. 4, pp. 476-522. Amer. Lassen County, California. Berkeley, Gruhn, Ruth Univ. California Archaeol. Surv. Rep., 1961. The archaeology of Wilson Butte Cave. no. 73, pp. 95-194. Pocatello, Occas. Papers Idaho State Col- O'Connell, James F., and Paul S. Hayward lege Mus., no. 6. 1972. Altithermal and medithermal human Harrington, Mark Raymond adaptations in Surprise Valley, northeast 1957. A Pinto site at Little Lake, California. Los California. In Fowler, Don D. (ed.), Great Angeles, Southwest Mus. Papers, no. 17. Basin cultural ecology: a symposium, Heizer, R. F., and M. A. Baumhoff Desert Res. Inst. Pub. Soc. Sci., no. 8. 1961. The archaeology of two sites at Eastgate, Pease, Robert W. Churchill Co., Nevada. Berkeley, Univ. 1965. Modoc County, a geographic time con- California Anthrop. Rec., vol. 20, no. 4, tinuum on the California volcanic table- pp. 116-150. land. Berkeley, Univ. California Pub. Hester, Thomas Roy Geography, vol. 17. 1973. Chronological ordering of Great Basin Ralph, E. K., H. N. Michael, and M. C. Han prehistory. Contrib. Univ. California Ar- 1973. Radiocarbon dates and reality. MASCA chaeol. Res. Facility, no. 17. Newsletter, vol. 9, no. 1, pp. 1-20. Roust, Norman L., and C. W. Clewlow, Jr. Jennings, J. D. 1968. Projectile points from Hidden Cave (NV- 1957. Danger Cave. Salt Lake City, Univ. Utah CH- 16), Churchill County, Nevada. Anthrop. Papers, no. 27. Berkeley, Univ. California Archaeol. 1964. The Desert West. In Jennings, Jesse D., Surv. Rep., no. 71, pp. 103-116. and Edward Norbeck (eds.), Prehistoric Steward, Julian H. man in the New World, Chicago, Univ. 1938. Basin-plateau aboriginal sociopolitical Chicago Press, pp. 149-174. groups. Bur. Amer. Ethnol. Bull. 120. Knudson, Ruth Ann Taylor, Robert E. 1975. An outline for the description and analysis 1976. Advances in obsidian glass studies: ar- of flaked lithic artifacts. Moscow, Labora- chaeological and geochemical perspec- tory of Anthrop., Univ. Idaho. tives. Park Ridge, N. J., Noyes Press. Lanning, Edward P. Thomas, David Hurst 1963. Archaeology of the Rose Spring site, 1968. A quantitative method for the analysis of Iny-372. Berkeley, Univ. California Publi- faunal remains from archaeological sites. cations Amer. Archaeol. Ethnol., vol. 49, MA Thesis, Davis, Univ. California. no. 3, pp. 237-366. 1969. Great Basin hunting patterns: a quantita- Layton, Thomas N. tive method for treating faunal remains. 1966. The archaeology of Smokey Creek Cave, Amer. Antiquity, vol. 34, no. 4, pp. Humboldt County, Nevada: 26-HU-46. 392-401. MA Thesis, Davis, Univ. California. 1970a. Archaeology's operational imperative: 1970. High Rock archaeology: an interpretation Great Basin projectile points as a test 1979 LAYTON AND THOMAS: SILENT SNAKE SPRINGS 269 case. Los Angeles, Univ. California Ar- bone in archaeological sites. Amer. Antiq- chaeol. Surv. Ann. Rept., vol. 12, pp. uity, vol. 36, no. 3, pp. 366-371. 27-60. [MS.] The archaeology of Gatecliff Shelter, Ne- 1970b. Appendix #1. Quantitative analysis of vada. faunal remains from the High Rock Coun- Thomas, David Hurst, and Robert L. Bettinger try. In Layton, Thomas N., High Rock 1976. Prehistoric pifion ecotone settlements of archaeology. Unpubl. doctoral disserta- the upper Reese River Valley, central Ne- tion, Harvard Univ. vada. Anthrop. Papers Amer. Mus. Nat. 1971. On distinguishing natural from cultural Hist., vol. 53, part 3, pp. 263-366. C.!:I ., ,.. p-,,.--,..I".l,-I:. 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