PALEOAMERICA, 2017 Center for the Study of the First Americans http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/20555563.2016.1272395 A&M University

REVIEW ARTICLE The Terminal /Early Record in the Northwestern : What We Know, What We Don’t Know, and How We May Be Wrong Geoffrey M. Smitha and Pat Barkerb aGreat Basin Paleoindian Research Unit, Department of Anthropology, University of , Reno, NV, USA; bNevada State Museum, Carson City, NV, USA

ABSTRACT KEYWORDS The Great Basin has traditionally not featured prominently in discussions of how and when the New Great Basin; Paleoindian World was colonized; however, in recent years work at ’s Paisley Five Mile Point and ; peopling of the other sites has highlighted the region’s importance to ongoing debates about the peopling of the Americas. In this paper, we outline our current understanding of Paleoindian lifeways in the northwestern Great Basin, focusing primarily on developments in the past 20 years. We highlight several potential biases that have shaped traditional interpretations of Paleoindian lifeways and suggest that the foundations of ethnographically-documented behavior were present in the earliest period of history in the region.

1. Introduction comprehensive review of Paleoindian archaeology was published two decades ago. We also highlight several The Great Basin has traditionally not been a focus of biases that have shaped traditional interpretations of Paleoindian research due to its paucity of stratified and early lifeways in the region. well-dated open-air sites, proboscidean kill sites, and demonstrable Clovis-aged occupations. Until recently, the region’s terminal Pleistocene/early Holocene (TP/ 2. Current issues EH) (∼16,000–8300 cal yr BP1) record was mentioned only in passing within broader treatments of North Beck and Jones (1997) highlighted six questions that American (e.g., Fagan 1995). However, over shaped Paleoindian research at the end of the last millen- the past decade the Great Basin – in particular, the nium: (1) when did colonize the region?; (2) northwestern region – has captured the attention of how old are fluted points in the Great Basin?; (3) what researchers interested in the peopling of the Americas. was the relationship between humans and Pleistocene Work at Oregon’s Paisley Five Mile Point Caves has fauna?; (4) what was the relationship between fluted demonstrated that groups using Western Stemmed Tra- and WST points?; (5) how did environmental change dition (WST) technology occupied the northwestern affect prehistoric adaptation?; and (6) what types of settle- Great Basin when Clovis technology appeared elsewhere ment-subsistence strategies did Paleoindians employ? in , and perhaps a millennium or so ear- In some cases (e.g., the age of fluted points), we know lier (Jenkins et al. 2012, 2013). Furthermore, differences little more than we did 20 years ago but at least we are between Clovis and WST lithic technology and toolstone more aware of what we don’t know. In other cases, we economies suggest that two ethnolinguistic populations know more today than we did then; for example, when with different adaptive strategies were present in the and potentially how the Great Basin was colonized. Far West during the terminal Pleistocene (Beck and We also know that the relationship between fluted and Jones 2010, 2013; Davis, Willis, and MacFarlan 2012; WST points may not be as straightforward as once Smith et al. 2015a). Although controversial (see Fiedel thought. New settlement-subsistence models have been and Morrow 2012; Goebel and Keene 2014), these dis- developed and tested, which has improved our under- coveries have reframed the Great Basin’s role in Paleoin- standing of how early groups used the landscape. dian research. In this paper, we summarize the TP/EH Finally, our ability to characterize TP/EH environmental record of the northwestern Great Basin, focusing on change in the northwestern Great Basin has increased major developments since Beck and Jones’ (1997) dramatically.

CONTACT Geoffrey M. Smith [email protected] © 2017 Center for the Study of the First Americans 2 G. M. SMITH AND P. BARKER

3. The northwestern Great Basin today 4.1. Pluvial lakes and wetlands The northwestern Great Basin combines the internally- The northwestern Great Basin landscape was dominated draining portion of southern Oregon, northwestern by pluvial lakes and wetlands during the TP/EH. The lar- Nevada, and northeastern California with, for purpose gest system, Lake Lahontan, consisted of seven sub- of this paper, western Nevada’s Lahontan Basin basins across western Nevada that connected during (Figure 1). The area is primarily characterized by periods of high water. It reached its terminal Pleistocene basin-and-range topography although volcanic table- highstand ∼15,500 cal yr BP (Adams and Wesnousky lands occur in places. Major rivers include the Hum- 1998), at which time the interconnected sub-basins boldt, Carson, Truckee, and Walker rivers in western formed a deep lake covering ∼21,500 km2 (Reheis Nevada and the Donner und Blitzen River in south- 1999). During the Bølling Allerød, Lake Lahontan eastern Oregon. Today, these rivers feed extensive wet- dropped at least 100 m and separated into several smaller lands near Fallon, Nevada (Stillwater Marsh) and lakes. Lake levels rose during the Younger Dryas and Burns, Oregon (Malheur Wetlands) or empty into formed two large lakes, one that filled the Black Rock terminal lakes. Roughly 25 lakes have held water Desert/Smoke Creek Desert/Honey Lake/Pyramid during historic times; the largest include Pyramid, Lake/ sub-basins and one that filled Goose, Walker, and Abert lakes (Grayson 2011). the Carson Desert/Humboldt Sink sub-basin (Adams Many lakes are remnants of larger TP/EH pluvial sys- et al. 2008). Near the end of the Younger Dryas, lake tems. Most valley bottoms contain playas or shadscale levels again dropped below Emerson Pass, which separ- (Atriplex sp.), greasewood (Sarcobatus sp.), and sage- ates the Black Rock Desert/Smoke Creek Desert/Honey brush (Artemesia sp.) communities. Mid-elevation Lake sub-basins from the Pyramid Lake/Winnemucca zones are dominated by sagebrush with lesser amounts Lake sub-basins (Adams et al. 2008). Lakes remained of rabbitbrush (Chrysothamus sp.). Juniper (Juniperus low during the following millennium, but by ∼10,000 cal sp.), white fir (Abies concolor), ponderosa pine (Pinus yr BP water in the Pyramid Lake/Winnemucca Lake sub- ponderosa), whitebark pine (P. albicaulis), lodgepole basins rose again and spilled into the Smoke Creek pine (P. contorta) and western white pine Desert (Adams et al. 2008). This early Holocene trans- (P. monticola) also occur in places. Single-leaf pinyon gression peaked ∼8100 cal yr BP (Adams et al. 2008). (P. monophylla), an economically important species To the south, the lake in the Carson Sink was probably to native groups, is generally absent north of the Hum- higher near the end of the Younger Dryas but dropped boldt River (Grayson 2011). Higher-elevation zones in the 500 years that followed (Adams et al. 2008). feature fewer trees and more subalpine grasslands Other major lake systems include the and (Grayson 2011). Chewaucan basins in south-central Oregon. The Fort Rock system included three sub-basins (Silver Lake, Fort Rock Valley, and Christmas Valley) that formed a single lake during wet periods. Fort Rock Lake was 4. The TP/EH environment ∼40 m deep ∼16,000 cal yr BP but dropped ∼20 m by Our understanding of TP/EH conditions stems from cli- ∼15,600 cal yr BP. During the Bølling Allerød, a shallow matic modeling and proxy records including geo- lake persisted in the eastern Fort Rock Basin but disap- morphic features, macrobotanical remains, pollen peared by ∼10,350 cal yr BP (Friedel 1994). To the cores, and small- and large-mammal remains. Minckley, south, the Chewaucan system consists of two sub-basins Bartlein, and Shinker’s(2004) simulations suggest that separated by a threshold near the town of Paisley. Today, summer and winter conditions differed more ∼16,000– the northern sub-basin holds and the 14,000 cal yr BP than previous periods, and although southern sub-basin holds the Chewaucan Marshes and they may have been colder, winters were also drier. . During the terminal Pleistocene, both sub- During the Bølling Allerød (∼14,700–12,900 cal yr BP), basins held larger lakes – Winter Lake to the north and conditions were perhaps drier but still wetter than ZX Lake to the south (Allison 1982). When lake levels today. Minckley, Bartlein, and Shinker (2004) do not rose above the Paisley threshold, Winter and ZX lakes describe conditions during the Younger Dryas joined to form Lake Chewaucan, which covered 2 (∼12,900–11,600 cal yr BP) but suggest that winters ∼1250 km during its terminal Pleistocene highstand. were colder and summers were warmer than present Around 13,850 cal yr BP, Winter Lake rose rapidly and after ∼11,000 cal yr BP. Their simulation is supported may have overflowed the threshold to form Lake Che- by a variety of northwestern Great Basin records, waucan (Friedel 2001; Licciardi 2001). Shortly thereafter, which we summarize below. Lake Chewaucan quickly dropped, again forming two PALEOAMERICA 3

Figure 1 Map of the northwestern Great Basin with select locations discussed in the text. lakes. ZX Lake likely persisted into the early Holocene More than 20 other basins in the northwestern Great (Negrini 2002). Lake Chewaucan’s rise and fall during Basin held TP/EH lakes (Grayson 2011). In Oregon’s the Bølling Allerød was not synchronous with that of Warner Valley, Lake Warner paused in its terminal Lake Lahontan to the south, which reached its last Pleistocene recession sometime between ∼14,500 and major highstand a millennium earlier and rose again 12,400 cal yr BP but had fully retreated from the north- during the Younger Dryas a millennium later. This ern valley by ∼9650 cal yr BP (Smith et al. 2015a; difference may reflect the northward movement of the Weide 1975). To the north, Lake Malheur filled the Mal- jet stream as the ice sheets retreated (Friedel 2001; Lic- heur, Harney, and Mud sub-basins between ∼10,950 and ciardi 2001). 8250 cal yr BP (Dugas 1998). In northwestern Nevada, 4 G. M. SMITH AND P. BARKER

Five Mile Flat contained a shallow lake covering Warner Valley and higher locations it appeared for the ∼18 km2 (Mifflin and Wheat 1979). Although that sys- first time (Wigand and Rhode 2002). Pollen from Ore- tem remains unstudied, WST sites along its well-defined gon’s Bicycle Pond and Alkali Basin reflects high shoreline suggest that a lake was present when people amounts of grasses and sedges suggesting wet conditions camped around Five Mile Flat (Layton 1979; Smith (Wigand and Rhode 2002). At higher elevations, open 2007). forests and sagebrush steppe grasslands developed in Although people probably occupied the shores of parts of the northwestern Great Basin (Mehringer many TP/EH lakes and wetlands, Pinson’s(2008, 2011) 1985; Minckley, Whitlock, and Bartlein 2007). work in Oregon’s Alkali Basin demonstrates that the shorelines that Willig (1988, 1989) proposed were coeval 4.3. Large and small mammals with nearby Paleoindian sites instead predated them sig- nificantly. Later, when people first visited the Alkali Numerous genera of mammals went extinct in the Great Basin its lake or wetland had most likely been reduced Basin during the terminal Pleistocene (Grayson 2016). to a wet playa or meadow (Pinson 2008, 2011). Pinson’s Horses (Equus sp.), (Camelops sp.), and mam- work illustrates that although early sites are often found moths (Mammuthus sp.) were probably the most com- on relict pluvial landforms, this association has to be mon taxa, and the youngest examples of horse, demonstrated rather than assumed. mammoth, and shrub ox (Euceratherium sp.) known in In sum, while the distribution and extent of TP/EH the Great Basin come from the northwestern region lakes and wetlands varied due to a shifting jet stream (Grayson 2016). Relative to other parts of North Amer- and/or local differences in effective precipitation, the ica, megafauna were probably less common in the Great general picture in the northwestern Great Basin is one Basin due to a lack of critical grasslands (Grayson 2016). of drier conditions during the Bølling Allerød, wetter While megafauna disappeared around the time humans conditions during the Younger Dryas, and disappearing colonized the region, artiodactyls such as bison (Bison lakes during the early Holocene. As deeper lakes receded, bison), elk (Cervus elaphus), bighorn sheep (Ovis cana- wetlands emerged and biotic productivity probably densis), pronghorn (Antilocapra americana), and mule increased for a time (Young 1998). By the beginning of deer (Odocoileus hemionus) persisted. Bison have been the middle Holocene (∼8300 cal yr BP), most lakes and found in a few TP/EH contexts including the Black wetlands had contracted or disappeared (Grayson 2011). Rock Desert (Amick 2013; Dansie and Jerrems 2005), Connley Caves 4 and 5 (Bedwell 1973; Grayson 1979), Catlow (Cressman 1942; Wilde 1985), Cougar 4.2. Vegetation Mountain Cave 1 (Cowles 1960), Dirty Shame Rockshel- Changes in vegetation communities track shifts in sur- ter (Grayson 1977), and Hanging Rock Shelter (Grayson face water. Most were altitudinal rather than latitudinal, 1988), but they were probably not widespread (Grayson reflecting shifts in the season and amount of effective 2011). Only three sites (Connley Caves 4 and 5 and precipitation (Wigand and Rhode 2002). Prior to the Hanging Rock Shelter) have produced elk bones from Younger Dryas forests grew lower than today but by probable TP/EH contexts (Grayson 2011). Bighorn the end of that period pine and mountain mahogany sheep, pronghorn, and mule deer occur in many TP/ (Cercocarpus sp.) had retreated to higher elevations EH assemblages in the northwestern Great Basin but (Minckley, Bartlein, and Shinker 2004; Wigand and often in low numbers, which may reflect biases in the Rhode 2002). Mid- and high-elevations featured sage- archaeological record (Grayson 2011), Paleoindian sub- brush grasslands and conifer forests comprised of white- sistence strategies (Pinson 2007), or reduced artiodactyl bark pine and white fir in places not found today populations due to an unfavorable climate (Broughton (Mehringer 1985; Minckley, Whitlock, and Bartlein et al. 2008). 2007). Near the end of the Pleistocene, annual tempera- Smaller fauna such as pikas (Ochotona princeps) and tures may have been ∼11°F cooler than today in north- pygmy rabbits (Brachylagus idahoensis) are common western Nevada (Wigand and Rhode 2002). because their remains accumulate in caves and rockshel- As conditions warmed during the early Holocene, ters with good preservation. Records for those taxa are greasewood communities covered many valley floors most detailed after ∼13,300 cal yr BP (Grayson 2011), (Hansen 1947; Wigand and Rhode 2002). Pollen from and they are critical for environmental reconstructions. in the Carson Sink reflects expanding Pikas have been identified in TP/EH deposits at the desert shrub vegetation and contracting sagebrush steppe Connley Caves, Hanging Rock Shelter, and the Paisley at lower elevations (Wigand and Mehringer 1985). In the Caves (Grayson 2005; Hockett and Jenkins 2013). Smoke Creek Desert, juniper disappeared while in These sites are lower in elevation and some distance PALEOAMERICA 5 from where pikas live today (Grayson 2005). Because 5.1. Clovis-first and coastal migration pikas cannot tolerate temperatures above 80°F (Grayson Until recently most researchers believed that once 2011), they are good indicators of cooler temperatures in humans arrived in eastern they traveled the TP/EH. Similarly, shifts in the distribution of pygmy south through an ice-free corridor between the Cor- rabbits reflect climate change due to their reliance on big dilleran and Laurentide ice sheets, developed Clovis sagebrush (). Pygmy rabbits are points south of the corridor, and rapidly dispersed known from several northwestern Great Basin sites into an unpopulated landscape (Erlandson, Moss, including Bowling Dune, DJ Ranch, GP-2, Locality III, and Des Lauriers 2008). This “Clovis-First” model and the Connley Caves – all located in the Fort Rock hinges on two factors: (1) when the ice-free corridor Basin – and , Hanging Rock Shelter, opened; and (2) the age of archaeological sites south and Ezra’s Retreat in northern Nevada (Grayson 2011). of the ice sheets, which must necessarily postdate Although pygmy rabbits live in most of those locations the opening of the corridor. By ∼13,400 cal yr BP, today, some sites show sharp declines in abundance the ice-free corridor was open and capable of support- between the TP/EH and later periods, indicating ing humans (Ives et al. 2013). Depending on the sites decreased big sagebrush and lower precipitation in included and calibration programs used, the Clovis some places during the Holocene (Grayson 1979). Era either spanned ∼13,400–12,700 cal yr BP (Haynes 2015) or ∼13,000–12,600 cal yr BP (Waters and Staf- ford 2007). 5. The colonization of the New World If only the age of Clovis and the opening of the ice- Beringia was the most likely route taken by populations free corridor are considered, then the Clovis-First initially colonizing the New World (Goebel, Waters, model seems to account for how and when the first and O’Rourke 2008; Graf 2013; Madsen 2015; Pitblado Americans reached the temperate Americas. However, 2011). Genetic studies (primarily involving mtDNA) as the number of pre-Clovis-aged sites in the New indicate that modern Native Americans, northeastern World grows beyond and Meadowcroft Asians, and ancient Americans are related (Gilbert et al. Rockshelter (see Haynes (2015) critical review of those 2008; Raghavan et al. 2014; Rasmussen et al. 2015). and 14 other pre-Clovis sites) the Clovis-First model, While there is disagreement over the timing and number as originally envisioned, becomes increasingly untenable of migrations, genetic evidence suggests that initial colo- (Goebel, Waters, and O’Rourke 2008). In the Far West, nization probably occurred as one or two major events the in Oregon have produced radiocarbon with people reaching temperate North America by dates that predate the Clovis Era by a millennium or so ∼15,000 cal yr BP (Goebel, Waters, and O’Rourke 2008; (Jenkins et al. 2012, 2013). Because it and other pre- Pitblado 2011). Archaeological evidence supports genetic Clovis sites in North and South America were occupied studies that identify western Beringia as the place of origin before ∼13,400 cal yr BP (the date by which the ice-free of the first Americans and the timing of New World colo- corridor became habitable), the first people to bypass the nization at ∼15,000 cal yr BP. People initially moved into ice sheets may have instead traveled down the Pacific the Siberian Arctic during a relatively warm period and Coast ∼16,000–15,000 cal yr BP (Davis, Willis, and Mac- occupied the Yana Rhinoceros Horn Site ∼32,000 cal yr Farlan 2012; Erlandson et al. 2015; Goebel, Waters, and BP (Pitulko et al. 2013). As conditions cooled during O’Rourke 2008). the , populations likely retreated Direct evidence supporting a coastal route is scant due south and did not return to high latitudes until to high postglacial sea levels, but it is becoming clear that ∼17,000–16,000 cal yr BP, at which time Diuktai Cave people reached temperate North America before the ice- and perhaps other nearby sites were initially occupied free corridor opened. Traveling down the Pacific Coast is (Graf 2013). This would have placed western Beringian the most likely route taken. The presence of humans in populations in a good position to begin crossing the Ber- temperate North America and South America a millen- ing Land Bridge ∼16,000 cal yr BP (Graf 2013). The ear- nium before the presumptive start of the Clovis Era liest well-dated site in eastern Beringia is Swan Point, suggests that the technological antecedent(s) of fluted Alaska, dated to ∼14,000 cal yr BP and perhaps a few cen- points may not be found in Beringia. Many researchers turies earlier (Holmes 2011; Potter, Holmes, and Yesner (e.g., Beck and Jones 2010; Goebel et al. 2013; Ives 2013), with other sites including Broken Mammoth, Little et al. 2013; Waters and Stafford 2013) now suggest that John, and Mead dated to the subsequent millennium fluted points first emerged in temperate North America (Potter, Holmes, and Yesner 2013). and spread south-to-north. 6 G. M. SMITH AND P. BARKER

6. The colonization of the northwestern Great WST point was recovered in situ in what Jenkins et al. Basin (2013) refer to as the Indurated Silt Lens (ISL); a sage- brush twig 40 cm away in the ISL was dated to 11,070 In recent years, the Paisley Caves have figured promi- ± 25 14C yr BP (∼12,925 cal yr BP) (Jenkins et al. nently in the debate over how and when the New 2013). Two human coprolites from LU2 in the south World was colonized. These wave-cut rockshelters, excavation block of Cave 5 returned pre-Clovis ages: which are located in the Summer Lake Basin, were one containing human mtDNA haplogroup A was initially excavated by between 1938 dated to 12,165 ± 25 14C yr BP (∼14,050 cal yr BP) and and 1940 (Cressman 1940). Cressman (1942) reported a second one containing human mtDNA haplogroup B finding a living floor, a few obsidian artifacts including was dated to 12,265 ± 25 14C yr BP (∼14,175 cal yr BP) WST points, and the remains of Pleistocene , (Jenkins et al. 2013). Two additional coprolites from bison, and horse well below the Mazama tephra layer. LU2 in the south excavation block of Cave 5 date to He argued that early groups processed and consumed about a thousand years later and also contained human those animals. Later researchers (e.g., Jennings 1986) dis- mtDNA haplogroup A (Jenkins et al. 2013). missed Cressman’s claim on the wholly reasonable In the north excavation block of Cave 5, a WST point, grounds that he had failed to demonstrate an association a biface, a polished handstone from which horse protein between the artifacts and bones of now-extinct animals was extracted, and eight flakes were recovered from LU1 found there. Between 2002 and 2011, and LU2; the point was found in sifted LU2 sediment returned to the Paisley Caves to evaluate Cressman’s excavated in a 5-cm level (Jenkins et al. 2013). A cut- claims. marked bighorn sheep mandible from a feature referred Jenkins’ work in caves 2 and 5 produced evidence for to as the Bone Pit returned a date of 12,380 ± 70 14C yr occupations coeval with and predating the Clovis Era. In BP (∼14,475 cal yr BP) (Hockett and Jenkins 2013). A Cave 2, the oldest artifacts were recovered from stratum coprolite from the Bone Pit contained human mtDNA LU2. The oldest is a polished and battered hand- haplogroup B2 and returned two ages, 12,400 ± 60 14C stone from which proboscidean protein and Apiaceae 14 yr BP (∼14,500 cal yr BP) and 12,275 ± 55 C yr BP (the parsley, biscuitroot, and carrot family) starch, (∼14,275 cal yr BP). A nearby canid coprolite containing grass starch, and grass phytoliths were extracted. It is 14 human mtDNA haplogroup A2, human hair, and bracketed by radiocarbon dates of 11,930 ± 25 C yr 14 14 human proteins was dated twice to 12,140 ± 70 C yr BP (∼13,750 cal yr BP) and 11,740 ± 25 C yr BP BP (∼14,000 cal yr BP) and 12,260 ± 60 14C yr BP (∼13,525 cal yr BP) (Jenkins et al. 2013). The 11,930 ± ( 14,250 cal yr BP) (Jenkins et al. 2013). A third copro- 14 ∼ 25 C BP date was obtained on a cut-marked artiodactyl lite containing human mtDNA haplogroup B returned rib (Hockett and Jenkins 2013). A nearby retouched two ages, 12,290 ± 60 14C yr BP (∼14,325 cal yr BP) obsidian flake also produced proboscidean protein. and 12,345 ± 55 14C yr BP (∼14,400 cal yr BP), and con- Other artifacts from LU2 include a possible grinding tained abundant Apiaceae pollen, pollen from other slab, an obsidian biface, and 228 obsidian flakes (Jenkins edible plants, and one grass starch grain (Jenkins et al. et al. 2012). Charcoal from a hearth surrounded by 2013). A fourth coprolite containing human mtDNA burned bone and obsidian debitage situated at the top haplogroup B returned a date of 11,190 ± 30 14C yr BP of stratum LU2 was radiocarbon dated four times; (∼13,050 cal yr BP) (Jenkins et al. 2013). Finally, a poss- three dates place the age of the hearth at ∼12,900 cal yr ible tool made on a bear bone was directly dated to BP. A younger date of ∼11,475 cal yr BP was dismissed 12,195 ± 30 14C yr BP (∼14,100 cal yr BP) (Jenkins as derived from intrusive charcoal from the overlying et al. 2013) LU3 (Jenkins et al. 2013). Three coprolites from stratum In sum, radiocarbon dates obtained on charcoal, LU2 in Cave 2 were dated to 11,625 ± 35 14C yr BP modified bone, and coprolites containing human DNA (∼13,475 cal yr BP), 11,270 ± 30 14C yr BP (∼13,125 cal indicate that people first occupied Paisley Caves 2 and yr BP), and 10,980 ± 35 14C yr BP (∼12,850 cal yr BP); 5 a millennium or so before the Clovis Era. Furthermore, the latter two specimens contained human mtDNA hap- they indicate that WST technology at the site is coeval logroups A and B, respectively (Jenkins et al. 2013). with Clovis technology elsewhere in North America. Jen- Cave 5 produced a larger assemblage of artifacts and kins et al.’s(2012, 2013) discovery is critically important ecofacts from LU1 and LU2. In the south excavation to the debate over how and when people colonized the block, obsidian flakes were found in LU2 near a con- New World. If people were in the northwestern Great choidally-fractured large mammal bone that produced Basin prior to 14,000 cal yr BP then they probably des- dates of 12,290 ± 40 and 12,290 ± 70 14C yr BP cended from groups who traveled down the Pacific (∼14,400 cal yr BP) (Jenkins et al. 2013). An obsidian Coast and moved inland before the ice-free corridor PALEOAMERICA 7 opened and Clovis technology emerged in interior North (Jenkins et al. 2016), and Connley Cave 4 produced America (Beck and Jones 2010, 2013; Davis, Willis, and both Younger Dryas and post-Younger Dryas dates MacFarlan 2012; Erlandson 2013). (Bedwell 1973; Jenkins, personal communication, Some researchers have questioned Jenkins’ conclusion 2016). In Nevada’s Black Rock Desert, Handprint Cave that people initially occupied the Paisley Caves prior to produced a date of 10,740 ± 40 14C yr BP (∼12,675 cal yr 14,000 cal yr BP. Goldberg, Berna, and MacPhail BP), a purported WST point, and a flake tool (Gruhn (2009) and Poinar et al. (2009) suggested that the micro- and Bryan 1988); however, there is now a consensus morphology of the pre-Clovis coprolites indicates they that the point is not a WST type and the dated charcoal were not deposited by humans. Fiedel (2014) expressed alone is not clear evidence of a Younger Dryas occu- concern about the mtDNA present in two coprolites, pation (Beck and Jones 2013; Goebel and Keene 2014). which he suggested may reflect contamination or misi- Last Supper Cave in northwestern Nevada produced a dentification, and highlighted possible stratigraphic mix- date of 10,280 ± 4 0 14C yr BP (∼12,100 cal yr BP) on ing in the caves. Finally, Sistiaga et al. (2014) suggested charcoal from a hearth in the site’s lowest stratum that the oldest coprolite identified as human, dated (Smith 2008), suggesting that it was first occupied during twice to 14,500 and ∼14,275 cal yr BP, possesses micro- the Younger Dryas. Unfortunately, additional dating morphological characteristics and biomarkers of a non- efforts have not generated a second Younger Dryas- human herbivore. Jenkins and colleagues have worked aged date and instead suggests that the site was initially to address these concerns; for example, they evaluated occupied a millennium or so later (Felling 2015; Ollivier, the possibility that younger human DNA was translo- Smith, and Barker forthcoming; Smith et al. 2015b). cated by downward fluid transport and contaminated Finally, two points made on proboscidean bone and older non-human coprolites and found no evidence ivory from Pyramid Lake returned dates of 10,360 ± 50 that this occurred (Jenkins et al. 2012). They also 14C yr BP and 10,34 0 ± 40 14C yr BP (∼12,200 cal yr BP) addressed Goldberg, Berna, and MacPhail’s(2009) sug- (Dansie and Jerrems 2005). Beyond the northwestern gestion that the oldest coprolite (also studied by Sistiaga Great Basin in Idaho, both the Buhl burial and the Coop- et al. 2014) was not human by highlighting well-docu- er’s Ferry Site produced dates marking either Younger mented variability in human coprolite content and mor- Dryas or slightly earlier occupations (Davis, Nyers, and phology and conducting additional tests to evaluate the Willis 2014; Green et al. 1998). mtDNA content of the specimen (Rasmussen et al. The number of well-dated sites in the northwestern 2009). In our opinion, with the exception of Sistiaga Great Basin rises sharply during the early Holocene et al.’s(2014) recent critique, Jenkins’ team has ade- (see Table 1). Some caves and rockshelters including quately addressed concerns about the antiquity and ori- LSP-1 (Smith et al. 2016), Sentinel Cave (Wilde 1985), gin of the oldest coprolites at this site. Dirty Shame Rockshelter (Aikens, Cole, and Stuckenrath 1977), and a number of sites in the Carson Desert were occupied for the first time. Others initially occupied 7. The TP/EH radiocarbon record in the during the Younger Dryas or earlier (e.g., the Paisley northwestern Great Basin Caves, the Connley Caves) saw continued use during Beyond the Paisley Caves, sites with evidence of pre- the early Holocene. Many of these sites would have Younger Dryas occupations are rare in the northwestern been situated near productive wetlands, but others like Great Basin (Table 1).2 (Bedwell 1973), Last Supper Cave, Antelope Overhang, and Dirty Fishbone Cave (Dansie and Jerrems 2005; Orr 1974), Shame Rockshelter are located along streams in volcanic Cougar Mountain Cave 2 (Bedwell and Cressman uplands, suggesting that groups expanded to new habi- 1971), and Connley Cave 4 (Bedwell 1973) have all pro- tats during the early Holocene. Some sites, like LSP-1, duced radiocarbon dates older than ∼12,900 cal yr BP. were repeatedly visited by groups targeting rabbits and Those dates have either not been replicated, are not hares (Pellegrini 2014; Smith et al. 2016; Ware Van der clearly tied to cultural occupations, or represent outliers Voort 2016). Early occupations at Last Supper Cave in components that also produced multiple later dates. appear to have been brief while later visitors stayed Reanalysis of collections (e.g., Pellegrini, Hattori, and longer (Felling 2015). Other sites including Dirty Benson 2016) or additional fieldwork (e.g., Connolly Shame Rockshelter, Cougar Mountain Cave, and the et al. 2016a) should resolve lingering questions about Connley Caves probably served as residential camps some of these sites. (Aikens, Connolly, and Jenkins 2011). In contrast, Well-dated Younger Dryas occupations are also caves and shelters in the Carson Desert were used pri- uncommon in the region (see Table 1). Several of the marily as places to bury the dead (Dansie 1997; Tuohy Paisley Caves contained Younger Dryas occupations and Dansie 1997). 8 G. M. SMITH AND P. BARKER

Table 1 Radiocarbon dates associated with TP/EH sites in the northwestern Great Basin 14C date and 2σ cal yr BP Site number and name Lab number Material dated error rangea Primary reference Oregon 35Lk1180 (Christmas Valley) Beta-23351 Charcoal 8220 ± 430 10,245–8200 Oetting (1994) Beta-26024 Charcoal 9880 ± 380 12,575–10,399 Oetting (1994) 35Lk1881 (Christmas Valley) Beta-22579 Feature charcoal 8080 ± 120 9395–8608 Oetting (1994) Beta-34209 Scattered charcoal 8710 ± 140 10,169–9499 Oetting (1994) Beta-30340 Feature charcoal 8880 ± 120 10,234–9601 Oetting (1994) Beta-30342 Feature charcoal 8950 ± 120 10,377–9632 Oetting (1994) Beta-30341 Feature charcoal 9120 ± 120 10,644–9915 Oetting (1994) 35Lk2076 (Christmas Valley) Beta-22580 Feature charcoal 8780 ± 120 10,165–9549 Oetting (1994) Beta-26026 Feature charcoal 8870 ± 200 10,486–9521 Oetting (1994) Beta-30341 Scattered charcoal 10,020 ± 370 12,678–10,600 Oetting (1994) 35Lk2095 (Christmas Valley) Beta-23593 Scattered charcoal 9130 ± 130 10,656–9914 Oetting (1994) Beta-17754 Scattered charcoal 10,800 ± 600 14,132–10,799 Oetting (1994) 35Lk1 (Fort Rock Cave) AA-99757 Open twined mat fragment 8281 ± 54 9441–9082 Connolly and Cannon (1999) UCIAMS-127300 Fort Rock 8365 ± 25 9656–9533 Connolly et al. (2016b) AA-101454 Fort Rock sandal 8384 ± 49 9500–9285 Connolly et al. (2016b) AA-101455 Fort Rock sandal 8447 ± 49 9537–9324 Connolly et al. (2016b) UCIAMS-127301 Fort Rock sandal 8450 ± 25 9523–9441 Connolly et al. (2016b) Beta-221343 Fort Rock sandal 8460 ± 40 9532–9433 Connolly et al. (2016b) UCIAMS-87419 Fort Rock sandal 8480 ± 30 9534–9463 Connolly et al. (2016b) I-1917 Fort Rock sandal 8500 ± 140 9904–9124 Bedwell and Cressman (1971) Gak-2146b Charcoal 8550 ± 150 10,135–9138 Bedwell (1973) AA-9250c Fort Rock sandal 8715 ± 49 9887–9548 Connolly and Cannon (1999) C-428bd Fort Rock sandal 8916 ± 540 11,705–8644 Cressman (1951) C-428ad Fort Rock sandal 9188 ± 480 12,004–9270 Arnold and Libby (1951) AA-9249 Fort Rock sandal 9215 ± 140 11,059–9945 Connolly and Cannon (1999) Gak-2147b Charcoal 10,200 ± 230 12,568–11,236 Bedwell (1973) Gak-1738b Hearth charcoal 13,200 ± 720 17,854–13,776 Bedwell (1973) 35Lk55 (Cougar Mountain UCLA-112 Fort Rock sandal 8510 ± 250b 10,232–8807 Ferguson and Libby (1962) Cave 1) 35Lk55 (Cougar Mountain Gak-1751b Charcoal 11,950 ± 350 15,085–13,145 Bedwell and Cressman (1971) Cave 2) 35Ha405 (Catlow Cave) Beta-249772 Spiral weft sandal 7860 ± 50 8973–8543 Connolly et al. (2016b) AA-30056 Fort Rock sandal 8308 ± 43 9445–9139 Connolly and Cannon (1999) AA-61372 Fort Rock sandal 8386 ± 52 9517–9285 Connolly et al. (2016b) Beta-249768 Fort Rock sandal 8400 ± 50 9520–9301 Connolly et al. (2016b) AA-74221 Open simple twined mat 8625 ± 56 9732–9501 Connolly et al. (2016b) fragment 35Ha433 (Roaring Springs AA-61370 Spiral weft sandal 8065 ± 50 9127–8768 Connolly et al. (2016b) Cave) 35Lk50 (Connley Cave 3) Gak-1739b Charcoal 8290 ± 310 10,151–8,520 Bedwell (1973) 35Lk50 (Connley Cave 4) Gak-1741b Charcoal 7900 ± 170 9248–8391 Bedwell (1973) Gak-2136b Charcoal 9150 ± 150 10,748–9888 Bedwell (1973) Gak-2142b Charcoal 9670 ± 180 11,687–10,507 Bedwell (1973) Gak-1742b Charcoal 10,100 ± 400 12,731–10592 Bedwell (1973) Gak-2143b Charcoal 10,600 ± 190 12,882–11,834 Bedwell (1973) Gak-2141b Charcoal 11,200 ± 200 13,420–12,720 Bedwell (1973) 35Lk50 (Connley Cave 5) Beta-146867 Charcoal 7950 ± 40 8983–8646 Jenkins, Aikens, and Cannon (2002) Beta-160829 Charcoal 9430 ± 80 11,080–10,432 Jenkins, Aikens, and Cannon (2002) Gak-1744b Charcoal 9540 ± 260 11,709–10,211 Bedwell (1973) Gak-1743b Charcoal 9800 ± 250 12,129–10,505 Bedwell (1973) 35Lk50 (Connley Cave 6) Beta-160830 Charcoal 7810 ± 40 8699–8459 Jenkins, Aikens, and Cannon (2002) Beta-160827 Charcoal 8960 ± 90 10,254–9742 Jenkins, Aikens, and Cannon (2002) Gak-1745b Charcoal 9710 ± 880 13,542–9020 Bedwell (1973) 35Ha312 (Sentinel Cave) SI-4298 Hearth charcoal 8310 ± 150 9557–8787 Wilde (1985) 35Lk3035 (Locality III) Beta-85686 Pit feature charcoal 7670 ± 230 9086–8010 Jenkins (2004) WSU-4862 Hearth charcoal 7880 ± 240 9407–8216 Jenkins (2004) Beta-101739 Olivella bead 8260 ± 60e 9429–9033 Jenkins (2000) Beta-85687 Soil 8940 ± 130 10,375–9600 Jenkins (2004) WSU-3499 Hearth charcoal 9400 ± 270 11,598–9901 Mehringer and Cannon (1994) 35Ds34 (Paulina Lake Site) Beta-57732 Charcoal 7560 ± 190 8970–7975 Connolly (1999) Beta-56724 Feature charcoal 7930 ± 80 9004–8591 Connolly (1999) Beta-24298 Isolated charcoal 8210 ± 60 9399–9015 Connolly (1999) Beta-59315 Post charcoal 8460 ± 110 9670–9137 Connolly (1999) Beta-59316 Post charcoal 8540 ± 90 9742–9307 Connolly (1999) Beta-57733 Post charcoal 8670 ± 110 10,145–9480 Connolly (1999) Beta-56723 Feature charcoal 8680 ± 70 9891–9533 Connolly (1999) Beta-60883 Hearth charcoal 8880 ± 110 10,231–9627 Connolly (1999) Beta-60884 Isolated charcoal 8980 ± 190 10,551–9555 Connolly (1999) Beta-56725 Hearth charcoal 9060 ± 80 10,485–9920 Connolly (1999) Beta-56722 Charcoal fragments 9920 ± 470 12,705–10,255 Connolly (1999)

(Continued) PALEOAMERICA 9

Table 1 Continued. 14C date and 2σ cal yr BP Site number and name Lab number Material dated error rangea Primary reference 35Ml65 (Dirty Shame D-AMS 15104af Open simple twined mat 7707 ± 27 8546–8423 Connolly et al. (2016b) Rockshelter) fragment SI-1771 Isolated charcoal 7850 ± 120 8996–8427 Aikens, Cole, and Stuckenrath (1977) SI-1773 Isolated charcoal 7880 ± 100 9000–8460 Aikens, Cole, and Stuckenrath (1977) AA-45786 Spiral weft sandal 7901 ± 68 8991–8586 Connolly and Barker (2004) D-AMS 15104bf Open simple twined 7905 ± 28 8971–8600 Tom Connolly, personal basketry communication, 2016 SI-1768 Uncharred twigs/bark 7925 ± 80 9003–8588 Aikens, Cole, and Stuckenrath (1977) D-AMS 16314f Open simple twined mat 7961 ± 26 8988–8657 Tom Connolly, personal fragment communication, 2016 Beta-147423 Spiral weft sandal 8020 ± 40 9018–8727 Connolly et al. 2016b AA-45787 Spiral weft sandal 8106 ± 67 9270–8776 Connolly and Barker (2004) AA-106468 Open simple twined sandal 8128 ± 37 9238–8994 Connolly et al. (2016b) toe AA-45788 Spiral weft sandal 8395 ± 70 9534–9151 Connolly and Barker (2004) Beta-147421 Fort Rock sandal 8730 ± 40 9887–9556 Connolly and Barker (2004) SI-2268 Uncharred twigs 8850 ± 75 10,190–9680 Aikens, Cole, and Stuckenrath (1977) SI-2265 Isolated charcoal 8865 ± 95 10,218–9634 Aikens, Cole, and Stuckenrath (1977) SI-1775 Isolated charcoal 8905 ± 75 10,221–9744 Aikens, Cole, and Stuckenrath (1977) SI-1774 Isolated charcoal 9500 ± 95 11,157–10,559 Aikens, Cole, and Stuckenrath (1977) 35Ml1235 (Antelope Beta-185435 Possible cordage 7630 ± 40 8537–8375 Plager, Plew, and Wilson (2006) Overhang) Beta-185436 Possible sagebrush matting 7700 ± 40 8591–8432 Plager, Plew, and Wilson (2006) AA-74228 Spiral weft sandal 7806 ± 40 8696–8456 Connolly et al. (2016b) WSU-1408B Sagebrush cordage 7960 ± 120 9189–8477 Plager, Plew, and Wilson (2006) Beta-249771 Fort Rock sandal 8260 ± 50 9421–9040 Connolly et al. (2016b) AA-74229 Spiral weft sandal 8395 ± 55 9522–9292 Connolly and Barker (2004) Beta-249770 Fort Rock sandal 8500 ± 60 9556–9411 Connolly et al. (2016b) Beta-185437 Sagebrush cordage 8690 ± 70 9901–9536 Plager, Plew, and Wilson (2006) 35Ha3735 (LSP-1 UGA-21827 Olivella bead 7890 ± 30 8258–7952g Smith et al. (2016) Rockshelter) D-AMS 10597 Isolated charcoal 7944 ± 35 8980–8644 Kennedy and Smith (2016) D-AMS 10594 Isolated charcoal 8263 ± 38 9408–9124 Kennedy and Smith (2016) Beta-282809 Isolated charcoal 8290 ± 40 9427–9137 Smith et al. (2012) UGA-15594 Isolated charcoal 8300 ± 20 9422–9252 Kennedy and Smith (2016) Beta-287251 Isolated charcoal 8340 ± 40 9470–9261 Smith et al. (2012) PRI-14-069 Isolated charcoal 8341 ± 27 9449–9289 Kennedy and Smith (2016) UGA-14916 Isolated charcoal 8350 ± 30 9462–9296 Smith et al. (2014) Beta-297186 Isolated charcoal 8400 ± 50 9520–9301 Smith et al. (2012) UGA-21829 Olivella bead 8630 ± 21h 9142–8765g Smith et al. (2016) Beta-306419 Isolated charcoal 8670 ± 40 9731–9540 Smith et al. (2012) UGA-15142 Hearth charcoal 8700 ± 30 9735–9550 Smith et al. (2014) UGA-21825 Olivella bead 8870 ± 30 9435–9119g Smith et al. (2016) UGA-21826 Olivella bead 8932 ± 17i 9477–9232g Smith et al. (2016) UGA-21828 Olivella bead 9200 ± 30 9815–9489g Smith et al. (2016) 35LK1529/65 (Tucker Site) Beta-102258 Feature charcoal 9160 ± 50 10,487–10,230 Pinson (2004) Beta-102257j Feature charcoal 9430 ± 80 11,080–10,432 Pinson (2004) Beta-102260 Feature charcoal 9480 ± 50 11,070–10,582 Pinson (2004) Beta-102259 Feature charcoal 9520 ± 60 11,100–10,603 Pinson (2004) Beta-102256 Isolated charcoal 9540 ± 50 11,097–10,697 Pinson (2004) AA-3932 Isolated charcoal 9610 ± 100 11,214–10,684 Willig (1989) 35Lk3400 (Paisley Cave 1) Beta-191540 Hearth charcoal 7600 ± 70 8549–8213 Jenkins et al. (2013) UCIAMS-98927 Isolated charcoal 7680 ± 20 8537–8415 Jenkins et al. (2013) Beta-239084 Cut-marked artiodactyl 10,180 ± 60 12,110–11,510 Jenkins et al. (2013) bone AA-96488 Cordage 10,476 ± 56 12,570–12,129 Jenkins et al. (2013) 35Lk3400 (Paisley Cave 2) UCIAMS-76188 Human coprolite 7595 ± 15 9415–8380 Jenkins et al. (2013) UCIAMS-79712 Human coprolite 7645 ± 20 8510–8390 Jenkins et al. (2013) Beta-240513 Open simple twining 7680 ± 50 8561–8390 Jenkins et al. (2013) basketry AA-96487 Possible net fragment 9078 ± 52 10,390–10,174 Jenkins et al. (2013) D-AMS1217–410 k Cordage 9774 ± 46 11,256–11,130 Jenkins et al. (2013) UCIAMS-85337 k Cordage 9995 ± 25 11,614–11,310 Jenkins et al. (2013)

(Continued) 10 G. M. SMITH AND P. BARKER

Table 1 Continued. 14C date and 2σ cal yr BP Site number and name Lab number Material dated error rangea Primary reference UCIAMS-98931k Hearth charcoal 10,020 ± 30 11,704–11,330 Jenkins et al. (2013) UCIAMS-87421 Sagebrush cordage 10,070 ± 30 11,769–11,400 Jenkins et al. (2013) UCIAMS-85336 Sagebrush cordage 10,250 ± 25 12,129–11,830 Jenkins et al. (2013) UCIAMS-87420k Cordage 10,290 ± 35 12,375–11,837 Jenkins et al. (2013) Beta-195908 Braided sagebrush 10,290 ± 40 12,378–11,835 Jenkins et al. (2013) AA-96490 Braided sagebrush 10,319 ± 56 12,399–11,845 Jenkins et al. (2013) D-AMS-1217-411k Sagebrush cordage 10,356 ± 44 12,400–12,024 Jenkins et al. (2013) UCIAMS-79680k Sagebrush cordage 10,365 ± 30 12,391–12,065 Jenkins et al. (2013) UCIAMS-102112 Human hair 10,585 ± 35 12,672–12,428 Jenkins et al. (2013) UCIAMS-76191 Human coprolite 10980 ± 20 12,918–12,723 Jenkins et al. (2013) UCIAMS-90577k Hearth charcoal 11,005 ± 30 12,986–12,745 Jenkins et al. (2013) UCIAMS-102110k Hearth charcoal 11,055 ± 35 13,040–12,800 Jenkins et al. (2013) D-AMS-1217-406k Hearth charcoal 11,098 ± 45 13,075–12,823 Jenkins et al. (2013) UCIAMS-77103 Human coprolite 11,270 ± 30 13,190–13,062 Jenkins et al. (2013) UCIAMS-77104 Human coprolite 11,625 ± 35 13,565–13,383 Jenkins et al. (2013) UCIAMS-90593 Cut-marked pronghorn 11,930 ± 25 13,954–13,570 Hockett and Jenkins (2013) bone Paisley Cave 5 (35Lk3400) Beta-191539 Hearth charcoal 7640 ± 50 8543–8376 Jenkins et al. (2013) UCIAMS-76183 Human coprolite 9170 ± 20 10,401–10,246 Jenkins et al. (2013) UCIAMS-75104 Sagebrush cordage 9625 ± 20 11,163–10,795 Jenkins et al. (2013) UCIAMS-85337 Hemp cordage 9995 ± 25 11,614–11,310 Jenkins et al. (2013) UCIAMS-79678 Willow dart butt 10,030 ± 25 11,708–11,353 Jenkins et al. (2013) UCIAMS-79678 Grass thread 10,030 ± 90 11,954–11,249 Jenkins et al. (2013) UCIAMS-87421k Cordage 10,070 ± 30 11,769–11,400 Jenkins et al. (2013) UCIAMS-85336k Cordage 10,250 ± 25 12,129–11,830 Jenkins et al. (2013) UCIAMS-87420 Hemp cordage 10,290 ± 35 12,375–11,837 Jenkins et al. (2013) Beta-171938 Grass threads 10,550 ± 40 12,640–12,415 Jenkins et al. (2013) UCIAMS-77102 Human coprolite 11,190 ± 30 13,116–13,005 Jenkins et al. (2013) UCIAMS-90583 Human coprolite 11,205 ± 25 13,126–13,301 Jenkins et al. (2013) UCIAMS-90581 Human coprolite 11,340 ± 30 13,273–13,100 Jenkins et al. (2013) OxA-16495k Human coprolite 12,140 ± 70 14,186–13,779 Jenkins et al. (2013) UCIAMS-79706 Human coprolite 12,165 ± 25 14,160–13,954 Jenkins et al. (2013) UCIAMS-68017 Modified bear bone 12,195 ± 30 14,199–13,977 Jenkins et al. (2013) Beta-216474k Human coprolite 12,260 ± 60 14,532–13,980 Jenkins et al. (2013) UCIAMS-76190 Human coprolite 12,265 ± 25 14,305–14,048 Jenkins et al. (2013) OxA-16498k Human coprolite 12,275 ± 55 14,546–14,008 Jenkins et al. (2013) Beta-213424k Human coprolite 12,400 ± 60 14,859–14,145 Jenkins et al. (2013) Beta-213426k Human coprolite 12,290 ± 60 14,628–14,030 Jenkins et al. (2013) OxA-16497k Human coprolite 12,345 ± 55 14,711–14,101 Jenkins et al. (2013) Beta-239087 Cut-marked bighorn sheep 12,380 ± 70 14,854–14,113 Hockett and Jenkins (2013) bone Nevada 26Hu1836 (Handprint Cave) Beta-21885 Isolated charcoal 10,740 ± 70 12,745–12,565 Gruhn and Bryan (1988) 26Wa198 (Shinners Site A) Beta-214527 Catlow twined basketry 8140 ± 40 9247–9001 Connolly et al. (2016b) UCLA-672 Open simple twined mat 8380 ± 120 9546–9033 Hattori (1982) fragment Beta-214528 Open simple twined mat/ 8530 ± 40 9546–9478 Connolly et al. (2016b) bag UCLA-675 Open simple twined mat/ 9540 ± 120 11,201–10,560 Rozaire (1969) bag 26Pe2 (Horse Cave) AA-74067 Fort Rock sandal 8155 ± 49 9259–9006 Connolly et al. (2016b) UCR-3909 Open simple twined fringed 8200 ± 40 9279–9027 Rozaire (1974) bag UCR-3965 Catlow twined mat 8270 ± 40 9415–9127 Connolly et al. (2016b) UCR-3910 Open simple twined fringed 8400 ± 40 9502–9304 Connolly et al. (2016b) bag 26Pe3a (Crypt Cave) UCR-3483 Warp-faced plain weave 9120 ± 60 10,484–10,193 Tuohy and Dansie (1997) mat UCR-3675 Warp-faced plain weave 9140 ± 60 10,490–10,205 Fowler et al. (2000) mat 26Pe3b (Chimney Cave) UCR-3676 Warp-faced plain weave 9220 ± 50 10,514–10,248 Fowler et al. (2000) mat 26Pe3c (Cowbone Cave) Beta-214524 Warp-faced plain weave 8720 ± 40 9887–9551 Connolly et al. (2016b) mat 26Pe3e (Fishbone Cave) L-289 Netting 7830 ± 350 9523–8010 Hattori (1982) UCR-3924 Open twined fringed bag 8200 ± 50 9300–9015 Connolly et al. (2016b) UCR-3779 Catlow twined mat 8370 ± 50 9495–9297 Connolly et al. (2016b) L-245 Cedar bark mat 10,900 ± 300 13,421–12,051 Orr (1974) L-245 Cedar bark mat 11,250 ± 250 13,571–12,700 Orr (1974) 26Hu58 (Wallman Bison) UCR-3782 Bison bone 9770 ± 50 11,260–11,105 Dansie and Jerrems (2005)

(Continued) PALEOAMERICA 11

Table 1 Continued. 14C date and 2σ cal yr BP Site number and name Lab number Material dated error rangea Primary reference 26Wa2488 (Nicholarsen I-6873 Diagonal twined decorated 7980 ± 610 10,520–7671 Barnes (2000) Site) basketry 26Hu3557 (Elephant Beta-146211 Spiral weft sandal 7740 ± 90 8850–8371 Connolly and Barker (2004) Mountain Cave) Beta-248278 Spiral weft sandal 8210 ± 50 9395–9020 Connolly et al. (2016b) Beta-163543 Fort Rock sandal 8270 ± 40 9415–9127 Hattori and Fowler (2006) AA-34773 Spiral weft sandal 8280 ± 65 9451–9035 Connolly and Barker (2004) Beta-163513 Spiral weft sandal 8300 ± 40 9434–9138 Connolly and Barker (2004) AA-74057 Spiral weft sandal 8360 ± 44 9481–9276 Connolly et al. (2016b) Beta-146212 Multiple warp sandal 8330 ± 40 9468–9153 Connolly and Barker (2004) Beta-146209 Fort Rock sandal 8670 ± 80 9913–9501 Connolly and Barker (2004) AA-34774 Warp-faced plain weave 8830 ± 70 10,178–9635 Barker et al. (2012) mat 26Wa217 (Pyramid Lake) GX-13744 Cordage 9660 ± 170 11,601–10,514 Tuohy (1988) UCR-3795 Bone harpoon 10,340 ± 40 12,389–12,007 Dansie and Jerrems (2005) UCR-3796 “Ivory” point 10,360 ± 50 12,410–12,011 Dansie and Jerrems (2005) 26Wa20 (Wizards Beach) UCR-3445k Human bone 9110 ± 60 10,481–10,185 Tuohy and Dansie (1997) CAMS-29180k Human bone 9200 ± 60 10,516–10,237 Tuohy and Dansie (1997) CAMS-28124k Human bone 9250 ± 60 10,570–10,257 Tuohy and Dansie (1997) GX-19422Gk Human bone 9515 ± 155 11,228–10,408 Edgar (1997) 26Ch46 (Hidden Cave) UCR-3635 Warp-faced plain weave 9329 ± 50 10,694–10,304 Fowler et al. (2000) mat 26Ch1c (Grimes Burial UCR-3477 Warp-faced plain weave 9470 ± 60 11,077–10,565 Tuohy and Dansie (1997) Shelter) mat 26Ch1f () UCR-3478l Open simple twined 9040 ± 50 10,290–9945 Tuohy and Dansie (1997) cordage bag UCR-3480m Warp-faced plain weave 9270 ± 60 10,640–10,256 Tuohy and Dansie (1997) mat UCR-3475 Human bone (Burial 1) 9300 ± 70 10,672–10,274 Tuohy and Dansie (1997) UCR-3261-4n Human hair (Spirit Cave 9350 ± 60 10,731–10,305 Tuohy and Dansie (1997) ) UCR-3261-2n Human hair (Spirit Cave 9360 ± 60 10,741–10,407 Tuohy and Dansie (1997) Mummy) UCR-3324-1o Open simple twined mat 9410 ± 60 11,061–10,439 Tuohy and Dansie (1997) UCR-3260n Human bone (Spirit Cave 9430 ± 60 11,066–10,504 Tuohy and Dansie (1997) Mummy) UCR-3323o Warp-faced plain weave 9430 ± 70 11,071–10,444 Tuohy and Dansie (1997) mat UCR-3261-3n Human hair (Spirit Cave 9440 ± 60 11,068–10,511 Tuohy and Dansie (1997) Mummy) UCR-3324-2o Open simple twined mat 9460 ± 60 11,074–10,555 Tuohy and Dansie (1997) 26Hu102 (Last Supper Cave) Unknown Charcoal 8160 ± 50 9262–9007 Grant (2008) WSU-1706k Hearth charcoal 8260 ± 90 9450–9024 Layton and Davis (1978) Beta-406151 Charcoal 8600 ± 30 9627–9523 Felling (2015) WSU-120 Margaritifera shell 8630 ± 195 10,223–9254 Layton and Davis (1978) LSU-73-120 Margaritifera shell 8790 ± 350 11,166–9310 Layton and Davis (1978) Unknown Charcoal 8910 ± 50 10,204–9795 Grant (2008) Beta-242511k Hearth charcoal 8920 ± 50 10,218–9890 Grant (2008) D-AMS 012575 Fort Rock sandal 8925 ± 39 10,195–9914 Ollivier (2016) Tx-2541k Hearth charcoal 8960 ± 190 10,513–9549 Layton and Davis (1978) Beta-231717 Hearth charcoal 10,280 ± 40 12,374–11,827 Smith (2008) 26Hu5105 (Five Mile Flat) Beta-304833 Charcoal 9720 ± 40 11,232–10,893 Hildebrandt et al. (2016) 26Hu4943 (Five Mile Flat) Beta-304847 Charcoal 9660 ± 50 11,204–10,786 Hildebrandt et al. (2016) aAll radiocarbon dates calibrated using OxCal 4.2 online program (Ramsey 2009) with IntCal 13 curve (Reimer et al. 2013). bDates were run by the Gakushian Laboratory. Several researchers (e.g., Banks and Wigand 2005; Blakeslee 1994; Maschner 2004) have expressed concerned about the reliability of GaK dates because they are often too old or too young when compared to dates on materials from the same contexts run by other labs. cThis sandal was purported to have come from Fort Rock Cave and was donated by private artifact collectors. dWhen averaged together, these two dates produce the 9053 ± 350 14C yr BP age commonly cited for the “Fort Rock Sandal.”“Several pairs of woven rope san- dals” (Arnold and Libby 1951, 117) were assayed for these dates. eCorrected age; measured age is 7830 ± 60 14C yr BP (Jenkins 2004). fMultiple radiocarbon dates on same sample; the textile initially produced a date of 10,547 ± 38 14C yr BP (Connolly et al. 2016b) that has been dismissed based on its re-dating. gCalibrated using a marine reservoir correction rate of 240 ± 50 developed by Moss and Erlandson (1995) for the . hAverage of two dates on different parts of the shell; dates averaged following Long and Rippeteau (1974). iAverage of three dates on different parts of the shell; dates averaged following Long and Rippeteau (1974). jLab number erroneously reported as Beta-102259 in Pinson (2004, 2008). kMultiple radiocarbon dates on same sample. lAssociated with Cremation 2. mAssociated with Burial 1. nMultiple radiocarbon dates on . oDirectly associated with Spirit Cave Mummy. 12 G. M. SMITH AND P. BARKER

The earliest well-dated open-air sites in the northwes- Winnemucca Lake and Carson Desert caves) and upland tern Great Basin also date to the early Holocene (see canyon (e.g., Dirty Shame Rockshelter, Antelope Over- Table 1). In Oregon’s Christmas Valley, Oetting (1994) hang, Last Supper Cave) settings were occupied for the excavated features containing abundant charred leporid first time. These trends suggest that although the term- bones and argued that groups processed jackrabbits col- inal Pleistocene populations explored many areas and lected during communal drives. Nearby, Locality III con- exploited a range of resources, during the initial early tained early Holocene hearths and other evidence of a Holocene a substantial population increase led to conco- residential occupation adjacent to an intermittently wet mitant movements into new ecosystems and a reorganiz- area. Faunal preservation was poor but identified taxa ation of settlement-subsistence strategies. point to a broad spectrum diet that included leporids, fish, and waterfowl (Jenkins 2000). Pinson (2004) 8. Paleoindian technology reported possible hearths and shelter floors that marked early short-term occupations at the Tucker Site in the While some occupations – in particular, those in caves Alkali Basin. Other nearby WST sites suggest that Alkali and rockshelters – have been radiocarbon-dated, most Basin saw heavy use during the early Holocene and per- TP/EH sites are open-air, near-surface lithic scatters haps earlier (Pinson 2004). At the edge of the northwes- with poor organic preservation. Early occupations are tern Great Basin, the Paulina Lake site produced one of recognizable because they contain fluted or WST points, the only early Holocene residential structures known in crescents, and other lithic artifacts identified with early the region (Connolly 1999). Fruit remains indicate that occupations. In this section, we summarize Paleoindian the site was occupied during the summer, and proteins lithic technology in the northwestern Great Basin and adhering to stone tools suggest that bear hunting then turn our attention to perishable technology. occurred (Williams and Fagan 1999). Recently, a site in northwestern Nevada’s Five Mile Flat produced a poss- 8.1. Lithic technology ible house floor dated to ∼11,050 cal yr BP, while another nearby site was dated to ∼11,000 cal yr BP (Hil- Fluted and unfluted concave base points, WST points, debrandt et al. 2016). Adjacent WST sites including the and crescents are the most recognizable lithic artifacts undated Parman Localities (Layton 1979; Smith 2007) in the TP/EH record (Figure 2). Fluted points are not likely contained structures that were subsequently buried uncommon in the northwestern Great Basin, and at or destroyed. Unfortunately, the paucity of TP/EH resi- least 100 have been reported from Oregon alone (Ron- dential features, which probably reflects taphonomic deau 2015a). Most are made of obsidian (CalFLUTED bias (sensu Surovell et al. 2009) more than a lack of Database 2014) and one-third display scratches on houses, is sometimes cited as evidence that Paleoindians their flutes, which may have helped to secure the points were residentially mobile (Elston and Zeanah 2002) – an to spear shafts (Rondeau 2015a). Many fluted points dis- issue we return to below. play basal and lateral edge grinding and repaired tips In sum, the TP/EH radiocarbon record in the north- and/or bases (Rondeau 2015a). Use-wear evidence western Great Basin has grown considerably over the suggests that fluted points served as projectile tips, kni- past two decades and it reflects several trends. First, ves, and scrapers (CalFLUTED Database 2014). Most work at the Paisley Caves has demonstrated that people fluted points occur as isolates but at least five locations first occupied the region a millennium or more before in Oregon – the Dietz Site (Willig 1988), Sage Hen the Younger Dryas. Other sites with possible pre- Gap (Thomas, O’Grady, and Rondeau 2011), Trout Younger Dryas occupations (e.g., Fort Rock Cave, Cou- Creek Paleo Camp (O’Grady, Thomas, and Rondeau gar Mountain Cave 2) must be carefully evaluated. 2009), Sheep Mountain (O’Grady, Thomas, and Ron- Second, if we accept that radiocarbon date frequencies deau 2009), and northern Warner Valley (Smith et al. reflect human population levels (sensu Louderback, 2015a) – have produced multiple, associated fluted Grayson, and Llobera 2010) then the northwestern points. Source provenance data indicate that fluted Great Basin was probably sparsely populated during points were generally discarded near the obsidian the Younger Dryas and for perhaps a few centuries after- sources on which they were made (O’Grady et al. 2012; wards. Third, between ∼11,000 and 10,000 cal yr BP, Smith et al. 2015a; Thomas, O’Grady, and Rondeau open-air sites including a few with residential structures 2011), suggesting that high mobility foraging and lithic or other features (e.g., the Paulina Lake, Five Mile Flat, conveyance models need to be revisited. Christmas Valley, and Tucker sites) appear for the first Traditionally, most researchers believed that fluted time. Fourth, between ∼11,000 and 9500 cal yr BP, points in the Far West were part of the continent-wide many caves and rockshelters in both lowland (e.g., the Clovis techno-culture (Beck and Jones 2007). However, PALEOAMERICA 13

Figure 2 Paleoindian tools from the northwestern Great Basin: (A) fluted point, Dietz site (Fagan 1988); (B) Black Rock Concave Base point, 26Hu17 (Heizer and Hester 1978); (C) crescent, 26Hu17 (Heizer and Hester 1978); (D) Cougar Mountain point, Cougar Mountain Cave (Cowles 1960); (E) Parman point, Parman Localities (Smith 2006); (F) Windust point, (Rice 1972); and (G) Has- kett point, Haskett Site (Butler 1965). Artifacts redrawn from original sources. 14 G. M. SMITH AND P. BARKER

Table 2 Radiocarbon dates associated with fluted points in the Recently, Kuehn et al. (2009) revised the age of Glacier Far West. After Beck and Jones (2013). Peak G/B tephra found adhering to the East Wenatchee 2σ cal yr BP Clovis points from ∼13,100 to ∼13,550–13,325 cal yr Site 14C date range Primary reference BP. While the tephra provides only a maximum relative East Wenatchee, <11,600 ± 50 13,550–13,314 Kuehn et al. (2009) WAa age for the points, as Fiedel and Morrow (2012) note, , 10,080 ± 130 12,106–11,240 Madsen and Rhode East Wenatchee may be one of the oldest dated fluted UTb (1990) Sunshine >10,320 ± 50 12,393–11,958 Beck and Jones point sites anywhere. This raises the unlikely possibility Locality, NVc (2009) that fluted points in the Far West predate Clovis points Henwood Site, 8470 ± 370 10,420–8549 Douglas, Jenkins, CA and Warren (1988) on the Plains or Southwest. If so, then they might suggest Connley Cave 5, 9540 ± 260 11,709–10,211 Bedwell (1973) an initial Pacific Coast migration route. At this point, d OR with the data at hand it is simply not possible to say 7430 ± 140 8512–7970 Heil Pond, IDe 10,880 ± 260 13,294–12,118 Reid (2011) much about the age of fluted points in the Great Basin. aThis date provides a revised age for the Glacier Peak tephra (Kuehn et al. Large fluted point assemblages lacking WST points 2009) found adhering to Clovis artifacts. The tephra was previously dated 14 are rare in the Great Basin so it is difficult to characterize to ∼11,250 C yr BP (Mehringer and Foit 1990). The age of the tephra pro- vides a maximum relative age for the artifacts. other aspects of fluted point technology in the Far West. b Jennings (1957) reports that two fluted points were recovered from the low- Researchers (e.g., Beck and Jones 2010; Davis, Willis, and est levels of Danger Cave, which he argued predated ∼11,000 14C yr BP. Madsen and Rhode’s(1990) work indicates that the basal cultural stratum MacFarlan 2012) have instead compared Clovis technol- is much younger. ogy from the Plains or Southwest to WST technology. cThe date provides a minimum relative age for the fluted point found below it. One thing that is clear is prismatic blades – a hallmark dThere is debate about whether the point associated with these dates is fluted of Clovis technology on the southern Plains (Collins or basally-thinned (Beck et al. 2004). eFirm association between the dated material and Clovis artifacts at the site 1999) – are rare in the Great Basin (Beck and Jones has not been established (Beck and Jones 2013; Goebel and Keene 2014). 2010, 2013; Rondeau 2015b). Three blades were recov- ered along with two fluted points at a site high in the Pine Grove Hills in western Nevada (Dave Rhode, per- over the past decade Beck and Jones (2007, 2009, 2010; sonal communication, 2016), and a few blades have see also Davis, Willis, and MacFarlan 2012) have recog- been found elsewhere in the Great Basin (Beck and nized that perhaps up to one-third of fluted points in the Jones 2010). Five blades were also recovered with the Great Basin differ from Clovis points from the Southwest East Wenatchee Clovis points (Gramly 1993). Beck and and Great Plains. Great Basin fluted points are often Jones (2010) cite the scarcity of blades as evidence that shorter, thinner, and possess deeper basal concavities fluted point technology in the Great Basin dates to (Beck and Jones 2010; Davis, Willis, and MacFarlan near the end of the Clovis Era. Unfinished bifaces exhi- 2012). The handful of radiocarbon dates associated biting overshot and percussion end-thinning scars with fluted points in the Great Basin (Table 2), all of occur in many fluted point assemblages in the Far which are post-Clovis in age, support the possibility of West (Rondeau 2015b), and some bifaces were fluted post-Clovis fluted points in the Great Basin (Beck and early in the reduction process rather than simply as a Jones 2010, 2013; Davis, Willis, and MacFarlan 2012). final step (Rondeau 2015a). Elsewhere in the Far West, chronometric ages for Clovis Few studies of debitage from pure fluted point sites in points are available only from East Wenatchee, the northwestern Great Basin have been undertaken (long assumed to be < 13,100 cal yr BP because the sites themselves are rare. Fagan (1988) ana- but see below) and Heil Pond, Idaho (∼12,700 cal yr BP). lyzed debitage from the fluted point area of the Dietz site Because Heil Pond was discovered by non-archaeologists and observed that: (1) most flakes were obsidian and and the dated material may not have been charcoal, the both the local Horse Mountain source and perhaps 20 reliability of that site is debated (Beck and Jones 2013; other sources were represented; (2) most flakes were Goebel and Keene 2014). small and lacked cortex; (3) biface thinning flakes includ- The dates associated with fluted points tell us little ing overshot flakes were common; and (4) numerous about the age of Clovis in the Great Basin due to ques- channel flakes were present. Fagan (1988) concluded tionable associations and/or the fact that other much that groups carried unfinished bifaces to the Dietz site later dates were also reported from the same contexts. before transforming them into finished fluted points. Beyond southeastern Arizona, there are no well-dated Recently, Rondeau (2015b) argued that in the absence fluted point sites west of the Rocky Mountains (Waters of the points themselves, overshot flakes may be useful and Stafford 2007). While many Great Basin fluted for identifying fluted point sites; however, overshot flakes points do not meet the criteria for classic Clovis points are also common in many WST assemblages (Thomas and could be younger, they could conceivably be older. and Rondeau 2016). PALEOAMERICA 15

Unfluted concave base points also mark Paleoindian discoidal flakes, which in turn served as blanks for occupations in the northwestern Great Basin. They WST points. Cunnar et al. (2011) recognized a similar typically possess excurvate lateral margins, shallow Levallois-like reduction technique at WST sites in concave bases, basal thinning, and limited edge grind- north-central Nevada. ing (Rondeau, Smith, and Dougherty 2017). A large WST points fell out of use near the end of the early number are known from Nevada’s Black Rock Desert, Holocene (Jones and Beck 2012). When they first prompting many researchers to call them Black Rock appeared is still debated. For a long time, most research- Concave Base (BRCB) points (Clewlow 1968). A poss- ers assumed that WST technology evolved from Clovis ible BRCB point from Connley Cave 5 was associated technology (Willig 1988), but Bryan’s(1980) longstand- with charcoal dated to ∼10,950 and ∼8250 cal yr BP ing argument that WST technology is at least as old as (Bedwell 1973); however, Beck et al. (2004)contend Clovis has recently gained renewed support (Beck and that it is actually a fluted point. Three BRCB points Jones 2010; Davis, Willis, and MacFarlan 2012; Jenkins were recovered from the basal stratum of Hanging et al. 2012; Smith et al. 2015a). Beck and Jones (2010, Rock Shelter, which Layton (1970) estimated spanned 2013) argued that the earliest radiocarbon dates in the ∼11,500–8850calyrBP. BRCB points occur with Great Basin are associated with WST points, not fluted WST points and crescents in the northwestern Great points. Goebel and Keene (2014) carefully reviewed Basin (Clewlow 1968;Smith2006). While they have each date that Beck and Jones (2010) enlisted in support been found together elsewhere (Beck and Jones 2009; of their argument and found that in most cases the dates Pendleton 1979), fluted and BRCB points generally do were problematic or could not be definitely associated not occur at the same sites in the northwestern region with WST technology. Goebel and Keene (2014) con- (Rondeau, Smith, and Dougherty 2017). Despite super- cluded that there is no unequivocal evidence that WST ficial morphological similarities, we know little about and Clovis technology are coeval, although the Paisley the temporal relationship between unfluted and fluted Caves, Bonneville Estates Rockshelter, and Smith Creek concave base points in the Great Basin. Furthermore, Cave may contain such evidence. To their list, we add the BRCB type may subsume several roughly coeval Cooper’s Ferry, where Davis, Nyers, and Willis (2014) concave base point types (Rondeau, Smith, and Dough- continue to evaluate the possibility that WST points erty 2017). date to as early as ∼13,275 cal yr BP. If Cooper’s Ferry WST points are the most common TP/EH projectile ultimately turns out to be a well-dated and generally technology in the northwestern Great Basin, which likely accepted Clovis Era or earlier WST occupation, then it reflects the extended period over which they were used will offer critical support for the argument that Clovis (see below). Researchers recognize several subtypes was not first in the Far West. including Cougar Mountain (Layton 1970), Parman Crescents are a final lithic artifact type that marks (Layton 1970), Haskett (Butler 1965), and Windust Paleoindian occupations in the northwestern Great (Rice 1972) (see Figure 2). The subtypes do not appear Basin (see Figure 2). Few crescents have been found in to differ substantially in age (Beck and Jones 1997), datable contexts, but they appear to have been used nor do they appear to have served different functions throughout the TP/EH (Table 3). Most are found at (Lafayette and Smith 2012). WST points were probably WST point sites associated with TP/EH lakes or wetlands attached to throwing or thrusting spears using “clothe- that may also contain fluted or unfluted concave base spin-type” bone or wood foreshafts (Galm and Gough points. Crescents are predominantly made of cryptocrys- 2008). In the northwestern Great Basin, WST points talline silicates (CCS), even at sites where most other are usually made of obsidian (Jones and Beck 1999), artifacts are made of obsidian (Jew et al. 2015), and in contrast to fluted points found nearby they suggesting that whatever crescents were used for they were often transported substantial distances (O’Grady had to be durable (Lenzi 2015). Researchers have et al. 2012; Smith et al. 2015a). hypothesized that crescents were used as transversely While it remains difficult to characterize fluted point hafted projectile points to hunt waterfowl (Amick reduction in the northwestern Great Basin, we have a 2007; Clewlow 1968; Lenzi 2015; Moss and Erlandson better understanding of how WST points were made. 2013; Tadlock 1966), as butchering tools (Amick 2007; Pendleton (1979) noted that side-struck flakes served Mohr and Fenenga 2010), or as plant processing tools as blanks for WST points in south-central Nevada, a (Simms 2008). The most popular hypothesis – that cres- trend Beck and Jones (2010) also recognized in eastern cents served as transversely hafted projectiles – is sup- Nevada. Davis, Willis, and MacFarlan (2012) contend ported by breakage that is often restricted to their tips that centripetal cores were reduced in a manner similar (Amick 2007; Lenzi 2015; Moss and Erlandson 2013). to the Old World Levallois technique to produce large Proteins adhering to crescents suggest that they 16 G. M. SMITH AND P. BARKER

Table 3 Radiocarbon dates associated with crescents in the Far ∼10,200–8800 cal yr BP (Connolly and Jenkins 1999). West. Connolly and Jenkins (1999) suggest that the handstones 2σ cal BP may have been used as abraders rather than for proces- Site 14C date range Primary reference sing plants. Elsewhere, ground stone artifacts sometimes Lind Coulee, WA 9810 ± 40 11,269–11,178 Craven (2004) 10,060 ± 45 11,815–11,340 occur at open-air WST sites, for example, Dietz (Fagan 10,250 ± 40 12,145–11,815 1988) and Tucker (Pinson 2004). Ricks and Cannon Sunshine >10,320 ± 50 12,393–11,958 Beck and Jones (2009) Locality, NVa (1993) argued that Paleoindians processed root crops Fort Rock Cave, 10,200 ± 230 12,568–11,236 Bedwell (1973) at upland sites also containing Great Basin Carved OR LSP-1 <8700 ± 30 9735–9550 Smith et al. (2014) Abstract (GBCA) rock art panels, which have been Rockshelter, dated to the TP/EH at two sites (see below). They b OR noted that many GBCA sites contain well-used bedrock C. W. Harris site, 8490 ± 400 10,560–8539 Warren (1967) CA metate surfaces that are completely revarnished like the 8490 ± 400 10,560–8539 themselves, implying that the two features 9030 ± 350 11,205–9420 Daisy Cave, CA 7810 ± 60 8855–8426 Erlandson (2005) were produced around the same time. The association 9360 ± 90 11,063–10,265 Erlandson et al. (1996) between grinding stones and TP/EH root crop proces- CA-SRI-512, CA 10,000 ± 30 11,691–11,306 Erlandson et al. (2011) 10,045 ± 40 11,761–11,344 sing has been bolstered by recent starch-grain analysis 10,150 ± 40 12,022–11,622 of early ground stone from the eastern Great Basin (Her- 10,155 ± 30 12,015–11,652 Buena Vista site, 7600 ± 200 8977–8019 Frederickson and zog and Lawlor 2016). CA Grossman (1977) 8200 ± 400 10,215–8315 8200 ± 400 10,215–8315 8.2. Textiles aThe date provides a minimum relative age for the crescent found below it. bThe date provides a maximum relative age for the crescent found above it. In recent years, researchers with the Northern Great Basin Textile Dating Project have analyzed and directly dated almost 100 pieces of cordage, , bags, mats, contacted fish, waterfowl, leporids, and artiodactyls and baskets from TP/EH contexts (Barker et al. 2012; (Hattori, Newman, and Tuohy 1990; Smith et al. 2014), Connolly et al. 2016b). This work has improved our although it is unclear if this reflects the resources har- understanding of Paleoindian basketry technology and vested or materials used to haft the tools. Lenzi’s chronology, expanded studies of material culture beyond (2015) replicative experiments showed that crescents lithic artifacts, and provided a more complete picture of are less effective than unmodified flakes for cutting Paleoindian lifeways. leather and stripping willow but are as accurate as WST points when hafted to atlatl darts and thrown at 8.2.1. Cordage targets. The earliest directly dated textiles are 12 cordage frag- A variety of other lithic tool types occur in TP/EH ments from the Paisley Caves, with ages ranging from assemblages. Scrapers, spokeshaves, gravers, and drills ∼12,700 to ∼10,200 cal yr BP (Connolly et al. 2016b) are common, especially in larger assemblages (Felling (Figure 3). These include six 2-ply, S-twist fragments 2015; Graf 2001; Smith 2007). Bifaces were an important made with sagebrush bark and an unidentified fiber component of Paleoindian lithic technology, although bast (possibly dogbane [Apocynum cannabinum]), a 3- perhaps no more so than during later periods in the ply Z-twist cord with kinks suggesting it was part of a northwestern Great Basin (Wiggins 2016). Unlike WST knotless net or bag, and three 3-strand sagebrush bark points, unfinished bifaces and flake tools were generally braids (Connolly et al. 2016b). Two twisted grass threads not transported substantial distances in the obsidian-rich dated to between ∼12,400 and ∼13,375 cal yr BP were northwestern Great Basin (Smith and Kielhofer 2011). also found at the Paisley Caves (Jenkins et al. 2013). Ground stone artifacts are uncommon in TP/EH Three cordage fragments from Antelope Overhang, Ore- assemblages. As noted earlier, a polished and battered gon date to between ∼9800 and 8700 cal yr BP (Plager, handstone from Paisley Cave 2 to which proboscidean Plew, and Wilson 2006), while sagebrush cordage from protein, Apiaceae starch, and grass starch were found Pyramid Lake, Nevada dates to ∼11,000 cal yr BP (Hat- adhering is bracketed by dates of ∼13,750 and tori 1982). ∼13,525 cal yr BP (Jenkins et al. 2013). A second hand- stone from which horse protein was extracted was recov- 8.2.2. Sandals ered from LU2 in Cave 5 (Jenkins et al. 2013). At Paulina Researchers recognize three TP/EH sandal types: (1) Fort Lake, at least three mano-sized tools and one slab with Rock; (2) multiple warp; and (3) spiral weft (Connolly ochre staining were found in Component 2, dated to and Barker 2004)(Figure 4). Fort Rock sandals possess PALEOAMERICA 17

Figure 3 TP/EH cordage from the Paisley Caves: (A) hemp cordage dated to 9995 ± 25 14C yr BP; and (B) hemp cordage (possible net fragment) dated to 9078 ± 52 14C yr BP (Jenkins et al. 2013). flat close-twined soles, odd numbers of bunched sole sandals, which were also made from heel to toe, are warps (usually five), and open twined toe flaps (Cress- open or close twined with an even number (usually man 1942). They are usually made of sagebrush, but eight or more) of bunched warps (Connolly and Barker some are made of tule (Scirpus or Schoenoplectus spp.) 2004). Multiple warp sandals were produced during the (Connolly et al. 2016b). Fort Rock sandals were made early Holocene, based on four specimens that have by twining from side to side along the length of the returned dates between ∼9400 and ∼7800 cal yr BP foot from heel to toe; at the toe, thick-bunched warps (Connolly et al. 2016b), and generally postdate Fort were shredded and turned back along the foot to form Rock sandals. Spiral weft sandals have warps running an open twined toe flap (Connolly and Barker 2004). perpendicular to the axis of the foot with wefts twined Twenty-four directly dated Fort Rock sandals from in a spiral pattern out from the centerline of the foot nine sites range in age from ∼10,500 to ∼9100 cal yr BP and integral warp-loop bindings (Andrews, Adovasio, (Connolly et al. 2016b; Ollivier 2016). Multiple warp and Carlisle 1986). Most are made with sagebrush bark

Figure 4 TP/EH sandals from the northwestern Great Basin: (A) Fort Rock; (B) multiple warp; and (C) spiral weft. Images redrawn from Connolly and Barker (2004) with permission from authors. Image credit: Oregon Museum of Natural and Cultural History. 18 G. M. SMITH AND P. BARKER

Eight textiles including two warp-faced plain weave mats, two warp-faced plain weave bags, two open twined fringed decorated bags, an open twined mat, and a fur blanket were found associated with two burials in Spirit Cave, Nevada (Fowler et al. 2000). One of the warp-faced plain weave mats possibly associated with Burial 1 was dated to ∼10,450 cal yr BP. The other warp-faced plain weave mat associated with Burial 2, also known as the Spirit Cave Mummy (see below), was dated to ∼10,650 cal yr BP (Tuohy and Dansie 1997). The two warp-faced plain weave bags were made by folding a flat plain-weave mat (up to 140 cm wide) in half along the warp dimension and loosely overcast stitching the edges together. The smaller warp-faced plain-weave bag was one of three bags associated with the cremated remains of an individual from Spirit Cave. It was deco- rated with contrasting-colored fiber and a leather strip (Figure 5a). Nine additional plain weave textiles from five caves in northwestern Nevada date to ∼11,000– 9600 cal yr BP (Connolly et al. 2016b). Fowler et al. (2000, 122) comment that the warp-faced Figure 5 TP/EH bags from Spirit Cave, Nevada: (A) warp-faced plain weave (plaiting) bag; (B) twined bag dated to 9040 ± 50 plain weave textiles from Spirit Cave are striking “in their 14C yr BP (Tuohy and Dansie 1997). Both specimens illustrated fineness, the evenness of the weave, and the overall skill by Karen Beyers. or tule. Like multiple warp sandals, spiral weft sandals date to the early Holocene (14 dated specimens have returned dates between ∼9400 and ∼8600 cal yr BP (Connolly et al. 2016b)) but generally postdate Fort Rock sandals. Multiple warp and spiral weft sandal tech- nology disappeared at the beginning of the middle Holo- cene but reappeared essentially unchanged during the late Holocene. The gap likely reflects reduced cave and rockshelter use during the middle Holocene (Ollivier 2016). The well-constructed hide moccasins worn by the Spirit Cave Mummy (Tuohy and Dansie 1997; see below) are the only other type of TP/EH footwear known from the region.

8.2.3. Plaited (plain weave) textiles Complex TP/EH plaited (plain weave) textiles are known from Spirit Cave, Nevada (Dansie 1997; Wheeler 1997). In plain weave textiles, split tule stems were used for the warps, with dogbane, sagebrush, or juniper cordage used for the paired cordage weft rows (Fowler et al. 2000). Each warp edge is secured with plain Z-twist twining, and after plaiting each weft pair is twisted together at the edge of the textile before being separated for the return plaiting across the textile face. A diamond pattern Figure 6 TP/EH textiles from Horse Cave, Nevada: (A) open emerges when warps are constricted between weft pairs, twined and fringed bag dated to 8200 ± 40 14C yr BP (Rozaire resulting in a warp-faced structure created by tension on 1974); and (B) Catlow twined mat dated to 8270 ± 40 14C yr BP the weft cordage. (Connolly et al. 2016b). PALEOAMERICA 19 and control of their execution.” Their size, complexity, weft row offset, to produce a characteristic diagonal pat- and fineness indicate that they may have been made tern (Emery 1966). One example from Nevada’s Nicho- using some type of loom (Fowler et al. 2000). Further- larsen site is decorated with feathers, quills, and false more, it suggests that some people resided long enough embroidery and dates to ∼9100 cal yr BP (Hester in one place to gather and process raw materials and 1974). Barnes (2000) suggests that the diagonal twined make large, complex, and sometimes decorated textiles. specimen was closely associated with a Catlow twined fragment dated to ∼7350 cal yr BP, and that the earlier 8.2.4. Plain twined textiles date obtained on the diagonal twined fragment may be Plain twined textiles have also been dated to the TP/EH, unreliable. A second undecorated diagonal twined frag- with the earliest known example (∼12,500 cal yr BP) ment from Shinners Site A at Falcon Hill dates to found at Dirty Shame Rockshelter. A similar fragment ∼9250 cal yr BP (Hattori and Fowler 2006). from Oregon’s Catlow Cave dates to ∼9600 cal yr BP. Both specimens are open simple twining with sagebrush 8.2.6. Discussion of TP/EH textiles bark warps and Z-twist dogbane wefts (Barker et al. The fact that most TP/EH sites occur in open-air settings 2012; Connolly et al. 2013). Dirty Shame Rockshelter where organic preservation is poor has forced Paleoin- also yielded an open simple twined fragment with Z- dian researchers to focus primarily on the lithic record; twist wefts made with sagebrush bark dated to ∼9100 cal however, the Northern Great Basin Textile Dating Pro- yr BP (Andrews, Adovasio, and Carlisle 1986). Near ject has demonstrated that early groups possessed a com- Winnemucca Lake, Nevada, Horse Cave contained a plex and diverse textile industry on par with those of similar mat-based cordage bag made with dogbane later groups. Recognizing this is important because TP/ wefts and bitterbrush (Purshia tridentata) bark warps EH bags, baskets, and mats required considerable time dated to ∼9150 cal yr BP (Rozaire 1974)(Figure 6a). A and energy to make. In some cases, looms may have date of ∼10,900 cal yr BP was also obtained on an open been required. Textile production likely occurred in sea- twined basket fragment from Shinners Site A at Falcon sonally or annually stable residential camps near wet- Hill, Nevada (Rozaire 1969). lands where raw materials could be collected and Two twined bags decorated with feathers and fringes processed. Today, lithic artifacts are typically all that were recovered from Spirit Cave; one bag returned a date remain at such sites. While stone tools, especially diag- of ∼10,200 cal yr BP (Fowler et al. 2000; Hattori and nostic types like projectile points, inform our under- Fowler 2009)(Figure 5b). The bag displays an apparent standing of Paleoindian hunting, raw material intentional decorative color shift, retains several remnant economies, and lithic technological organization, they feather shafts and barbs, and possesses the remains of a also tend to draw attention away from less visible aspects warp-end fringe. The other bag is open plain twined of hunter-gatherer behavior including women’s activi- with its fringe largely intact; it also exhibits remnant ties, plant and small game collection, and stylistic feather decoration and a decorative leather strip of expression (Connolly et al. 2016b). Because some lithic false embroidery (Hattori and Fowler 2009). Recently, artifacts are made on distant raw material sources Adovasio (2016) has argued that the decorated textiles (Smith 2010), they may also bias our understanding of from Spirit Cave are the oldest in the world. Paleoindian mobility. In addition to providing a more complete picture of 8.2.5. Other twined textiles Paleoindian lifeways, the Northern Great Basin Textile Catlow twining, which is characterized by close simple Dating Project has demonstrated that unlike lithic arti- twining using Z-twist split tule cordage warps and split facts such as fluted and WST points, some textile tule Z-twist wefts, appears during the early Holocene forms that initially emerged during the TP/EH (e.g., (Camp forthcoming; Hattori and Fowler 2006). Catlow flat fringed bags, Catlow twining, toe-flap sandals) per- twining is frequently decorated with overlay and false sisted mostly unchanged throughout the Holocene. embroidery. The earliest Catlow twined specimens are Other forms (e.g., Fort Rock sandals, warp-faced plain a small fragment from Fishbone Cave, Nevada dated to weave mats and bags) disappeared by the beginning of ∼9400 cal yr BP and a large decorated flat mat from the middle Holocene. Because basketry is a plastic nearby Horse Cave dated to ∼9300 cal yr BP (Connolly media in which artists can express variation in vessel et al. 2016b)(Figure 6b). Small fragments of diagonal construction, form, and decoration within the context (twill) twining have also been recovered from two TP/ of learned norms, textiles may reflect social or ethnic EH sites in Nevada. In diagonal (twill) twining, wefts affiliation (Connolly et al. 2016b) among TP/EH popu- are passed over then under equal numbers of warps, lations as well as between Paleoindians and later groups. usually two in the northwestern Great Basin, with each Abrupt changes in the textile record (e.g., the 20 G. M. SMITH AND P. BARKER disappearance of Fort Rock sandals and the appearance 9. Rock art of multiple warp and spiral weft sandals) may signal Rock art rarely figures into discussions of TP/EH archae- population replacement (Connolly and Barker 2004), ology because it is not amenable to absolute dating while prolonged continuity (e.g., the persistence of (Woody and Quinlan 2009); however, many researchers Catlow twining for ∼9000 years) may suggest that recognize Great Basin Carved Abstract (GBCA) petro- some TP/EH populations and their descendants glyphs as produced by early populations in the northwes- remained in situ throughout the Holocene. Finally, tern Great Basin (Aikens, Connolly, and Jenkins 2011; Fort Rock sandals and warp-faced plain weave textiles Benson et al. 2013; Cannon and Ricks 1986; Middleton are clearly diagnostic of TP/EH occupations and may et al. 2014). GBCA petroglyphs are characterized by be used to recognize early sites such as Spirit Cave deep carvings, which give them a bas- or low-relief where fluted and WST points may not be found. appearance, highly integrated design elements that mini- mize white space common in later panels, and highly or completely revarnished panels (Cannon and Ricks 1986). 8.3. Bone, wood, and shell artifacts Initially defined at Long Lake, Oregon, the style has now In addition to the Younger Dryas-aged bone and ivory been recognized at more than 50 locations in the north- points from Pyramid Lake reported by Dansie and Jer- western Great Basin (Middleton et al. 2014). rems (2005), Paleoindian bone and wooden tools have Evidence for the antiquity of GBCA petroglyphs been recovered from a few other northwestern Great comes from several sources. First, two GBCA panels Basin sites. A bone needle, a bone awl, numerous wooden were found partially buried beneath Mazama tephra shafts/pegs, a sharp wooden point, and a wooden pressure deposited ∼7700 cal yr BP at Long Lake, Oregon, indi- flaker or dart foreshaft were recovered from Younger cating that the panels were produced before that time Dryas deposits at the Paisley Caves; the latter was directly (Ricks and Cannon 1993)(Figure 7). Second, Benson dated to 10,030 ± 25 14C yr BP (∼11,525 cal yr BP) (Jen- et al. (2013) radiocarbon dated carbonate deposits cover- kins et al. 2016). Jenkins and colleagues suggest that the ing a tufa formation into which a GBCA panel was wooden shafts/pegs were parts of snares or deadfall incised near Winnemucca Lake as well as a carbonate traps. Erlandson et al. (2014) identified four bone needles crust continuous with carbonate covering the motifs. and possible needle blanks from Younger Dryas deposits The carbonates were produced when the tufa formation at Tule Lake Rock Shelter in northeastern California and was submerged underwater during one of two suggest that they were used to manufacture warm, close- regression-transgressive cycles; therefore, dates obtained fitting clothing. A bone fishhook was recovered from on them must bracket the production of the panel. Ben- early Holocene deposits at Last Supper Cave (Layton son and colleagues argue that the Winnemucca Lake pet- and Davis 1978). Finally, Cressman (1942) reported roglyphs were produced either ∼14,800–13,200 cal yr BP bone rods similar to those found at Clovis sites elsewhere or ∼11,300–10,500 cal yr BP, making them the oldest in North America from Lower Klamath Lake, Oregon. known petroglyphs in North America (Benson et al. Marine shell beads occasionally occur in early Holo- 2013). Third, WST points are significantly more com- cene contexts in the northwestern Great Basin. A small mon at GBCA sites than at other sites in the surrounding spire-lopped Olivella bead from the Fort Rock Basin areas, suggesting that Paleoindians produced the petro- returned a date of ∼8450 cal yr BP, while others were glyphs (Middleton et al. 2014). In the absence of radio- found associated with hearths dated to 8580 and 8130 cal carbon dates or diagnostic artifact types, GBCA yr BP, respectively (Jenkins et al. 2004b). At LSP-1, five petroglyphs may serve to identify TP/EH occupations. Olivella beads were directly dated to between ∼9600 In their analysis of site location and vegetation com- and 8100 cal yr BP (Smith et al. 2016). Stable isotope munities, Middleton et al. (2014) found that most analysis indicates that the shells probably originated GBCA sites are located in mid- to upper-elevation along the Oregon or Washington coasts. To the north, zones in areas favorable for geophyte (plants with under- Rice (1972) reported Olivella beads from the Windust ground storage organs) growth. Many of those sites con- component (∼11,475–8875 cal yr BP) at Marmes Rock- tain large, well-used, and completely revarnished shelter in Washington. The presence of marine shell bedrock metates (Cannon and Ricks 1999). Based on beads hundreds of kilometers inland together with the these associations, Middleton et al. (2014) conclude presence of obsidian from interior sources at coastal that, as Cannon and Ricks suggested long ago, TP/EH sites (Erlandson et al. 2011; Lebow et al. 2016) suggests groups exploited upland locations and collected root that Great Basin populations possessed ties with coastal crops, two elements of Paleoindian behavior that have populations relatively early. traditionally received little attention. PALEOAMERICA 21

Figure 7 Great Basin Carved Abstract panels from Long Lake, Oregon (adapted from Ricks and Cannon 1993).

10. Subsistence and health Jenkins et al. (2013) documented broken camel and horse bones in caves 2 and 5 and encountered hair Great Basin Paleoindians were long assumed to have from an extinct felid (Pantherus sp.) and a probable hunted Pleistocene megafauna (Beck and Jones 1997), sloth (cf. Mylodontidae) in Cave 2 (Jenkins et al. 2013). and early investigations in the northwestern Great While they acknowledge that natural processes likely Basin produced several possible associations between contributed to the accumulation of Pleistocene fauna in artifacts and extinct animals. Cressman (1942) reported the caves, Jenkins et al. (2013) posit that the condition obsidian tools and bone foreshafts associated with mas- of many bones and their consistent co-occurrence with todon bone and tusk fragments at Lower Klamath artifacts indicates that humans also played a role. Lake. He also reported finding obsidian artifacts together Despite these cases and the fact that humans and with Pleistocene fauna at the Paisley Caves (Cressman Pleistocene fauna coexisted for a short time, there are 1940, 1942). Minor and Spencer (1977) found lanceolate still no unequivocal Pleistocene-aged kill sites in the points together with camel bones in near-surface depos- Great Basin (Grayson 2016). This could be because the its in Christmas Valley. Bone produced a date of Great Basin was less well-suited for elephants, camels, 14 9955 ± 165 C yr BP (∼11,500 cal yr BP), which is over and horses than other regions in North America (Gray- a millennium later than the next youngest camel found son 2016). If that was the case, then all things being in the Great Basin (Grayson 2016). Most researchers equal, the probability of discovering a kill site should do not accept these cases as evidence that Paleoindians be lower in the Great Basin than in other regions. The targeted megafauna in the region (Goebel et al. 2011; lack of kill sites could also reflect the fact that bones gen- Grayson 2016; Jenkins, Connolly, and Aikens 2004a). erally do not preserve in open-air settings in the Great The ivory and bone points from Pyramid Lake could Basin where large game would have been hunted (Gray- suggest that Paleoindians hunted elephants, but they son 2016). Finally, unlike early populations elsewhere, could also indicate that earlier or later groups collected for whatever reason perhaps Great Basin Paleoindians the materials from a carcass or skeleton (Goebel et al. simply did not hunt megafauna. 2011). One of those points, which is similar to ethno- With the exception of the Paisley Caves coprolites, at graphic harpoons, may have been used to spear large least one of which reflects a diet that included edible fish in Pyramid Lake. roots and grasses (Jenkins et al. 2013), there is little direct Renewed work at the Paisley Caves has produced evi- evidence of pre-Clovis and Clovis Era subsistence in the dence suggesting human-megafauna interaction. In region (Haynes 2007). Direct evidence for early Holo- addition to the two handstones and obsidian flake tool cene diet is also fairly scant. Coprolites from the Spirit on which elephant and horse protein was identified, Cave Mummy (see below) contained marsh-dwelling 22 G. M. SMITH AND P. BARKER

Lahontan chub (Sipateles bicolor) and probably bulrush point type at the site. Amick (2013) suggested that the (Scirpus sp.) seeds (Napton 1997), which testifies to the Wallman Bison site and other square-based point sites importance of wetland resources implied by Paleoindian in the northwestern Great Basin mark incursions into site locations. Stable isotope data indicate that the Buhl the region by hunters from the Great Plains. Woman (∼12,600 cal yr BP) consumed meat and ana- Human remains dating to the TP/EH are rare in the dromous fish, and heavy wear on her teeth suggests Great Basin so we know little about how early groups that she ate foods processed with milling stones (Green lived and died. Only six Paleoindian individuals are et al. 1998). known from the northwestern Great Basin, and five are Faunal remains from TP/EH sites provide indirect from the Carson Desert. The individuals are an even evidence for Paleoindian diet in the region. At Last Sup- mix of males and females and date to between ∼10,825 per Cave, freshwater mussels (Margaritifera falcate) were and 10,125 cal yr BP (Lepper 2014 and references recovered in large numbers, along with jackrabbits therein). The best-known of these individuals, a 40–44 (Lepus sp.), cottontails (Sylvilagus sp.), and marmots year-old male known as the Spirit Cave Mummy (Dansie (Marmota flaviventris) (Grayson 1988). The early Holo- 1997; Tuohy and Dansie 1997), was buried with a rabbit- cene fauna from LSP-1 was dominated by leporids (Pel- skin blanket, pronghorn-hide moccasins, and mats. To legrini 2014) as were the remains from the early the north, the remains of a 40–49 year-old male recov- Holocene roasting pits in the Fort Rock Basin (Oetting ered from Wizards Beach at Pyramid Lake were dated 1994). Both Pellegrini (2014) and Oetting (1994) suggest to ∼10,825 cal yr BP (Tuohy and Dansie 1997). The that jackrabbits could have been collected during com- Buhl burial (∼12,575 cal yr BP) contained the mostly munal hunts. Fish remains were recovered from an complete skeleton of a 17–21 year-old female buried in early Holocene hearth in the Fort Rock Basin (Green- a shallow pit with an obsidian WST point and a few span 1994), and artiodactyl bones sometimes occur in bone artifacts (Green et al. 1998). Estimated statures TP/EH assemblages, although often in low numbers are ∼161 cm for the Spirit Cave male, ∼171 cm for the (Grayson 1979, 1988; Hockett and Jenkins 2013; Jenkins Wizard Beach male, and ∼156 cm for the Buhl female et al. 2016). (Jantz and Spradley 2014), measurements which are con- These data suggest that small game were important to sistent with those of late Holocene populations in the early groups. Upon demonstrating that small game are western Great Basin (Larsen and Kelly 1995). The Spirit more abundant relative to large game in TP/EH assem- Cave male probably weighed less than many modern blages than in middle and late Holocene assemblages, Native Americans, while the Wizards Beach male prob- Pinson (2007) argued that Paleoindians targeted birds, ably weighed more (Auerbach 2014). Early groups fish, and small game using nets and clubs (Pinson endured many of the same afflictions (e.g., arthritis, bro- 2007). While this may have been the case, many TP/ ken bones, periodic dietary stress, dental wear, violence, EH faunal assemblages – most of which come from parasitic infections) as later populations (Hemphill and caves and rockshelters – have not undergone detailed Larsen 1999; Larsen and Kelly 1995). Both the Buhl taphonomic analyses. As such, the abundance of small and Spirit Cave individuals possessed heavily-worn game may reflect contributions from both human and teeth (Green et al. 1998; Jantz and Owsley 1997), while non-human agents. Similarly, because preservation is the Spirit Cave male suffered from dental abscesses, generally poor in open-air settings where artiodactyls arthritis, and injuries to his head, hand, and spine would have been hunted, our understanding of Paleoin- (Jantz and Owsley 1997). The ’s bones dis- dian big game hunting is probably skewed. Fluted and played Harris lines indicating that she endured periodic WST points certainly appear to have been designed to dietary stress (Green et al. 1998). A human coprolite hunt large-bodied prey (Pinson 2007), and many dis- from Paisley Cave 2 directly dated to ∼11,000 cal yr BP carded points exhibit impact fractures indicating that contained abundant parasitic hookworm eggs, while a they tipped projectiles (Lafayette and Smith 2012); how- lock of shaved human hair dated to ∼12,550 cal yr BP ever, to the best of our knowledge, the Wallman Bison contained numerous lice egg sacks (Jenkins et al. 2016). site in Nevada’s Black Rock Desert is the only probable In sum, our understanding of Paleoindian diet is TP/EH big game kill site found in the northwestern probably biased by an over-representation of small Great Basin. There, the disarticulated axial skeleton of game in caves and rockshelters and an underrepresenta- a Bison bison was found with a large square-based tion of large game at open-air sites. Having said that, Alberta-Cody (Amick 2013; Dansie, early groups appear to have consumed a wide range of Davis, and Stafford 1988). The bison bone was dated to resources including rabbits and hares, bison and smaller 9770 ± 50 14C yr BP (∼11,175 cal yr BP) (Dansie and Jer- artiodactyls, waterfowl and other birds, small and large rems 2005), an age that is consistent with the projectile fish, shellfish, insects, roots and tubers, and other plants PALEOAMERICA 23 that later groups also consumed. Low frequencies of their settlement-subsistence systems (also see Felling ground stone in TP/EH assemblages suggest that neither 2015). small seeds nor root crops were processed intensively. While early groups appear to have been far ranging While it remains difficult to reconstruct Paleoindian sub- and wetland focused in many cases, our understanding sistence strategies and overall dietary health, they were of these issues is probably biased. Foremost, to be pre- probably very similar to those of later groups: both likely served, residential sites would have to have been buried featured a sexual division of labor, cooperative and indi- quickly and remained buried throughout the Holocene. vidual subsistence pursuits, and good and hard times. In much of the northwestern Great Basin, TP/EH depos- its lie deep beneath middle and/or late Holocene depos- its, and buried sites will probably not be discovered using 11. Paleoindian land-use and mobility traditional survey methods (Nials 1999). Elsewhere, TP/ There is some evidence that early populations were resi- EH deposits have eroded, Paleoindian artifacts that have dentially mobile, far ranging, and wetland focused. First, come to rest on older surfaces, and any residential fea- house, storage, and midden features are generally absent, tures have been destroyed (Smith et al. 2015a). Further- suggesting that residential stays were brief (Elston 1986; more, most TP/EH occupations are recognized because Elston and Zeanah 2002). Second, the Paleoindian they contain WST or fluted points. Projectile points toolkit consisted of a few generalized implements and only document big game hunting, and ethnographically appears to have been well-suited for mobile populations small game and plant collection using nets, clubs, and (e.g., Graf 2001; Smith 2007). Third, geochemical data simple flake tools was important (Kelly 1932; Steward indicate that fluted and WST points were sometimes 1938). These activities, which are suggested by subsis- conveyed long distances (Jones et al. 2003; Smith tence residues in many early assemblages, almost cer- 2010). Jones et al. (2003) reconstructed a series of lithic tainly occurred during the TP/EH. Unfortunately, they conveyance zones (LCZs), which they suggested mark remain difficult to recognize in the archaeological record. the annual or longer-term movements of residentially- Finally, reconstructions of Paleoindian territoriality are mobile populations between wetlands. Finally, most disproportionately based on source provenance data TP/EH sites occur on landforms associated with TP/ derived from projectile points that typically exhibit EH wetlands. Fluted points typically occur as isolates different source profiles than other artifact types on or adjacent to valley bottoms (Grayson 2011), as do (Smith and Kielhofer 2011). The distances and directions some of the sites that have produced multiple fluted that fluted and WST points were conveyed may reflect points (Dietz site, Trout Creek Paleo Camp, northern the maximum ranges through which residential groups Warner Valley). The Sage Hen Gap fluted point site is moved (sensu Jones et al. 2003), but they could also located at the crest of a draw that commands a view of reflect hunters’ travels from stable residential camps, the surrounding landscape (O’Grady, Thomas, and Ron- periodic population aggregations, or exchange between deau 2008), while the Sheep Mountain fluted point site neighboring groups (Madsen 2007; Newlander 2015; sits at the base of low mountains (O’Grady, Thomas, Smith 2016). It remains to be seen what types of behavior and Rondeau 2009). While WST sites are predominantly LCZs reflect and it is important to recognize that they located near TP/EH wetlands, they also occur on pied- may record both short- (i.e., month or years), and monts and in upland drainages. They have also been long-term (i.e., multiple generations or millennia) pro- found in many caves and rockshelters including Last cesses. Based on the rich and complex TP/EH textile Supper Cave, Hanging Rock Shelter, the Connley industry, the discovery of a few residential structures, Caves, Cougar Mountain Cave, Fort Rock Cave, LSP-1, and the recognition of multiple biases in the TP/EH the Paisley Caves, and Dirty Shame Rockshelter – some- record, we suspect that early populations were far more thing that cannot be said of fluted occupations. Some of residentially stable than traditionally recognized. these sites (e.g., Last Supper Cave, Hanging Rock Shelter, Dirty Shame Rockshelter) are found in upland canyons 12. Paleoindian adaptation far from pluvial basins. GBCA rock art sites, which may or may not also contain WST points, mostly With these biases in mind, we turn our attention to past occur in mid- and upper-elevation settings (Middleton and current models of Paleoindian adaptation. Bedwell et al. 2014). With the exception of the alpine zone, (1973) noted similarities in artifact form and site location groups appear to have moved into virtually every part between Oregon’s Fort Rock Basin, California’s Mohave of the northwestern Great Basin by the onset of the Desert, and many points in between. He suggested that middle Holocene. Grayson (2011) suggested that as wet- along the eastern flank of the Cascade and Sierra Nevada lands deteriorated, groups incorporated new locales into ranges, early groups belonging to the Western Pluvial 24 G. M. SMITH AND P. BARKER

Lakes Tradition (WPLT) “could travel north and south situated to maximize women’s opportunities to collect […] and never leave the lacustrine environment which waterfowl, fish, and plants; from those bases, men the hundreds of viable lakes at that time provided” (Bed- could have hunted large game in low- and mid-elevation well 1973, 170). Bedwell (1973) seemingly considered zones. Recently, Elston, Zeanah, and Codding (2014) high residential mobility a key component of the addressed criticisms (e.g., Broughton et al. 2008) regard- WPLT, and in the decades that followed many research- ing their earlier estimates of large game abundance. ers similarly suggested that Paleoindians were residen- Returning to their Railroad Valley dataset, Elston, Zea- tially mobile (Elston 1986; Graf 2001). nah, and Codding (2014) demonstrated that TP/EH Beginning in the 1980s, researchers turned to human sites cluster in wetlands and riparian zones that would behavioral ecology to model Paleoindian adaptation. have maximized artiodactyl encounters. Elston, Zeanah, O’Connell, Jones, and Madsen (1982) used the Diet and Codding (2014) also suggested that upon first enter- Breadth Model to explain the lack of ground stone at ing a basin, both men and women should have targeted early sites, suggesting that during the TP/EH, artiodac- large game. As encounter rates fell, women should have tyls were so abundant that lower-ranked seeds should turned to lower-ranked but reliable resources but only have been ignored. Simms (1987) subsequent study of until it became more profitable to simply relocate the Great Basin resource return rates suggested that: (1) residential camp to another basin and resume large based on return rates alone foragers should never include game hunting (sensu Charnov 1976). seeds in their diet, although the ethnographic record Jones et al. (2003) envisioned Paleoindians as travelers shows that this was not the case; and (2) encounter (sensu Bettinger and Baumhoff 1982) who focused on rates with large game would have to have been 25 high-ranked resources, invested more energy in traveling times higher during the TP/EH for groups to exclude than processing lower-ranked resources, and practiced small game and some plants from their diet. Simms high residential mobility. Relying primarily on the dis- (1987) concluded that a specialized large-game adap- tances and directions that obsidian was conveyed, they tation was not feasible at any point in the past. suggested that groups moved through the north-south- Elston et al. (1995) used paleoenvironmental and trending valleys that characterize the region. Jones range management data to model the early Holocene et al. (2003) did not explicitly focus on a sexual division landscape in the Carson Desert and predict Paleoindian of labor but their model of high residential mobility foraging decisions. They considered men and women’s suggests that men and women generally traveled foraging opportunities separately within the recon- together. structed landscape, which featured an elevated encounter Madsen (2007) noted that with the available data, it is rate with game. Elston et al. (1995) predicted that women difficult to know whether Elston and colleagues’ marsh- should eschew costly seeds and target higher-ranked side base camp/sexual division of labor model or Jones plants and small game, while men should focus on med- et al.’s(2003) high residential mobility/traveler model ium and large game. They suggested that both men and best characterizes Paleoindian mobility and land use; women’s best opportunities occurred in lowland areas however, he outlined that if Elston, Zeanah, and Codding and proposed that early adaptive strategies featured (2014; Elston and Zeanah 2002) are correct then accord- high residential mobility, with men’s encounter rates ing to the Patch Choice Model (MacArthur and Pianka with game dictating when groups moved and women’s 1966), larger wetlands should have fostered longer foraging opportunities dictating where groups moved. stays. Madsen (2007) suggested that Paleoindian mobi- Pinson (1999) used site location and faunal data from lity may have included frequent moves where marshes the northwestern Great Basin to argue that Paleoindians were small and infrequent moves where marshes were were more risk-averse than later populations, targeted large. This prediction can be tested using a combination lower-ranked but predictable resources, and situated of lithic technological organization and source prove- their residential camps close to both wetland and upland nance data, and initial efforts (e.g., Duke and King resource patches. She did not consider men and women’s 2014; Felling 2015; Smith, Carey, and Middleton 2013) foraging goals separately but similarly predicted that suggest that occupation span in the northwestern Great early residential sites should be found in lowland settings Basin varied according to locations’ productivity and dis- that offered access to multiple habitats. tance to other patches. Like Elston et al.’s(1995) Carson Desert study, Elston Finally, it is important to note that most models of and Zeanah (2002) emphasized a sexual division of labor Paleoindian adaptation are either implicitly or explicitly and simulated the TP/EH landscape in a study of Rail- rooted in human behavioral ecology. Such models typi- road Valley in eastern Nevada. They stressed high resi- cally emphasize caloric returns as an important driver dential mobility and that residential sites should be of adaptive strategies. Adopting a different perspective PALEOAMERICA 25 rooted in nutritional ecology, Hockett (2007) argued that While the absolute age of fluted point technology in rather than emphasizing calories as the most important the Great Basin remains unknown, the discovery of currency for early populations, we should focus more WST points in Clovis-aged, and, potentially, pre-Clo- on how dietary diversity, or lack thereof, affected fertility vis-aged deposits, coupled with morphological differ- and mortality rates. He argued that because early groups ences between Great Basin fluted points and classic consumed a variety of resources, TP/EH populations Clovis points, may indicate a late adoption of fluted grew rapidly, a possibility that is supported by Louder- point technology by in situ WST populations in the back, Grayson, and Llobera’s(2010) study which shows region. Alternatively, it could signal incursions into the a dramatic increase in radiocarbon dates during that northwestern Great Basin by fluted point users from period. the Plains or Southwest. These ideas have only recently seen renewed interest, and ongoing work at the poten- tially early Cooper’s Ferry WST site may ultimately pro- 13. Conclusions vide critical support for them. It is important to note that Our understanding of Paleoindian lifeways in the north- both Cooper’s Ferry and the Paisley Caves were initially western Great Basin is derived largely from studies of excavated long ago before professional standards were lithic assemblages from open-air contexts and subsis- established. While we await the discovery of new sites tence residues from caves and rockshelters. It is incom- containing fluted and WST points in stratified well- plete, imperfect, and likely biased. In some cases, we dated sequences, there is clearly merit to revisiting old are struggling to address the same questions we were sites in search of new evidence. Furthermore, because 20 years ago. In other cases, we know far more about we may never find fluted points in well-dated contexts the earliest period of human history today than we did in the region, we should continue to explore differences then. To conclude, we return to the six questions that in WST and fluted point technology, site distribution, shaped Paleoindian research in the northwestern Great and toolstone economies, and how they might help to Basin at the end of the last millennium and continue address current questions about their relationship in to command attention today. According to Beck and the Far West. Jones (1997), these are: (1) when did humans colonize It remains unclear how humans and Pleistocene fauna the region?; (2) how old are fluted points in the Great interacted, but in all likelihood some interaction did Basin?; (3) what was the relationship between humans occur. The revised age of ∼14,500 cal yr BP for coloniza- and Pleistocene fauna?; (4) what was the relationship tion of the northwestern Great Basin provided by the between fluted and WST points?; (5) how did environ- Paisley Caves means that people shared the landscape mental change affect prehistoric adaptation?; and (6) with horses, camels, mammoths, and perhaps other what types of settlement-subsistence strategies did megafauna for up to two millennia. There is no reason Paleoindians employ? to think that Paleoindians did not opportunistically kill In our opinion, work at the Paisley Caves has demon- or scavenge the carcasses of such animals; evidence strated that people were using WST technology in the from the Paisley Caves suggests that this occurred. The northwestern Great Basin when Clovis first emerged in lack of kill sites in the region probably reflects the fact interior North America. Furthermore, it has demon- that most well-dated TP/EH occupations occur in strated that groups colonized the region a millennium caves and rockshelters, and that preservation is generally or so prior to the Clovis Era. Genetic and archaeological poor in open-air settings. evidence suggest that temperate North America was Finally, we have a better understanding of TP/EH colonized shortly after ∼15,000 cal yr BP by groups environmental change and how it affected Paleoindian who initially traveled down the Pacific Coast. The first settlement-subsistence and adaptive strategies than we people to enter the northwestern Great Basin were likely did 20 years ago. As the Pleistocene ended, the northwes- descended from those populations. We still do not know tern Great Basin landscape underwent significant how old fluted points are in the Great Basin but the changes: megafauna disappeared, many deep lakes revised age of the Glacier Peak tephra found adhering became wetlands, many wetlands disappeared, and veg- to the East Wenatchee Clovis points raises the possibility etation communities shifted. The loss of wetlands that fluted point technology may be as early in the Far undoubtedly caused populations to alter their adaptive West as anywhere in North America. That possibility strategies, as was the case anytime in the past when wet- does not change the fact that WST points were discarded land productivity declined (Janetski and Madsen 1990); at the Paisley Caves during the Clovis Era, indicating that however, Paleoindians likely exploited a broader range at least two projectile technologies mark terminal Pleis- of habitats including uplands than site location alone tocene occupations in North America. suggests. With the exception of small seeds, subsistence 26 G. M. SMITH AND P. BARKER residues indicate that TP/EH populations consumed a radiocarbon dates cited in this paper using the OxCal variety of resources also eaten by later groups. Madsen 4.2 calibration program with the IntCal 13 curve (Ram- (2007, 15) perhaps best summed up the transition sey 2009) and reported the midpoints of calibrated age ranges rounded to the nearest 25 years. from Paleoindian to Archaic adaptation as consisting 2. Table 1 represents our best effort to compile TP/EH essentially of a shift “from broad-spectrum foraging to radiocarbon dates from published sources. We arbitra- very broad-spectrum foraging.” With the exception of rily set 7500 14C yr BP (∼8300 cal yr BP) as the end of small-seed or root-crop processing using milling equip- the period. We excluded dates that were rejected out- ment, most elements of the ethnographic pattern were right by the sites’ original investigators but generally included dates that were accepted by the sites’ original in place very early in the northwestern Great Basin. As investigators, even if they were questioned by later far as mobility strategies are concerned, as indicated by researchers. the remains of a few residential structures and a complex textile industry and suggested by several theoretical models, Paleoindians likely occupied some locations Acknowledgments for extended times – we just do not find intact campsites Lisbeth Louderback (University of Utah), Erick Robinson, because they have been deeply buried or destroyed. Nathaniel Kitchel, and Robert Kelly () Source provenance data do indicate significant differ- shared radiocarbon date compilations. Katelyn Mohr (Univer- ences between TP/EH and later toolstone conveyance sity of Nevada, Reno) calibrated some of the radiocarbon dates. (Smith 2010), but it remains unclear exactly what that Dennis Jenkins (), Bryan Hockett (Bureau of Land Management), Mel Aikens (University of information can tell us about mobility. Furthermore, it Oregon), and one anonymous reviewer provided helpful feed- does not necessarily indicate that early groups practiced back on an earlier version of this manuscript. Our understand- exceptionally high residential or logistical mobility ing of northwestern Great Basin prehistory has benefitted (Smith 2016). Together, this evidence suggests that mov- immensely from ongoing conversations with Catherine Fowler ing forward, models of Paleoindian adaptation that (University of Nevada, Reno), Gene Hattori (Nevada State emphasize high residential mobility, a narrow diet Museum), Charlotte Beck and Tom Jones (Hamilton College), William Cannon (Lakeview BLM), and Tom Connolly and breadth, and a heavy focus on wetlands may be less use- Patrick O’Grady (University of Oregon). Special thanks to ful than models that emphasize increased residential Ted Goebel for waiting with a glacier’s patience while we com- stability, broader subsistence strategies highlighting a pleted this manuscript. sexual division of labor, and more diverse land use strategies. It is an exciting time for Paleoindian archaeology in Disclosure statement the northwestern Great Basin, perhaps more so than at No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors. any point in the past. Over the past two decades, new dis- coveries have fundamentally altered our understanding of how and when the region was colonized, and they Notes on contributors have featured prominently in broader discussions of Geoffrey M. Smith is Associate Professor and Executive Direc- the peopling of the Americas. Some questions remain tor of the Great Basin Paleoindian Research Unit, University of unanswered, but researchers are developing innovative Nevada, Reno. He earned his PhD at the University of Wyom- ways to address them. Opportunities wait around every ing in 2010. His research interests include the human coloni- zation of the Great Basin, lithic technology, and Great Basin corner and students today can and will help move our archaeology. understanding of the TP/EH record in the northwestern Pat Barker is Research Associate at the Nevada State Museum. Great Basin forward. We look forward to watching as our He earned his PhD at the University of California, Riverside in field evolves, current questions are resolved, and new 1982. His research interests include rock art, perishable tech- questions emerge. nology, and Great Basin archaeology.

Notes References 1. All dates are calendar years before present (cal yr BP) Adams, Kenneth D., Ted Goebel, Kelly Graf, Geoffrey M. unless otherwise specified (e.g., a radiocarbon date Smith, Anna J. Camp, Richard W. Briggs, and David associated with a particular sample). In some cases, Rhode. 2008. “Late Pleistocene and Early Holocene Lake- papers we cited presented only radiocarbon years with- Level Fluctuations in the Lahontan Basin, Nevada: out standard errors; we converted these to approximate Implications for the Distribution of Archaeological Sites.” cal yr BP equivalents using Appendix 1 in Grayson Geoarchaeology 23 (5): 608–643. (2011) and rounded them to the nearest 25 calendar Adams, Kenneth D., and Steven G. Wesnousky. 1998. years. For consistency’s sake, we recalibrated all “Shoreline Processes and the Age of the Lake Lahontan PALEOAMERICA 27

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