Univerza V Ljubljani Fakulteta Za Družbene Vede

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Univerza V Ljubljani Fakulteta Za Družbene Vede UNIVERZA V LJUBLJANI FAKULTETA ZA DRUŽBENE VEDE Stevo Đurašković Politike zgodovine na Hrvaškem in Slovaškem v 1990-ih The Politics of History in Croatia and Slovakia in the 1990s Doktorska disertacija Ljubljana, 2013 UNIVERZA V LJUBLJANI FAKULTETA ZA DRUŽBENE VEDE Stevo Đurašković Mentor: Red. Prof. dr. Igor Lukšič Somentor: Red. Prof. dr. Tihomir Cipek Politike zgodovine na Hrvaškem in Slovaškem v 1990-ih The Politics of History in Croatia and Slovakia in the 1990s Doktorska disertacija Ljubljana, 2013 Acknowledgements First and foremost, I would sincerely like to thank my supervisors, Professors Igor Lukšič and Tihomir Cipek for all the help provided during the completion of this dissertation. This dissertation would not have been accomplished without the guidance and support they provided during the research and writing stages. Here I would also like to thank to members of my dissertation defense committee, Professors Janko Prunk and Silvia Miháliková, for all insightfull comments and remarks provided during the process of defense. I would like to express my gratitude to Professors Silvia Miháliková and Andrej Findor from the Faculty of Social and Economic Sciences of the Comenius University in Bratislava for all the help provided, not only for hosting me during my research fellowship and providing me with valuable materials and resources, but also for the support at times of hardship and difficulty to grasp the Slovak material. I would also like to thank Adam Hudek from Historical Institute of Slovak Academy of Sciences for supplying me with materials and devoting many evenings to creative discussions about the history of the Slovak national identity-building process. I would also like to express my thanks to Professor Erika Harris for giving me important insights during our talks in Zagreb. Finally, I would like to thank my Bratislava flat-mates Roman and Petra, inter alia for spending hours speaking with me in Slovak until I mastered it. Lastly, I would like to thank Visegradi Scholarship Fund for granting me the doctoral research fellowship for the academic year 2009/2010. A special thanks goes out to my colleagues from the Faculty of Political Sciences in Zagreb Andrija Henjak, Anka Kekez-Koštro, Danijela Širinić, Domagoj Vujeva, Vedrana Baričević, as well to my friends Josip, Tetec, Marina, Nicole, Ines and Anđela for all their support, advice and positive energy. Above all, I would like to thank Zsofi and Senija, who went through the labor pains of the research and writing process with me, teaching me patience and offering support without which I would not have been able to finish this dissertation. Thank you both! Remarks The results of the initial research on the topic are published in the following articles: Stevo Đurašković, “Politike povijesti: pregled razvoja discipline u Hrvatskoj i Slovačkoj. Politička misao, vol. 45 (2008), no. 3-4: 201-221; Stevo Đurašković, “In Search for One- Thousand- Year Statehood: The Politics of History in Croatia and Slovakia in the 1990s.” Der Donauraum: Zeitschrift des Institutes fur den Donauraum und Mitteleuropa. 49 (2009), 1-2: 141-151. The most important parts of research on Slovakia have been included in the chapter: Stevo Đurašković, “From ‘Husakism’ to ‘Meciarism’: the National Identity-Building Discourse of the Slovak Left-Wing Intellectuals in the 1990s Slovakia”, in Thinking Transition: Liberal Democracy, Authoritarians Pasts and the Legacy of 1989, eds. Michal Kopeček and Piotr Wciślik, Budapest- New York: CEU Press (forthcoming). Izjava o avtorstvu Politike zgodovine na Hrvaškem in Slovaškem v 1990-ih Povzetek: Disertacija obravnava povezavo med zgodovino/spominom in politično močjo na Hrvaškem in Slovaškem v 1990-ih letih. Padec komunizma v Vzhodni Evropi je povzročil pojav različnih vrst nacionalizmov in z njimi povezanih etničnih politik. Te politike so upočasnile procese demokratične konsolidacije, predvsem z vidika procesov soočanja s preteklostjo obeh totalitarizmov. Kljub temu je bila demokratična konsolidacija v državah vzhodne-srednje Evrope in baltskih državah na splošno dosežena v 1990-ih letih. Hrvaška in Slovaška sta bili edini izjemi, saj sta se obe državi v tem obdobju soočali z resnim demokratičnim deficitom, ki ga je označevala odkrita raba zgodovine v politiki. Pri tem je zanimivo, da imata obe državi izredno podobne vzorce zgodovinske dediščine: do leta 1918 sta bili del Kraljevine Madžarske in Habsburškega cesarstva, medtem ko sta v 20. stoletju predstavljali mlajša partnerska naroda v Jugoslaviji oziroma Češkoslovaški. V obeh državah so na proces konstrukcije nacionalne identetite močno vplivale ideje o etnični in politični enotnosti južnih Slovanov oziroma Čehov in Slovakov. Položaj mlajših partneric je v obeh državah vodil v pojav nacionalizma proti starejšim narodom Srbov oziroma Čehov. Poleg tega je na hrvaški in slovaški nacionalni identiteti vplivala dediščina nacistične satelitske države v drugi svetovni vojni. Ker je celotno zgodovino Jugoslavije in Češkoslovaške označevalo sočasno vmešavanje in zamere med Srbi in Hrvati ter ločena procesa konstrukcije češke in slovaške nacionalne identitete, je zgodovina postala močno politično orodje v procesu razpada Jugoslavije oziroma Češkoslovaške. Nazadnje sta izpostavljeno zgodovinsko dediščino v danem političnem kontekstu zelo uspešno izkoriščala Hrvaška demokratska skupnost (HDZ) pod vodstvom Franja Tuđmana in Gibanje za demokratično Slovaško (HZDS), ki ga je vodil Vládimir Mečiar. Posledično skuša glavno vprašanje v disertaciji odgovoriti kakšne politike zgodovine in nacionalistične ideologije sta uporabili HDZ oziroma HZDS za pridobitev in ohranjanje moči v toku 1990-ih let ter kako so bile te politike in ideologije povezane z zgodovinsko dediščino narodov in konkretnim političnim kontekstom razpada Jugoslavije oziroma Češkoslovaške. Predvsem ker so politike HDZ oziroma HZDS glede oblikovanja države postavljale nacionalna gibanja na skrajni konec omenjenega demokratičnega deficita. Ker pričujoča disertacija preučuje vpliv zgodovine in spomina na politike, je tematika obravnavana v okviru kulturne primerjave v politologiji. Kulturna primerjava ne uporablja strogo določenih spremenljivk, ampak pristopa k pojavu z vidika “splošne kompleksnosti njegove zgodovinske in družbeno-politične specifičnosti (Beichelt). Teoretični okvir temelji na različnih teorijah nacionalizma, a predpostavlja, da so narod primarno osnovale politične in intelektualne elite, delovanje katerih oukvirjajo zgodovinske dediščine in kolektivni spomnini o narodu. Z metodološkega vidika so pojavi preučevani s pomočjo metod primerjalne zgodovine, kot sta opisna metoda ter analiza konceptov in pripovedi, ki so uporabne tudi za kulturno primerjavo v politologiji. Te metode so vključene tudi v konceptualni pristop k ideologiji, kot sta ga razvila Michael Freeden in Cas Mudde, ki omogoča razumevanje najboljšega oblikoslovja ideologij in njihovega delovanja v politikah. Zaradi značilnosti kulturne primerjave študiji obeh držav primerjamo glede na podobnosti in tudi razlike. V vsakem poglavju v primerjavi najprej izpostavimo Slovaško in nato Hrvaško, pri kateri poudarimo tudi podobnosti s primerom Slovaške. Vsako poglavje na koncu vključuje zaključke, ki povzemajo glavne ugotovitve. Disertacija je razdeljena na štiri poglavja. Prvo poglavje obsega zgoraj izpostavljene teoretične in metodološke pristope k raziskovanju. Drugo poglavje obravnava zgodovino procesov konstrukcije hrvaške in slovaške nacionalne identitete do 1990-ih let in njune zgodovinske dediščine. V pripovedih se pri obeh procesih konstrukcije identitete kaže podoben trend zamere glede prizadevanj za priznanje državnosti. Zamera je bila močnejša v primeru Hrvaške, ki je za razliko od Slovaške imela bolj travmatično zgodovinsko dediščino v 20. stoletju. Čeprav sta jugoslavanski in českoslovaški medvojni vladi zatirali konstrukcijo hrvaške oziroma slovaške nacionalne identitete s politikami identitete, ki so težile k izgradnji enotnega jugoslovanskega in češkoslovaškega naroda, je slednje prineslo vpliv modernizacije za slovaško družbo, katero je pred tem ostro zatirala madžarska oblast. Nasprotno je bila pred letom 1918 preklicana hrvaška politična avtonomija, njeno gospodarstvo pa je do določene mere izkoriščal manj razviti srbsko dominiran kraljevski režima. Položaj mlajšega partnerskega naroda je skupaj z dejstvom, da so srbske in češke elite sčasoma enačile svojo nacionalno identiteto z jugoslovansko oziroma s češkoslovaško identiteto, povzročilo pojav ostrih hrvaških in slovaških proti-nacionalnizmov, ki so se najbolj radikalno kazali po drugi svetovni vojni v nacističnih satelitskih državah. Kljub temu je na Hrvaškem v drugi svetovni vojni ustaški režim izvajal genocid predvsem nad Srbi in Judi. Na koncu vojne so Titovi partizani izvajali množične zločine nad hrvaškimi nacističnimi vojaki iz satelitskih držav, ki so jih spremljali tudi hrvaški državljani. V istem obdobju nacistična satelitska vlada Slovaške ni izvajala množičnih zločinov, je pa pregnala 70.000 slovaških Judov v nacistično Nemčijo. Čeprav je Titova vlada od vsega začetka oblikovala socialistično Jugoslavijo kot federacijo, je dediščina omenjenih zločinov pustila dolgotrajno travmo za hrvaško nacionalno identiteto. Ta travma je prinesla do določene mere mirne in samostojne politike glede hrvaške nacionalne identitete v socializmu, a tudi močno razdeljeno družbo. Za razliko od navedenih trendov na Hrvaškem je obdobje po letu 1968 prineslo federalizacijo komunistične Češkoslovaške. Federalizacija
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