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UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA Los Angeles Making and Breaking Stereotypes: East Asian International Students’ Experiences with Cross- Cultural/Racial Interactions A dissertation submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree Doctor of Philosophy in Education by Zachary Stephen Ritter 2013 © Copyright by Zachary Stephen Ritter 2013 ABSTRACT OF THE DISSERTATION Making and Breaking Stereotypes: East Asian International Students’ Experiences with Cross- Cultural/Racial Interactions by Zachary Stephen Ritter Doctor of Philosophy in Education University of California, Los Angeles, 2013 Professor Richard Wagoner, Chair In response to recent budget cuts and declining revenue streams, American colleges and universities are admitting larger numbers of international students. These students add a great deal of cultural and intellectual diversity to college campuses, but they also bring racial stereotypes that can affect cross-racial interaction as well as campus climate. Forty-seven interviews with Chinese, Japanese, and Korean graduate and undergraduate international students were conducted at the University of California, Los Angeles, regarding these students’ racial stereotypes and how contact with diverse others challenged or reinforced these stereotypes over time. Results indicated that a majority of students had racial hierarchies, which affected with whom they roomed, befriended, and dated. American media images and a lack of cross-cultural/racial interaction in home countries led to negative views toward African-Americans and Latinos. Positive cross- racial interactions, diversity courses, and living on-campus did change negative stereotypes; however, a lack of opportunities to interact with racial out-groups, international and domestic student balkanization, and language issues led to stereotype ossification in some cases. This research shows that there is a need for policy and programmatic changes at the college level that promote international and domestic student interaction. The dissertation of Zachary Stephen Ritter is approved. John Hawkins Kyeyoung Park Val Rust Richard Wagoner, Committee Chair University of California, Los Angeles, 2013 DEDICATION To family, friends, and strangers who teach me something new each day. To the differences in the world that remind us how similar we all are. And to the promise of peace and prosperity that comes from love, empathy, patience, knowledge, and mutual understanding. TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstraction of Dissertation……………………………………………………………..…ii Dedication………………………………………………….…………………………..….v Table of Contents…………………………………………………………………........…vi Acknowledgements……………………………………………………………….……....xi Vita……………………………………………………………………………..………...xv Chapter1:Introduction………………………………………………………………….....1 Purpose Statement……………………………………………………………..…26 Significance…………………………………………………………………….. .27 Chapter 2: Literature Review……………………………….……………………………30 Campus Contexts………………………………………………………………...30 Increase in International Student Enrollment……………………………30 Importance of Campus Diversity……………………………………...…32 Discrimination on Campus……………………………………………....35 Historical Contexts……………………………………………………………….37 Japanese Historical Context……………………………………………...37 Korean Historical Context…………………....………………………….38 Chinese Historical Context………………………………………………40 Stereotypes……………………………………………………………………….45 Stereotype Formation………………………………………………...…45 Stereotype Change………………………………………………………45 Models of Stereotype Change……………………………………………47 Relationship Between Attitude and Behavior……………....……………………48 Media’s Impact on Stereotype Formation………………………………………..50 Cross-Cultural/Racial Interaction………………………………………………..51 Significance of Cross-Racial Interaction………………………………...51 Romantic Relations’ Effect on Stereotypes Change……..………………57 Racial/Status Hierarchies’ Effects on Interaction…….……..…….……..59 Limits to Cross-Racial Interaction………………………….…………....62 Diversity Program and Policy Efforts…….……………………….……………..64 East Asian International Students’ Experiences with Diversity………………....67 Theoretical Framework…………………………………………………………………..71 Sociocultural Theory……………………………………………………….…….73 Cultivation Theory…………………………………………………………….…74 Social Identity Theory…………………………………………………………....76 Contact Theories………………………………………………………………....79 Stereotype Change Models………………………………………………………80 Chapter 3: Methods………………………………………………………………………82 Introduction………………………………………………………...…….82 Research Questions………………………………………………………83 Study Site………………………………………………………………...84 Participants……………………………………………………………….85 Data Collection Procedures………………………………………………86 Recruitment Procedures………………………………………………….90 Validity…………………………………………………………………..91 Data Analysis…………………………………………………………….92 Limitations……………………………………………………………….97 Pilot Study………………………………………………………………..99 Role of the Researcher/Positionality…………………………………....101 Chapter 4: Findings…………………………………………………..…………………101 Introduction…………...………………………………………………...105 Findings……………………………………………………………...…108 Home Country Experiences with Racial/Cultural Diversity…...108 Chinese Students’ Home Country Experiences with Diversity...109 Japanese Students’ Home Country Experiences with Diversity..116 Korean Students’ Home Country Experiences with Diversity…121 Stereotypes about Americans and Origins of Stereotypes……………...129 Perceptions of U.S. Diversity Prior to Arrival in the U.S………129 Perceptions of African-American People………………………136 Perceptions of White People…………………………………...141 Global Racial/Status Hierarchy Created from Stereotypes…….145 Latino Stereotypes…………………………………………...…154 Asian-American Stereotypes………………………………...…160 Stereotype Change………………………………………………………..……170 The Role of Contact in Stereotype Change…………………….170 Field of Study’s relationship to Inter-Cultural/Racial Contact…174 Diversity Courses Effect on Stereotype Change………………..177 Reason for Studying Abroad’s Effects on Stereotype Change....182 Contact between Asian-American and International students….187 Acculturation and International Students’ Evolving Identity…..191 Lack of Contact between Internationals and Domestics………..194 Living Situations’ Effect on Stereotype Change……………….199 Lack of African-American and Latino Students on Campus…...204 Romantic Relationships’ Role in Stereotype Change……………………….….206 Culture Versus Race in Internationals’ Perceptions of Dating…206 Racial/Status Hierarchy’s Effect on Dating Decisions…………211 Asian Internationals’ Perceptions of Inter-Asian Dating……….212 International Students’ Perceptions of Dating Domestics...……216 Student Programs’ and Policies’ Effectiveness in Challenging Stereotypes.….228 Graduate and Undergraduate Perceptions of Student Services....228 Living Situations………………………………………………..232 UCLA Dashew International Center Diversity Programs...........234 Perceptions on Possible Diversity Course Requirement………..238 Desire for Cultural Sensitivity Throughout Campus………...…239 Feelings of Dissatisfaction over High Tuition Prices…………..240 UCLA Extension Students’ Issues……………………………………………...242 Chapter 5: Conclusion…………………………………………………………………..246 Statement of the Problem……………………………………………………….246 Review of the Methodology…………………………………………………….247 Summary of the Results………………………………………………………...249 Discussion of the Results……………………………………………………….260 Researcher’s insights…………………………………………………...260 Relationship of the current study to prior research……………………..260 Theoretical implications of the study…………………………………...261 Unanticipated findings………………………………………………….264 Implications for Future Practice………………………………………...265 Implications for future scholarship……………………………………..270 Conclusion……………………………………………………………………...275 Appendix A: Interaction Chart………………………………………………….278 Appendix B: Interview Protocol………………………………………………..279 Appendix C: Pre-Interview Questionnaire……………………………………...281 Appendix D: Pilot & Dissertation Study Student Information Chart…...……...283 References………………………………………………………………………287 Acknowledgements First, I would like to thank my committee Dr. Richard Wagoner, Dr. Kyeyoung Park, Dr. Val Rust, and Dr. John Hawkins. Dr. Wagoner, thank you for your patience, constructive critiques, positive attitude, and moments of levity that were much appreciated. You not only helped me with the dissertation, but gave me clarity and perspective on the long process of life after graduate school. You also introduced me to the world of academia by bringing me on board with Dr. Kisker and Dr. Cohen. Moreover, you took a chance on me at a difficult time in my graduate career, and I truly thank you for that. Dr. Park, thank you for encouraging me to follow my true passion of studying different cultures and trying to find solutions to create a more empathic world. I would leave your lectures feeling as though I had gained a tremendous amount of knowledge and had traveled the globe all in one class. Dr. Rust, I have never seen such an animated and jovial teacher as yourself. Your class taught me that humor and enthusiasm are the best pedagogical tools. Your insight and probing questions during committee meetings helped the dissertation become a sound research document. I thank you as well. Dr. Hawkins, you encouraged me to study Singapore’s race relations, which was the basis for this dissertation. You treated me as an equal and fellow Asian scholar at a time when I was not sure of my path in graduate school. The stories you told me of your adventures in China during the Cultural Revolution fueled my interest to study Asia as well as Asian international students. Thank you for encouraging me when I needed it most.
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