Public Safety and Security in Greenland, Arctic Canada, and Alaska

Julie Kitka, President Alaska Federation of Natives 3000 A Street, Suite 210 Anchorage, AK 99503

December 2018 Public Safety and Security in Greenland, Arctic Canada, and Alaska

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Introduction 5

Disaster Organization in Greenland 6 Shared Jurisdiction Greenland Department of Environment and Contingency Management Joint Arctic Command Chief Constable of Greenland Danish Emergency Management Agency Additional Greenland Observations

Disaster Organization in Arctic Canada 9 Canadian Armed Forces Canadian Coast Guard Public Safety Canada Example of Another Federal Department’s Involvement Yukon Emergency Measures Organization Northwest Territories Emergency Management Organization Nunavut Emergency Management Royal Canadian Mounted Police ADDITIONAL CANADA OBSERVATIONS Disaster Organization in Alaska 14 U.S. Northern Command U.S. Coast Guard Alaska (Seventeenth District) Alaska National Guard Alaska Division of Homeland Security and Emergency Management Federal Emergency Management Agency Example of Other Relevant Agencies: Secretary of State Village Public Safety Officer Program Public Safety and Community Policing … Department of Justice Additional Alaska / United States Observations

Selected General Disaster References Relevant for the North American Arctic 18

INTRODUCTION This short report provides a brief overview of public safety and security organizations in Greenland, Arctic Canada, and Alaska. This summary focuses primarily on disaster preparedness and response. Disaster resilience and disaster risk reduction are also important areas areas of concern, but they are only briefly touched upon here.

The primary concerns that fall under public safety and security can be defined in many ways. One useful set of definitions, from a Northern perspective, is that used by the Government of Iceland1 that includes natural catastrophes, epidemics, terrorist actions, international organized crime, environmental threats of various types, the risk of pandemics, risk of nuclear accidents, proliferation of nuclear and chemical weapons, disruption or destruction of the country’s infrastructure, such as computer, telecommunications, energy and financial systems, clashes between cultures, etc.

The information in this report is intended to provide an overview comparing and contrasting disaster preparedness and response organization in these three countries at a high level, without extensive, in-depth analysis.

One can observe that in Greenland, disaster preparedness structures are organized to deal with three principal issues: oil spills; search and rescue (including cruise ships); and, to a lesser degree, terrorism. Whereas in Alaska, being located on the Pacific ring of fire adds substantially to the risk of earthquakes and tsunamis. Other factors such as erosion, related in part to climate change, are also significant challenges in Alaska. It is accurate to say that wildfire risks in Alaska and the Yukon outweigh similar risks further east.

Another conspicuous difference is the organizational complexity in Greenland. One analyst observes: “The governance structure consists of both Danish, Greenlandic and mixed Danish-Greenlandic authorities, with and without decision-making power, with or without operational control over available search and rescue resources, which are either fully or only partly available for search and rescue and oil spill response purposes, with military or/and civil tasks, and with overall national or/ and local authority.”2

1 Government Offices of Iceland, Public Safety and Security, https://www.government.is/topics/public-safety-and-security/ 2 “Maritime preparedness systems in the Arctic: institutional arrangements and potential for collaboration” Nord University, Bodø, May 4, 2018, https://brage.bibsys.no/xmlui/bitstream/handle/11250/2501164/FoURapport272018.pdf?sequence=5

5 DISASTER ORGANIZATION IN GREENLAND Shared Jurisdiction3 The institutional framework and governance structure of the preparedness system of Greenland are complicated. As a self-governing sub-state within the Kingdom of Denmark, Greenland has only limited responsibility for emergency preparedness. As part of the self-governance arrangement of Greenland a number of policy areas have been transferred to Greenlandic authorities, while other policy areas remain with Danish authorities.

Generally speaking, Greenlandic authorities for the environment are responsible for ocean areas that are within three nautical miles from land. Denmark has jurisdiction of the marine environment from the three nautical mile limit and out to 200 nautical miles.

The operating authorities in Search and Rescue situations are the Greenland Police in case of situations in coastal waters and the Danish Joint Arctic Command in situations outside coastal waters.

In the case of Oil Spill Response, there is also a division of labor and responsibilities between Danish and Greenlandic authorities. The Government of Greenland, in practical terms the municipal fire brigades, has response responsibility within the three nautical miles limit. The Government of Denmark, in practical terms the Danish Joint Arctic Command, is responsible within the 200 nautical mile limit.

One source notes that, formally, the level of Terrorist Threat is the same for all parts of Denmark and, therefore the same level in Greenland as in Denmark. Currently, according to the Danish Security and Intelligence Service, the threat is “serious.” There is no actual example of a terrorist attack in Greenland. Counterterrorist actions would have to rely on resources based in Denmark or abroad.

Greenland Department of Environment and Contingency Management The principal Greenland government agency for disaster matters is the Department of Environment and Contingency Management.4 The department concerns itself with the safety of citizens and measures related to accidents and disasters.

Particularly relevant aspects of the Department’s work include Environmental Emergency Preparedness and Contingency Management. The Greenland Department of Environment and Contingency Management also provides the secretariat function for the Emergency Services Commission.

The purpose of Environmental Emergency Preparedness is to combat oil and chemical pollution that can harm the environment. Activities are divided into two areas of responsibility, land and sea. Environmental emergency preparedness personnel and equipment are located at fire stations in 12 Greenland towns.

3 “Maritime preparedness systems in the Arctic: institutional arrangements and potential for collaboration” Nord University, Bodø, May 4, 2018, https://brage.bibsys.no/xmlui/bitstream/handle/11250/2501164/FoURapport272018. pdf?sequence=5 4 Department of Environment and Contingency Management, Government of Greenland, https://naalakkersuisut.gl/en/ Naalakkersuisut/Departments/Natur-Miljoe/Miljoe-og-beredskabsafd

6 The Department definesContingency Management as all about being prepared. Activities include the management and control of import, storage, distribution, and use of explosives. In collaboration with the police, announced and unannounced inspections are carried out at explosives magazines and construction sites where explosives are used. With regard to fire service, advisory services and training are provided to municipal fire services related to the Emergency Preparedness Act and daily operations.

Other departments of the Government of Greenland may also be involved in disaster activities. For example, the Environment Agency for Mineral Resources Activities is responsible for the marine environment in relation to mining activities, regardless of where the activity takes place.

To support crisis management, the Emergency Services Commission is the organizational focal point for policy and crisis management between the Greenlandic and Danish authorities. It has the mandate to advise and inform the political system, including the Government of Greenland, municipal mayors, and state authorities on matters of emergency.

The Emergency Services Commission’s objective is the coordination of measures and resources to ensure that there is the necessary political backing and financial support for operational efforts during a crisis. Authorities at the operational level request the Commission to rule on selected issues.

While the Commission provides a basis for a coordinated use of Greenlandic and Danish resources in case of catastrophes, it has no independent decision-making power. Its primary role is to ensure the preparation of a contingency plan for all of Greenland, and that this plan is continuously updated.

Joint Arctic Command The Danish Joint Arctic Command is headquartered in Nuuk, Greenland. The Command’s main tasks are surveillance and enforcement of sovereignty and the military defense of Greenland and the Faroe Islands. Its other tasks include fishing vessel inspection, search and rescue, maritime pollution prevention, hydrographic surveys, and miscellaneous support to the civilian society. The Joint Arctic Command is a joint operational command with personnel from each of the three services.5

The Joint Arctic Command organized search and rescue exercises in 2012 and 2013 in Greenland waters, including a focus on an oil spill scenario. Lessons learned include:

• The Joint Arctic Command needs to review and update contingency plans for major accidents at sea. • The sparse population and the distances involved in the high Arctic put a limit to what ships can be made available for search and rescue within a reasonable timeframe. • Other resources, apart from ships, can be flown in quickly from farther away, using strategic air transport. • Helicopters on Arctic patrol and ships are essential to some search and rescue efforts. • There are technical challenges to communication in the high Arctic.

5 Joint Arctic Command, https://www2.forsvaret.dk/eng/Organisation/ArcticCommand/Pages/ArcticCommand.aspx

7 Chief Constable of Greenland6 Greenlandic parliamentary legislation addressing emergency preparedness in Greenland states that the joint actions in case of accidents and disasters are coordinated by the Chief Constable of Greenland.

The Chief Constable in Greenland is responsible for the Land and Local Maritime Search and Rescue Service in Nuuk. The police are responsible for directing the search and rescue operations in local waters and on land, for pollution control outside the three-mile limit, and for assistance to other operators.

Danish Emergency Management Agency7 The relevant Danish legislation is not in force in Greenland, although one can find references, perhaps no longer valid, to such legislation being enforcable in Greenland by Royal Ordinance. Whatever the legal dimensions, one can anticipate special cooperation from this organization under certain disaster circumstances. From a North American perspective, it is just an agency to be aware of peripherally.

Additional Greenland Observations Greenland Oil Spill Response is a company owned by the Government of Greenland. The company’s aim is to operate on a commercial basis on oil pollution preparedness, oil pollution control, environmental clean-up after oil spills, and other related activities within the mineral resources area in Greenland. The company, together with 12 other research institutes and companies, has formed a consortium with the purpose of researching and improving Arctic oil spill response. http://www.gosr.gl/uk11

The Greenland Representation addresses bilateral relations between Greenland and the United States and Greenland and Canada. This could be a contact point with respect to disaster preparedness, disaster response, and disaster risk reduction in the North American Arctic. Head of Representation: Inuuteq Holm Olsen, [email protected] First Secretary: Rebecca Lynge, [email protected] 3200 Whitehaven St. NW Washington, D.C. 20008 Tel: (202) 797 5392 https://naalakkersuisut.gl/en/Naalakkersuisut/Groenlands-repraesentation-Washington

The University of Greenland has participated in disaster studies. Two researchers identified are Birger Poppel and Uffe Jakobsen. https://uk.uni.gl/ https://uk.uni.gl/find-employee/institute-of-learning/birger-poppel.aspx https://uk.uni.gl/find-employee/department-of-social-science/uffe-jakobsen.aspx

6 Unverified and dated reporting suggests that there are seventeen police districts under the command of the Chief Constable in Nuuk. The Chief Constable is said to have responsibility for not only routine police work but also holds the position of public prosecutor. “Comparative law and justice / Greenland,” November 29, 2009, https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Comparative_law_ and_justice/Greenland 7 The Emergency Management Act, Danish Emergency Management Agency, July 2, 2009, https://brs.dk/eng/legislation/act/ pages/the_emergency_management_act.aspx

8 DISASTER ORGANIZATION IN ARCTIC CANADA Canadian Armed Forces8 Canada’s contributions to Arctic security are a key part of the Canada-United States defense relationship.

The Canadian Armed Forces (CAF) operation NANOOK takes place each year across the Yukon, the Northwest Territories, Nunavut, and Labrador. The operation responds to safety and security issues in the North. It features up to five deployments throughout the year.

CAF works with key allies and partners to be more effective in the North. Partners include international military partners, other Canadian federal departments and agencies, territorial and Indigenous governments, and local organizations.

CAF acknowledges that Indigenous communities are at the heart of Canada’s North. CAF works to deepen its relationships with these communities, particularly through collaborative and continuous discourse throughout the year.

While somewhat dated, a succinct source of information about Canada’s armed forces in the Arctic can be found in the publication below. Of particular interest is the information about the Canadian Rangers, the military’s permanent northern presence. “The Canadian Armed Forces in the Arctic: Purpose, Capabilities, and Requirements” May 2015 https://d3n8a8pro7vhmx.cloudfront.net/cdfai/pages/544/attachments/original/1432260016/ Canadian_Armed_Forces_in_the_Arctic.pdf?1432260016

Canadian Coast Guard9 The Canadian Coast Guard is a special operating agency within the Department of Fisheries and Oceans Canada.

The Coast Guard ensures the safety of all mariners on Canadian waters, protects the marine environment, and supports economic growth through the safe and efficient movement of maritime trade in and out of Canada’s waters.

Canada’s Oceans Protection Plan has four main priority areas:

• Strengthening partnerships and launching co-management practices with Indigenous communities, including building local emergency response capacity. • Creating a world-leading marine safety system that improves responsible shipping and protects Canada’s waters, including new preventive and response measures. • Restoring and protecting the marine ecosystems and habitats, using new tools and research. • Investing in oil spill cleanup research and methods to ensure that decisions taken in emergencies are evidence based.

8 “Operation NANOOK,” National Defence and the Canadian Armed Forces, http://www.forces.gc.ca/en/operations-canada- north-america-recurring/op-nanook.page 9 Canadian Coast Guard, http://www.ccg-gcc.gc.ca/eng/CCG/Who_We_Are

9 The Coast Guard responds to marine disasters and emergencies with one of the most effective maritime search and rescue systems in the world. The Coast Guard is supported by the air assets and personnel of the Canadian Armed Forces along with the maritime assets and volunteers of the Canadian Coast Guard Auxiliary.

The Coast Guard is a visible symbol of federal presence and provides capacity to assert Canadian sovereignty in Canadian territorial waters, especially in the Arctic.

Public Safety Canada10 Public Safety Canada (PSC) is a department of the federal government. PSC breaks down emergency management into four functions: prevention/mitigation, preparedness, response, and recovery. This brief summary addresses only response and preparedness.

A very quick review of PSC’s departmental plan for 2018/1911 does not find much emphasis on Arctic Canada.

In Arctic Canada, as with the rest of the country, responding to emergencies is managed first at the local level: hospitals, fire departments, police, and municipalities. If local authorities need assistance, they request it from the provinces or territories. If the emergency escalates beyond their capabilities, the provinces or territories seek assistance from the federal government.

Of particular note, PSC maintains the national Government Operations Centre to monitor emerging threats and manage whole-of-government response. The Centre provides an all-hazards integrated federal emergency response to events (potential or actual, natural or human-induced, accidental or intentional) of national interest. Response management is principally the coordinated implementation of plans or established processes in concert with all partners to ensure a harmonized response to the event.

PSC also houses the National Search and Rescue Secretariat that is responsible for managing and coordinating Canada’s search and rescue with federal, provincial and territorial partners, and fostering interoperability and coordination within the search and rescue community. The Secretariat also focuses on international coordination.

As regards PSC’s emergency preparedness activities, emergency management exercises are of particular interest. Government, first responders, and military officials work together in exercises that simulate emergency scenarios such as natural disasters, health threats, and terrorist attacks. The exercises validate plans, provide training, and expose areas for improvement.

There is a National Exercise Program seeking to continuously improve emergency management in Canada. The program includes both domestic and international exercises.

10 Public Safety Canada, https://www.publicsafety.gc.ca/index-en.aspx 11 Public Safety Canada Departmental Plan 2018/19, https://www.publicsafety.gc.ca/cnt/rsrcs/pblctns/dprtmntl-pln-2018-19/ index-en.aspx

10 Example of Another Federal Department’s Involvement Transport Canada is the lead federal regulatory agency responsible for the Marine Oil Spill Preparedness and Response Regime.12 Within the framework of the regime, Transport Canada sets the guidelines and regulatory structure for the preparedness and response to marine oil spills across the country, including the Arctic. The regime is built on the principle of cascading resources, which means that in the event of a spill, the resources of a specific area can be supplemented with those from other regions or from Canada’s international partners, as needed.

Yukon Emergency Measures Organization13 The Government of Yukon’s Emergency Coordination Plan14 is a framework of strategies including the roles and responsibilities across government. The plan is comprehensive and informative, but dates from December 2011.

Examining the role of Yukon First Nations in particular, a self-governing First Nation’s emergency coordinator would manage a localized emergency event on First Nation lands by enacting its emergency plan and would keep the Yukon emergency management organization informed. If the First Nation does not have an emergency plan in place or the emergency event is beyond the local First Nation’s resources to manage, the First Nation may request emergency assistance from neighboring municipalities or other First Nations, if mutual aid agreements are established, or from the Yukon Government. In the absence of First Nation civil emergency measures legislation, the Cabinet may declare a State of Emergency on the First Nation land and may take action to manage the event even when First Nation land and citizens would be affected.

Should an emergency event be beyond Yukon’s responsibilities or capabilities, the Government of Canada through the Department of Public Safety Canada, the Canadian Armed Forces, or the Royal Canadian Mounted Police may become active. (The same will be true in the Northwest Territories and Nunavut.)

Northwest Territories Emergency Management Organization15 It is worth noting that the Northwest Territories (NWT) places particular emphasis on flooding. The risk of flooding is high for a number of communities in the NWT. Most flooding occurs along the Mackenzie River and other waterways as a result of ice jams during the spring break-up period. A brochure16 informing the public about how to prepare for floods has been prepared.

Particular attention is also given to wildfire risk facing many communities.

12 National Oil Spill Preparedness and Response Regime, https://www.tc.gc.ca/eng/marinesafety/oep-ers-regime-menu-1780. htm 13 Yukon Emergency Measures Organization, http://www.community.gov.yk.ca/protectiveservices/preparedyukon.html 14 Yukon Government Emergency Coordination Plan, December 2011, http://www.community.gov.yk.ca/protectiveservices/pdf/ YG_Emergency_Coordination_Plan.pdf 15 NWT Municipal and Community Affairs, Emergency Preparedness, http://www.maca.gov.nt.ca/en/services/emergency- preparedness 16 Preparing for Emergencies: Floods, https://www.maca.gov.nt.ca/sites/maca/files/gnwt_7020_emergency_flood_brochure_ wr.pdf

11 Nunavut Emergency Management17 Nunavut Emergency Management is responsible for the Emergency Measures Organization and the support of search and rescue operations throughout Nunavut.

The Emergency Management Organization provides overall advice and guidance, and ensures compliance with mandatory Territorial and Federal legislation and policy regarding emergency management. It is responsible for emergency preparedness plans and provides assistance to Nunavut communities in creating their own plans.

They also provide training to search and rescue organizations and assists with equipment and communications systems.

Royal Canadian Mounted Police18 The Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) provide community policing services under contract to the Yukon, the Northwest Territories, and Nunavut (and most provinces). An important RCMP role is operational readiness for major emergencies or disasters. Other areas of priority include:

• Contributing to safer and healthier Indigenous communities • Supporting crime prevention, intervention, and enforcement initiatives • Preventing and reducing youth involvement in crime as victims and offenders

The RCMP’s lndigenous Relations Services group works closely with Indigenous groups to develop innovative policing approaches that meet their distinctive needs. There are a number of Indigenous programs and initiatives, including the following:

• Commissioner’s National Indigenous Advisory Committee • Indigenous Perceptions Training • Inuit Perceptions Training • Annual Performance Plans, which address an offence or negative social issue that concerns the community

Public Safety Canada provides funding to support policing services that are professional, dedicated, and responsive to the First Nation and Inuit communities they serve. In Arctic Canada, and elsewhere, the RCMP supports this First Nations Policing Policy.19

There are two main types of policing agreements:

• Self-administered Police Service Agreements, where a First Nation or Inuit community manages its own police service under provincial/territorial policing legislation and regulations • Community Tripartite Agreements, where a dedicated contingent of officers from the RCMP provides policing services to a First Nation or Inuit community

17 Department of Community and Government Services, Nunavut Emergency Management, https://www.gov.nu.ca/community- and-government-services/information/nunavut-emergency-management-0 18 RCMP Strategic Priorities, http://www.rcmp-grc.gc.ca/prior/index-eng.htm#ac 19 Public Safety Canada, Policing in Indigenous Communities, https://www.publicsafety.gc.ca/cnt/cntrng-crm/plcng/brgnl- plcng/index-en.aspx

12 ADDITIONAL CANADA OBSERVATIONS Of perhaps peripheral interest is Canada’s Disaster Assistance Response Team (DART). DART is made up of Canadian Armed Forces and civilian experts trained and ready to deploy on short notice plus equipment maintained for immediate response. Canada sends DART to help when natural disasters and emergencies happen in other countries. Canada sends DART on request, when local responders are overwhelmed. http://www.forces.gc.ca/en/operations-abroad-recurring/dart.page

13 DISASTER ORGANIZATION IN ALASKA U.S. Northern Command20 U.S. Northern Command’s (USNORTHCOM) civil support mission includes domestic disaster relief operations that occur during fires, hurricanes, floods, and earthquakes. Support also includes managing the consequences of a terrorist event employing a weapon of mass destruction.

The command provides assistance to a primary agency. Military forces can provide civil support but cannot become directly involved in law enforcement.

An emergency must exceed the capabilities of local, state, and federal agencies before USNORTHCOM becomes involved. In most cases, support will be limited, localized, and specific.

When the scope of the disaster is reduced to the point that the primary agency can again assume full control and management without military assistance, USNORTHCOM will exit.

U.S. Coast Guard Alaska (Seventeenth District)21 U.S. Coast Guard Alaska (Seventeenth District) is based in Juneau, Anchorage, and Kodiak. Its mission is to serve and safeguard the public, protect the environment and its resources, and defend the Nation’s interests in the Alaskan maritime region. The Coast Guard is the nation’s lead federal agency for ensuring maritime safety and security in the Arctic.

The U.S. Coast Guard’s Arctic Strategy objectives are improving awareness, broadening partnerships, and modernizing governance.

Arctic Shield operations are of particular note; Arctic Shield 2018 objectives included:

• Performing Coast Guard missions and activities in the Arctic • Enhancing Arctic Maritime Domain Awareness • Broadening partnerships in support of Coast Guard Arctic operations • Enhancing and improving preparedness, prevention, and response capabilities

A quick look at the results of the 2017 Arctic Shield operation finds that several professional exchanges and joint operations were conducted with the Royal Canadian Navy and Coast Guard.

Alaska National Guard22 The Alaska Army National Guard provides protection of life and property and preserves peace, order, and public safety. These missions are accomplished through emergency relief support during natural disasters such as floods, earthquakes, and forest fires; search and rescue operations; support to civil defense authorities; and maintenance of vital public services and counterdrug operations.

20 U.S. Northern Command, http://www.northcom.mil/ 21 U.S. Coast Guard Alaska (Seventeenth District), https://www.news.uscg.mil/News-by-Region/17th-District-Alaska/ 22 Alaska National Guard, https://dmva.alaska.gov/AKNG/

14 The Alaska Air National Guard provides mission ready forces and protects the public safety of the citizens of Alaska by providing military support to civil authorities during natural disasters and other natural emergencies, and providing service and support to local communities.

The Alaska National Guard has made use of the National Guard State Partnership program to build an international relationship with Mongolia.23 The State Partnership Program facilitates the exchange of ideas, capabilities, training, and experience between a host country and a state’s National Guard. The National Guard program is in its 25th year and includes partnerships with 75 nations around the globe.

Alaska Division of Homeland Security and Emergency Management24 The mission of Alaska’s Division of Homeland Security and Emergency Management is to lead the way in homeland security and emergency management and to foster a prepared, resilient Alaska capable of meeting the needs of its communities and citizens in response to all-hazards events.

An interesting feature of the Alaska Division of Homeland Security’s work is its cooperation with the private sector. The Alaska Partnership for Infrastructure Protection integrates private and public sector critical infrastructure owners into the municipal, state, and federal emergency framework, participating in all stages of the disaster cycle, from preparedness and mitigation through to response and recovery.

A very informative, if somewhat dated, source of information is the following report. The State of Alaska 2011 Emergency Operations Plan Department of Military and Veterans Affairs Division of Homeland Security & Emergency Management https://www.poa.usace.army.mil/Portals/34/docs/AKdistrict StateofAlaskaEmergencyOperationsPlan2011.pdf

Conceptually, the 2011 report addresses five entities: the incident management structure employed at the local level; the State Multi-Agency Coordination Group; the State Emergency Operations Center; the federal response organization; and business and industry.

Perhaps relevant to the particular context of this brief, the 2011 report mentions that Alaska is a signatory to the Pacific Northwest Emergency Management Arrangement. The Yukon is also a party to this arrangement, as are other jurisdictions.

Federal Emergency Management Agency25 Recent disaster challenges in Alaska illustrate one role of the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) — FEMA is authorized to coordinate all disaster relief efforts; to provide appropriate assistance for required emergency measures to save lives and to protect property and public health

23 “Alaska National Guard teams up with Mongolian forces for Disaster Management Leadership Seminar,” October 12, 2016, https://www.nationalguard.mil/News/State-Partnership-Program/Article/971502/alaska-national-guard-teams-up-with- mongolian-forces-for-disaster-management-le/ 24 Alaska Division of Homeland Security & Emergency Management, http://ready.alaska.gov/ 25 “President Donald J. Trump Signs Emergency Declaration for Alaska,” FEMA, November 30, 2018, https://www.fema.gov/ news-release/2018/11/30/president-donald-j-trump-signs-emergency-declaration-alaska

15 and safety; and to lessen or avert the threat of a catastrophe in Anchorage Municipality, Kenai Peninsula Borough, and Matanuska-Susitna Borough counties.

Specifically, FEMA is authorized to identify, mobilize, and provide at its discretion, equipment and resources necessary to alleviate the impacts of the emergency. Emergency protective measures, limited to direct federal assistance under Public Assistance program, will be provided at 75 percent federal funding.

Example of Other Relevant Agencies: Secretary of State A domestic incident may have international and diplomatic implications that call for coordination and consultation with foreign governments and international organizations.

The Secretary of State26 is responsible for all communication and coordination between the U.S. Government and other nations regarding the response to a domestic crisis. The Department of State also coordinates international offers of assistance and formally accepts or declines these offers on behalf of the U.S. Government. The Secretary of State may be important to any new North American disaster initiative, as would be like authorities in Canada and Greenland/Denmark.

Village Public Safety Officer Program The Village Public Safety Officer (VPSO) program began in the late 1970s as a means of providing rural Alaskan communities with needed public safety services at the local level. The program was created to reduce the loss of life due to fires, drowning, lost person, and the lack of immediate emergency medical assistance in rural communities.27 This valuable program is contracted out to tribal consortiums and is a well-accepted program, even though it is underfunded. Tribes and tribal consortiums have been meeting to redesign the program to make it more responsive to current needs.

The purpose of the VPSO program includes training and employing individuals as first responders. Public safety emergencies may include search and rescue, fire protection, emergency medical assistance, crime prevention, and basic law enforcement. VPSOs are generally the first to respond to calls for help from community members. The presence of these officers has a significant impact on improving the quality of life in the participating villages. Communities rely on VPSOs for law enforcement, as well as community leadership, in the event of emergencies and search and rescues.28

A recent and informative article on VPSOs follows. The article also touches upon the roles of Tribal Police Officers, Village Police Officers, and Certified Police Officers. “High referral rate for VPSO-assisted sex assault cases” Alaska Justice Forum Spring 2018 https://scholarworks.alaska.edu/bitstream/handle/11122/8231/ajf.344a.vpso-first-responder.pdf

26 National Response Framework, Homeland Security, June 2016, https://www.fema.gov/media-library-data/1466014682982-9bc f8245ba4c60c120aa915abe74e15d/National_Response_Framework3rd.pdf 27 Village Public Safety Officer Program, https://dps.alaska.gov/AST/VPSO/Home 28 Village Public Safety Officer Program, https://www.avcp.org/services/vpso/

16 Public Safety and Community Policing … Department of Justice29 Using the Coordinated Tribal Assistance Solicitation, and under the Community Oriented Policing Services Office, the U.S. Department of Justice offers funding for Public Safety and Community Policing (Purpose Area #1). Funding is designed to expand the implementation of community policing and meet the most serious needs of law enforcement in Tribal Nations through a broadened comprehensive program.

The funding can be used to hire or re-hire, full-time career law enforcement officers and village public safety officers, as well as to procure basic equipment and training to assist in the initiation or enhancement of Tribal community policing efforts.

Here are the goals of the initiative:

• Proactively address the most serious Tribal law enforcement needs • Increase the capacity of Tribal law enforcement agencies for safer communities • Enhance Tribal law enforcement’s capacity to prevent, solve, and control crime, engage in anti- methamphetamine/anti-opioid activities, and address human trafficking • Implement or enhance community policing strategies • Engage in strategic planning for law enforcement

Please note that a general overview webinar for the fiscal year 2019 Coordinated Tribal Assistance Solicitation application was held on December 13, 2018. Other webinars follow. https://www.justice.gov/tribal/webinars

Additional Alaska / United States Observations The Center for Excellence in Disaster Management & Humanitarian Assistance is a U.S. Department of Defense organization reporting to the U.S. Pacific Command. Disaster management reference handbooks are prepared that provide a baseline of information regarding countries most prone to disasters. The Center increases the readiness of U.S. forces, civilian and military counterparts, and international partners to respond to disasters through civil-military coordination, training, information sharing, and regional planning. There is little Arctic focus to date. https://www.cfe-dmha.org/DMHA-Resources/Disaster-Management-Reference-Handbooks

Homeland Security’s National Response Framework describes the doctrine under which the nation responds to incidents. The priorities are to save lives, protect property and the environment, stabilize the incident, and provide for basic human needs. Guiding principles: engaged partnership; tiered response; scalable, flexible, and adaptable operational capabilities; unity of effort through unified command; and readiness to act. https://www.fema.gov/media-library-data/1466014682982-9bcf8245ba4c60c120aa915abe74e15d/ National_Response_Framework3rd.pdf

29 Public Safety and Community Policing, https://www.justice.gov/tribal/page/file/1114966/download

17 SELECTED GENERAL DISASTER REFERENCES RELEVANT FOR THE NORTH AMERICAN ARCTIC

The Arctic Council Working Group on Emergency Prevention, Preparedness and Response is mandated to contribute to the prevention, preparedness, and response to environmental and other emergencies, accidents, and search and rescue. The group recognizes that harsh conditions and limited infrastructure in much of the Arctic increase risks and impacts and hinder response activities. Actions for prevention, preparedness, and response must be carefully pre-planned and adapted to the conditions and remoteness of the Arctic to maximize the use of available resources. (Reflecting the importance of military/civil cooperation in disaster matters, the Canadian co-chair is with the Canadian Coast Guard.) https://arctic-council.org/index.php/en/about-us/working-groups/eppr

The Arctic Coast Guard Forum is an independent, informal, operationally-driven organization, not bound by treaty, to foster safe, secure, and environmentally responsible maritime activity in the Arctic. Goals include building a common operational picture to ensure proper protocols for emergency response coordination. https://www.arcticcoastguardforum.com/

The Maritime Preparedness and International Partnership in the High North project addresses, from a largely European perspective, three preparedness fields: search and rescue; oil spill response; and counterterrorism. “Maritime preparedness systems in the Arctic: institutional arrangements and potential for collaboration” Nord University, Bodø May 4, 2018 https://brage.bibsys.no/xmlui/bitstream/handle/11250/2501164/FoURapport272018. pdf?sequence=5

The Thematic Network on Arctic Safety and Security is an extended academic network. The University of Alaska Fairbanks and the United States Coast Guard Academy are participants. The network includes two sub-groups, tourism safety and emergency preparedness. Cross-border cooperation and optimal use of the preparedness resources of the Arctic countries are highlighted. https://www.uarctic.org/organization/thematic-networks/arctic-safety-and-security/

The recommendations of a recent American Red Cross overview of response capacity in the Arctic include: strengthening volunteer management; enhancing response capacities for major emergencies; and increasing cooperation with Indigenous communities and others. “Red Cross Arctic Disaster Management Study” September 5, 2018 https://reliefweb.int/report/world/red-cross-arctic-disaster-management-study

Lastly, the private sector, especially the oil industry has well developed disaster management programs that cover the area or sector they operate in.

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