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Tese De Doutorado Nº 183 Simplified Wide Dynamic TESE DE DOUTORADO Nº 183 SIMPLIFIED WIDE DYNAMIC RANGE CMOS IMAGE SENSOR WITH 3T APS RESET-DRAIN ACTUATION Carlos Augusto de Moraes Cruz DATA DA DEFESA: 31/07/2014 Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais Escola de Engenharia Programa de Pós-Graduação em Engenharia Elétrica SIMPLIFIED WIDE DYNAMIC RANGE CMOS IMAGE SENSOR WITH 3T APS RESET-DRAIN ACTUATION Carlos Augusto de Moraes Cruz Tese de Doutorado submetida à Banca Examinadora designada pelo Colegiado do Programa de Pós- Graduação em Engenharia Elétrica da Escola de Engenharia da Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, como requisito para obtenção do Título de Doutor em Engenharia Elétrica. Orientador: Prof. Davies William de Lima Monteiro Belo Horizonte - MG Julho de 2014 Acknowledgments Life is just wonderful, it is the greatest gift given to men. Life is the basic fuel of all we do in this world, and despite the several existent worldviews, nobody can ultimately tell whence it really come. Concerning this matter the only choice one has is to believe one worldview, or another, or yet creating one new. I chose to believe the worldview preached by the Christian Bible where it says that life is a gift of the Lord God Almighty that created the heavens, and the earth, and all that in them is. Both for the gift of life and also for allowing me to perform the very work herein presented, my first thank is to the God that I worship, YHWH. Together with him, I thank my lord Yeshua Hamashia for the hope of preserving life beyond the days of my pilgrimage in this world, and I thank also my precious friend Ruach Kadosh for helping me in my weaknesses, and for teaching me how to direct my steps in this world. I thank my advisor Davies William for accepting the challenge of tutoring me during the years of this PhD, and for being such an excellent advisor and professor. His striving for excellence challenged and challenges me also to strive for the same level of excellence. I thank my God for his life. I thank all other people who collaborated for the success of this very work. Maybe I will forget somebody, but I thank specially Prof. Vicente Lucena from UFAM, Prof. Pinheiro from IFAM, Prof. Eduardo Cotta from UFAM. I thank Prof. Gilles Sicard form TIMA-INPG for receiving me for three months in his laboratory in Grenoble-FR. I thank all the staff of OptMA lab for the great work we have done together during these years. I thank my wife Keitia, and my two boys Judá Alberto, and David Ben Gurion for being the main reason for which I work in this life. The greatest challenge of my life is being the best minister of God to you ward. More than any title I can receive in this life, being the father of our family is the greatest title for me because it is a title given by our God. I thank my parents Carlos Alberto and Maria Amelia for all the love and support they gave and give during all the years of my life so far. The good counsels of my father made great difference in my life, among the many the one that says: “be always prepared for the opportunities the life will bring”, I just try to follow them. The support and prayers of my mother also made and make great difference in my life. I thank also my brothers and their families for their presence and support in many important moments of my life. I thank also my apostles, pastors, and brethren from my home church “Ministério Internacional da Restauração” in Manaus, for helping in prayer during these years. Finally I thank all agencies and institutions who supported this work: UFMG, PPGEE- UFMG, CNPq, CAPES, OptMA lab, INCT-DISSE, CT-PIM, UFAM, IFAM, CETELI-UFAM, OPTMA-UFAM, TIMA CNRS – Grenoble INP UJF, and FAPEMIG. iv Abstract An image sensor is an array of small light-sensitive cells called pixel sensors. A pixel, or picture “pix” element “el”, is the smallest unit of an image. Therefore a pixel sensor is the smallest cell of an image sensor, which is able to detect a single image dot. Such image dot is then used to reconstruct a complete image frame. Image sensors built in CMOS technology are nowadays largely employed either in professional cameras or in personal mobile devices with embedded cameras. One of the most important features of a good image sensor is the ability to accommodate in the same image regions of high and low luminosity, a feature known as the sensor dynamic range. Many techniques, found in the literature, are able to extend the sensor dynamic range, each with their advantages and disadvantages, either by extending the saturation level or by reducing the noise floor. Non-idealities introduced during fabrication produce unwanted image artifacts known as fixed-pattern noise – FPN and are among the main contributors to the noise floor in CMOS image sensors. Techniques applied to reduce FPN in image sensors with large dynamic range are still a challenge, because in applying these techniques other essential features of the sensor are jeopardized, as its processing speed, the reduction of photosensitive area, or the increase in fabrication costs. The main goal of this work is the improvement of CMOS image sensors, operating with wide dynamic range for general practical purposes, through the application of simple circuit control techniques, without interfering in the fabrication process of the imager. In order to achieve this goal, the present work proposes a simple and innovative approach to increase the dynamic range of the basic and most popular pixel sensor architecture currently employed in CMOS image sensors. The proposed idea differs from the current state-of-art in two essential points. First, because it is able to increase the sensor dynamic range without the need of boosting the level of any control signal above that of the supply voltage. Second, because, other than any different techniques found in literature, it is able to reduce FNP in this sort of image sensor by means of a simple control strategy. Boosting the level of some control signals is necessary, in previous techniques found in the literature, in order to avoid the use of more complex pixel-sensor architectures, which reduces the sensor photosensitive area. On the other hand, internal voltage boosting is harmful because it tends to reduce the life time of the imager. The simplified way to reduce FPN in the herein proposed technique is able to keep unaltered important features of the sensor, as those cited above, at no additional fabrication cost. This thesis’ defense presentation can be watched, in Portuguese language, at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vHUhrzmfed4 (Published on: 08/10/2014) v Resumo Um sensor de imagem é uma matriz de pequenas células fotossensíveis chamadas sensores de pixeis. Um pixel, elemento “el” fotográfico (picture) “pix”, é a menor porção de uma imagem. Assim o sensor de pixel é a menor célula de um sensor de imagem, capaz de detectar um ponto singular da imagem. Este ponto é então usado para reconstruir um quadro completo de imagem. Sensores de imagem CMOS são atualmente largamente utilizados tanto em câmeras profissionais como em aparelhos moveis em geral como celulares. Uma importante característica de um bom sensor de imagem é a capacidade de acomodar na mesma imagem regiões de alta e baixa luminosidade, chamada de alcance dinâmico do sensor. Muitas técnicas, encontradas na literatura, são capazes de aumentar o alcance dinâmico do sensor, cada uma com vantagens e desvantagens, tanto retardando o nível de saturação quanto reduzindo o ruído base. Não idealidades introduzidas durante o processo de fabricação produzem artefatos indesejáveis na imagem conhecidos com ruído de padrão fixo (fixed-pattern noise) – FPN e está entre os principais contribuintes para a determinação do ruído base em sensores de imagem CMOS. Redução de FPN em sensores de imagem com largo alcance dinâmico ainda é um desafio, pois ao aplicar qualquer das técnicas existentes, outras características essenciais do sensor são comprometidas, como velocidade de processamento, redução de área fotossensível, ou aumento de custo de fabricação. Este trabalho tem por objetivo aprimorar a operação de sensores de imagem CMOS, que operam com largo alcance dinâmico para aplicações praticas em geral, através da aplicação de técnicas simples de circuito, sem interferir no processo de fabricação. Para isso é proposto uma maneira simples e inovadora de aumentar o alcance dinâmico da mais básica e popular arquitetura de sensor de pixel atualmente usada em tecnologias CMOS. A ideia proposta tem duas diferenças básicas do corrente estado-da-arte. A primeira é a capacidade de aumentar o alcance dinâmico sem elevar o nível de tensão de qualquer sinal de controle acima do nível da alimentação. A segunda é a simplicidade da técnica de redução de FPN neste tipo de sensor em relação às demais encontradas na literatura. Nas técnicas, atualmente encontradas na literatura, a elevação do nível de tensão em alguns sinais de controle é necessária para evitar arquiteturas mais complexas, que reduzem a área fotossensível do sensor. Por outro lado a elevação da tensão acima do nível da alimentação é prejudicial, pois reduz o tempo de vida útil do sensor de imagem. A simplicidade da técnica de redução de FPN proposta neste trabalho é capaz de manter inalterada características importantes do sensor, como aquelas citadas acima, sem custo de fabricação adicional. A apresentação da defesa desta tese (em português) pode ser visualizada no seguinte link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vHUhrzmfed4 (Publicado em: 10/08/2014) vi Table of Contents Acknowledgments ............................................................................................................................................... iv Abstract .....................................................................................................................................................................
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