Public Debates on the Communist Past During

CEU eTD Collection DURING In partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Political 1993 P UBLIC L AND ITHUANIAN Supervisor: Professor Nenad Dimitrijevic Nenad Professor Supervisor: D 1997: EBATES ONTHE Department of Political Science Political of Department Central European University European Central Gintar Budapest, Hungary N F P Submitted to Submitted ơ ARRATING UTURE RESIDENTIAL Science Malinauskait 2010 By C ơ OMMUNIST I TS E P LECTIONS IN AST AND P AST CEU eTD Collection followed in the two largestfollowed newspapers: in Lithuanian two the identities namely,groups, former native opposition, communists, anddiasporamembers redefine their and search Lithuanianrevealin elections presidential memory howdifferent 1993and 1997and to for a new place in the post-communist Lithuania. The debates are emergence of a new political culture of dialogue and tolerance. an rather symbolizes but books” the “closing of policy choicea the of not reflect does study, it will be revealed that the conciliatory dealing with the Lithuanian communist past The aim of The aim thesisthis of analyze is to public debates on communistthe during past A BSTRACT i Lietuvos Rytas and Respublika . In this CEU eTD Collection CEU. thankand myfriends you to for encouragement theirsupport during year this challenging at least, not but Last comments. critical and insights valuable his for Center Writing Academic from David the Ridout suggestions. importantto patient also Iam grateful guidance and I would like to express my gratitude to myexpresslikeI wouldmy tosupervisorhis for to Dimitrijevic Nenad gratitude A CKNOWLEDGEMENTS ii CEU eTD Collection 2.4 Interplay of Different Memory Groups: A Framework for aNew Communication...... 45 during Lithuanian Presidential Elections in 1993 and 1997...... 43 for aNewIdentity Nativeof Opposition the Resistance:Search “Silent” “Active” and2.3 Campaigns...... 35 2.2 Former Communists and Their Redefinition of Memories of the Past during Electoral ...... 25 Lithuania 2.1 Diaspora Candidates and Their Localization of Memories within the Communist Past of 1993 C P for a New Political ...... 16 Culture 1.3 Lithuanian Transitional TwoMomentsPeriod: of “Historical Amnesia” Foundations or 1.2 Patterns of Behavior under Communism: Resistance, Adaptation, and Collaboration...... 8 1.1 The Twofold Nature of the Lithuanian Communism: from Repression to Patriotism...... 6 A C A UBLIC HAPTER CKNOWLEDGEMENTS HAPTER BSTRACT AND D EBATE ON THE EBATE 1997: 2: 1: ...... 2.4.2 Style of Communication and Behavior: A New Possibility for Dialogue...47 Imaginations on Lithuanian Statehood...... 45 2.4.1 Beyond Different Experience during the Communist Regime: Similar ...... 39 Communist Past 2.2.2 Overcoming the Opponents’ Challenge: Liberation from the Shadow of the to “Silent” Resistants...... 36 2.2.1 Former Communists and their Redefinition of Identity: From Communists Towards Ideological Reconciliation in ...... 34 the Homeland 2.1.2 Dynamics of Diasporic Returnees’ Identity in Post-Communist Lithuania: Elections in 1993 and 1997...... 27 2.1.1 Diasporic Returnees and TheirNarration during Lithuanian Presidential oiia utr ...... 22 Political Culture 1.3.3 Conclusions: Moments of “Historical Amnesia” as Foundations1.3.2 The Rebirth for of the Formera New Communists: the Period of Confrontation...... 20 1.3.1 The Rise of 1.2.3 An Excursus on Resistance in the Lithuanian Diaspora...... 14 Post-communist ...... 11 Lithuania Collaboration and Existing and Space for aNewAdaptation NarrationBetween and Identification Resistance: in the“Silent” the of Ambiguity 1.2.2 1.2.1 “Active” Resistance: from Underground to Public ...... 9 Opposition N E XPLORING THE ARRATIVES OF THE L OCALIZATION OF ...... P AST 6ąMnj L ...... 6 ITHUANIAN dis P M AST DURING AST : the Period of Consensus...... 18 T EMORIES OF THE OF EMORIES ABLE OF C OMMUNIST L iii C ITHUANIAN ONTENTS C P OMMUNIST AST P : RESIDENTIAL A CTORS AND CTORS P AST ...... 24 T E OPICS OF OPICS LECTIONS IN II I CEU eTD Collection P A ...... 67 1997 A R C Development of a New Political Culture...... 55 3.4 The Cross-Points of Communication on Dealing with the Communist Past: Gradual ...... 53 Divisions 3.3 Historical Argument: Narrative of Returning to the West as a Strategy for Overcoming 3.2 Economic Argument: Economic Development as a Forward-Looking Strategy...... 52 3.1 Alternative: Towards a Culture of Dialogue and Reconciliation...... 49 1993 C RESIDENTIAL PPENDIX PPENDIX EFERENCES ONCLUSIONS HAPTER AND 1997: 3: N N O N O ...... 61 .2: .1: ARRATIVES OF THE ...... 58 E S LECTIONS OF LECTIONS T TRATEGIES FOR THE FOR TRATEGIES R HE ESULTS OFTHE E LECTORAL 1998 P P L AST DURING AST (2 OSTER OF OSTER ITHUANIAN ND N ROUND EW F UTURE OF THE OF UTURE V )...... 69 L P ALDAS iv ITHUANIAN RESIDENTIAL A DAMKUS IN THE P P AST RESIDENTIAL E LECTIONS IN LECTIONS ...... 49 L ITHUANIAN E 1993 LECTIONS IN AND CEU eTD Collection Nostalgia], 5 4 political culture in post-communistthe Lithuania. debates on how one shouldmemories, find their in place post-independencethe Lithuania, and leadnegotiations and deal with theheritage.“ past, serve as a such cornerstonenegotiate anda contradictory differentstrategies “toaccomomodate have adopted for builduingLithuania, Soviet memory “oscillates from rejection to nostalgia“a andnew different social groups 3 2 formerleaders.Lithuanian The prominent sociologist Rasa created a network of the native differentLithuanians during opposition the regime causedhostilities towards formerthe and communists which highly criticizedstance of a distinct and occupation Theits Soviet independence. issues after most contested the political return of the memories.” localize their and reorganize, they recall, where in society is “italso that and society in memories acquire arrangements.” by social arestructured their operations present. ofthe light in the past 1 nothing butasocial construct. is society,” same the of members many of recollections individual of combination or sum, ý Halbwachs, 1992, pp. 38. Jeffrey K. Olick, “Collective Memory”, Ibid, pp. 22. Maurice Halbwachs, Maurice Our conceptions of the past are affected by the mental by the affected are past of the Our conceptions images we employ to solve present problems, so that problems, present tosolve we employ images epaitien In Lithuania, the localization of memories about the communist past was one of the Maurice Halbwachs argues that collective memory, which he defines as “the result, or ơ Lituanistica 5 , Rasa, “Sovietme Thus I would argue that the form of how different actors accomodate their accomodate actors different how form of the that argue ThusIwould collective memory is essentially a reconstruction ofthe a reconstruction essentially is memory collective On Collective Memory , 2007, No.4 (72). 4 þ io io atmintis – tarp atmetimo ir nostalgijos,“ [Soviet Memory – From Rejectionto 2 It is “a matter of how minds work together in society, how International Encyclopedia ofthe Social Sciences (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992), pp. 34-39. I NTRODUCTION 1 3 Halbwachs claims that people that claims Halbwachs ý epaitien Maurice Halbwachs ơ , 2 claims that in claims that nd edition, pp. 7. 1 CEU eTD Collection 6 programme“ and eventually prevailed. its implement to of “thean LDDP government power haveit limited could because Right“ the from “feared President astrong However,former its President. 1938 with communists strong of theConstitution torestore wanted Landsbergis Vytautas native opposition, leader of the the Antanas Smetona, is seen as one of the biggest heroes in twentieth century Lithuanian history. whenperiod, Lithuania wasapresidential Thestate. lastPresidentindependentof Lithuania, dealing The importance back interwar of to figure tothe presidential with the past. the goes figure andfigure political mostisin polls thetrusted Lithuanian usually public opinion declared President as the state, a semi-presidential is Lithuania if even that notice to important is It future. its for visions their and past Lithuanian the on perception their reveal they where candidates, presidential in elections 1993 and1997.Iaminterested in narratives the presidential the of of tolerance. dialogue culture and political is past tothecommunistwill party. apartof a newconciliatory claim successor I attitude that communist the of strength the reflect simply it does nor books”; the “closing of policy a of choice reflect the not does legacies its and past communist Lithuanian tothe attitude diaspora. Lithuanian the even and elite communist which includes not only actors the nativeof Lithuanian butformeralsoopposition, Lithuanian Mymainpolitics. is howquestion they manage tocreate a new political culture socialize groups for new and search inand their identity place thepost-independence memory seehowduring different Lithuanianelections presidential 1997,to in1993and Thomas Lane, Thomas A fight strength over the of President has the independence,also emerged after when The focus of my research are public debates occuringduring Lithuanian the my debates are public The focus of research Therefore, the aim thesisthis of is,by analyzing public on debates communistthe past de facto Lithuania: stepping westward serves as a guardian of country‘s moral values, including the ones related (London: Routledge, 2001), pp.132. 6 Therefore, in November 1992 when Lithuanian 2 My hypothesis is that the prevailing the is that hypothesis My CEU eTD Collection after theannouncementafter of elections’ elections’ results (for seeAppendix The results No.1). to the Law on Lithuanian Presidential Elections) and analysis ended approximately two weeks one month before each election (this is also the official period of electoral agitation, according newspapers, analyzed inthese were elections newspaper. Presidential became anindependent 7 publishedbeginning since1989andin the presidential elections after independence presidential too. after elections first the without analysis of be the understood cannot and process gradual of resulta Rytas Lithuanian “the andculture of politics political post-independence.“ presidential victory of Valdas Adamkusin 1997 already marks “asignificant in turning point“ elections,fundamental ones in creating foundations for a new political culture in Lithuania. In these two both Ihave investigated. toanalyze theelections chosen because of 1993 andserve as they 1997 the communistalways raised during different presidential elections. Therefore, these elections will be inLithuania, are justice, memory and transitional questionsthe of debatesabout loudest past and its futurerequired. is agovernment, of formation the like decisions, wasimportant for one, a symbolic not approval, debated. developmentforeign of but haspolicy also in powers certain domestic affairs andhis As Lanemeanslargerinfluence his and rolepolitics. inLithuanian is He notonly forresponsible the argues,isLithuanian Estonia, Latvia in directly neighbours or President, to elected contrast actually theLithuanian that limited, fact were butthe powers declared,President constitution was from newspaper from the Ibid, pp. 131. and I will analyze the two biggest I will Lithuaniananalyze newspapers: privately-owned and thetwo The historical importance of presidency in importance of The historical Lithuania isof why presidency reasons one the the Respublika Komjaunimo Tiesa . Lietuvos Rytas Lietuvos , under this name isname from , underthis 1990; it published originated ( The Truth of the Communist YouthThe Truthof was closely related with related closely was 3 7 However, this turn was a 6ąMnj dis Movement, later ). Respublika Lietuvos is CEU eTD Collection development of a new political culture in the post-communist Lithuania. I will attempt to see to attempt Iwill Lithuania. in post-communist the culture newa political of development former communists and theirnew in ways of adapting Lithuanian willpolitics, investigate the towards criticism repeating of instead My thesis, in Lithuania. issues justice transitional some works are even overemphasized. Thus the aim of thiscommunistbe regimein Lithuanian areclaimedprevailing to and Iwouldpolitics argue,in work is to fill the gap in study of Lithuania of how with isthe of pastandonlythe legacies dealing the negativea very picture namely,groups, native present Lithuanianthe Usually andthediaspora. works opposition the communist elite, provide valuableinsights on issue.this works works of Balutyt most comprehensive sociological studiesmade by was collective memory and the creation of identity of a new former creation the the memory of and collective onthephenomenonof studiesliterature concentrate WhileandVenclova (1999). sociology during occupation in of and thepost-communist works Lithuania (seethe Donskis (2005) or Philosophical(2009). studies of nature the discuss nationalism Lithuanian and its expression andPocius (1996), of Girnius Klumbys works (2009), the collaboration (see are analyzed issuesand of adaptation mainly the regime, the during behavior controversial the philosophy,literature sociology to historical studies. studies lies In mainconcentration the on study of transitional issuesjustice in Lithuaniais very dispersed rangingfrom history, expressed theideas offuture development of Lithuanian politics. their relation their presented with Lithuanian communist past, self-identification and of anarration newspapers, created main Lithuanian two in these whoall appeared posters, and electoral candidatesin interviews,primary The programs, biographies, source. their alsobutnewspapersimportantly, servednotonly as thesecondary source, andmost asthe However, very little attention is given to the redefinition of identities of other memory other of identities of redefinition the to given is attention little very However, This differswork from many studies on other the Lithuanian The communist past. ơ (2007)andRubavi þ ius (2007),whoanalyzed the memoirs of formerthe 4 ý epaitien ơ in 2007.Inliterature the nomenklat nj ra . One of the CEU eTD Collection 8 development of bethe will of towards “politics dialogue” acknowledged. independence Lithuania, especially, essential the contribution of Lithuanianthe diaspora returned diaspora have played a significant role the and in creating crisis economic goals, a newpolitical politicalsimilar that be argued will itculture in myconclusions In the post- analyze the future of the past, namely, the strategies of dealing with the past will be discussed. memorydifferent The groups. dynamics ofidentity will be highlighted. The third will chapter willchapter from of narrationsstudy andself-identifications the candidates presidential The second bepresented. will period of Lithuanian transitional stages the three sub-chapter, elections. Not only periodthe of Sovietthe occupation will be discussed alsobut, in last the andduring on main Lithuanian reveal past the themes of actors presidential debates the public first chapter, the Lithuanian communist past will be explored. The aim of this section is to Lithuanian path towards democraticLithuanian pathtowards consolidation. states, post-communist than inother faster, a for catalysts the also of but asone mistake” argued thatsuchapologetic might dealingwith be past inLithuania the seennotsolely “a as will for be their It formerharshly pastactivities. past anddidnotcriticize communists so conciliatoryLithuaniansucceeded diaspora, in a more the communistdevelopingapproach to how, despite the fact of factof the existing the despite how, See forthis idea also Skulte (2005), whose work will be mentioned later. In order to answermy research question, the thesis will be structured as follows. In the nomenklatura 5 8 , other groups of actors, mainly groupsof , other the actors, CEU eTD Collection Lithuanians to Siberia and the Northern Part of Siberiaof LithuaniansRussia. the Northern Part to and opposition within also, but country the with together Stalin, organized massdeportations of regime; Antanas Snie with Union anoppressive The started Communist Soviet of occupation (CPSU). Party the Communistrepublics. Till in breakthrough the 1990,the country was governed by Lithuanian the Party (LCP) andPatriotism its1.1 The Twofold Nature of the Lithuanian Communism: from Repressionfirst to party’sfoundations for a new political dialogue among former opponents. secretary,communistsbutalso foranew openedapossibility culture, political laid namely, the former the forof rehabilitation the only not laidthefoundations amnesia” “historical who waswill moments of It bearguedthatthese amnesia.” a“historical Lithuanians experience subordinatedduring which a independencedesire for andlater aim the consolidate made democracy to adaptation and collaboration. Next, the transitionalto period will be discussed. Thisis the period the line between thin regardingthe “silent”resistance, andthe of “active” resistance ambiguity patterns of behavior under communism inLithuania.nature of discuss Iwill Then, the by chapter the startthe presenting Iwill inLithuanian 1997. elections 1993and presidential tounderstandorder better mainthe and narratives actors topics, thatprevailed their during Communist and Post-Communist Studies 9 Terry D.Clark and Jovita Pranevi Jovita and D.Clark Terry C HAPTER In 1940, Lithuania was incorporated intoIn 1940,Lithuania incorporated Soviet wasthe Union and ofits was one The aim of this chapter is to present the Lithuanian communist past and its nature in 1: E XPLORING THE þ T kus, the first party secretary from from first1974 notparty kus, the 1940 to secretary only any repressed OPICS OF þLnjWơ , “Perspective on Communist Successor Parties: the Case ofLithuania,” Case the Parties: Successor Communist on , “Perspective , Vol.41, Issue 4, December2008. P L UBLIC ITHUANIAN D EBATEON THE 6 C OMMUNIST 9 According to the conclusions of the of conclusions the to According P AST P AST : A CTORS ANDCTORS CEU eTD Collection ethnic Russians to Lithuania. to ethnic Russians example, byimpeding theindustrialization inand,process manner, migration this avoiding of for Lithuania, of block Russification the andto CPSU from the autonomy of certain degree immigrated to the USA, and now is the Professorat Yale University. Helsinki Watch group. In1977, he was expatriated from Lithuania because of anti-Soviet activities. He 18 17 “nationalism.” and cultural 16 nationalism of the former communists. migrationof ethnic Russians into Lithuanianfactories. It will be later, inthis thesis also called, as economic 15 14 5. pp. 2007), of Lithuania, Centre Research Resistance and Genocide (Vilnius: chauvinism for economic only not “wascriticized often therefore, and from Sovietization”, preserve culture Lithuanian into was efforts “aggressive its quite 13 Pranevi Jovita and D. Clark AsTerry However, Russian nation was given inpriority schools and language Russian became mandatory. surpressed by regimethe in 1953. Forest Brothers 12 1953%20Tremimai_isvados.doc http://www.komisija.lt/Files/www.komisija.lt/File/2005%20m.%20posedis/1944- Lithuania, 20 April, 2005. Conclusions on deportations in 1944-1953 m. Available from: 11 1953-1990 period). Conclusions mentioned refer period tothe of 1940-1953. Lithuania, established1998 by in decree,President’s periodof investigation1940-1990, (now working still 10 andnations”“merging appeared. idea the of werepromoted patriotism” cultural borders within the Soviet Union. Theconceptsof man””Soviet and“Soviet political prisoners. political 80.000 imprisoned, with were 000 people from and 186 country the deported society, were International Commission, International Tomas Venclova is famous Lithuanian poet and scholar. In 1976 he was one of the founders of Lithuanian founders ofthe one was he 1976 In scholar. and poet Lithuanian famous is Venclova Tomas Ibid. Clark and Pranevi Economic chauvinism is understood as the nationalistic economic policies, forexample, avoidance of labor Ibid. Algirdas Jakub Clark and Pranevi International Commissionfor the Evaluation of the Crimes of the Nazi and Soviet Occupation Regimes in International Commissionfor the Evaluation of the Crimes of the Nazi and Soviet OccupationRegimes in The aim of the USSR leaders was to do away not only with physical but also with þ , who fought for Lithuanian independence in the forests and completely intheforests independence fought forwere Lithuanian , who ionis (ed.),ionis þLnjWơ þLnjWơ 11 Many of these political prisoners were Lithuanian partisans, known as , 2008. , 2008. , (accessed, April 7, 2010). TheUn-armed Anti-soviet ResistanceLithuania in inthe1950sand 1960s 10 16 between 1944-1953, 118000Lithuanians, from all levels of Snie 17 Nevertheless, as Lithuanian dissident Tomas Venclova Tomas dissident Lithuanian as Nevertheless, 12 þ kus and later members later achievekus and a of LCPmanaged to the þLnjWơ 7 argue, the Lithuanian Communist Party Communist argue,theLithuanian 15 butforalso educational 13 The history of the 18 14 , CEU eTD Collection http://vddb.laba.lt/fedora/get/LT-eLABa-0001:E.02~2009~D_20100204_103051-05475/DS.005.0.01.ETD Lithuania’s Cultural Elite], PhD Dissertation, University of Vilnius, Faculty of Humanties and History, pp.32, at: was theorized by K by was theorized 2005, pp.124, Lithuania,” PhD Dissertation, the Faculty of the Graduate School of the University of Maryland, College Park, 23 22 21 1997), pp. 61. about these two oppositional patterns ofbehavior. two oppositional patterns these about During thaw the period and till of SovietUnion, collapse the speak should the one not only Stalin. of death the till only be used could adivision such Klumbys, Vytautas historian 20 model,a binary versus i.e.collaboration. resistance Collaboration 1.2 Patterns of Behavior under Communism: Resistance, Adaptation, and independence. 24 2010). 19 Lithuania 26 25 (accessed April 7, 2010). higher education. with hand they tried to break its back, and on the other, nourished itlittle.” a one the “on twofold: always was nationalism Lithuanian with relationship LCP the notices, Lithuanians. percent LCPmemberswereethnic the 70.5of in eve the independence, 1989,already of Lithuanians; by1965Lithuaniansmembership, itspercent comprised of andfinally 63.7 on As Vardys and Sedaitismembers by1953,38percent notice, were of LCP the ethnic For example, in contrast to Latvia, which had less ethnic Latvians in the party. inthe Latvians ethnic less had which Latvia, to contrast in example, For Ibid, pp. 62. V.Stanley Vardys and Judith B. Sedaitis, Valdemaras Klumbys, Tomas Venclova, Ibid. Ibid. Jennifer Annemarie Skulte, “Returned Diaspora, National Identity and Political Leadership in Latvia and inLatvia Leadership Political and Identity National Diaspora, “Returned Skulte, Annemarie Jennifer In Lithuania,for along behavior time, under communist the regime was through seen It is also essential to understand the signficance of the ethnic composition of the LCP. 22 former communists could retain their political leadership after the Lithuanian the after leadership political their retain could communists former 20 http://www.lib.umd.edu/drum/bitstream/1903/2475/1/umi-umd-2347.pdf Already in 1975one-fifth of party membersintelligentsia, were professionals 23 Forms of Hope Ċ Lietuvos kult stutis Girnius who also included the component of adaptation to the to of includedadaptation component also the who Girnius stutis 21 These facts actually might serve as one of the explanations why in why explanations the of one as serve might actually facts These , Essays, (New York: The Sheep Meadow Press, 1999), pp. xi. nj rinio elito elgsenos modeliai sovietme Lithuania: the Rebel Nation 8 26 The model of behavior during this period 24 However, according to Lithuanian However, according to , (Boulder,, Colorado: Westview Press, þ iu , [Behavioural Models of Soviet Models [Behavioural , 19 , , (accessed May 19, , 25 CEU eTD Collection 34 33 32 31 30 29 Collaboration], in the “other forms Hungary servedproof of that and as 1968intheCzechoslovakia Lithuania Union. of Soviet the relations international worsened the and also development” cultural national and on its “restriction emergence werethe for reasons 1960sand late 1970s. inmainly the emerged, unarmed the defeated, resistance intill 1952. fighting forests actively armed men,who were so-called the movement, partisan by the carried was resistance, which of anti-Soviet wasthearmed period the 1944-1952 Lithuanianfor sovereignty. of the restoration fight their started partisans in 1944,when 28 27 independence or protested against regime’s protested the politics.” or independence demanded fought against regime,the and directly public people, who or of activities 1.2.1 “Active” Resistance: from Underground Public to Opposition Lithuania. of history communist in the collaboration and adaptation of dissidentmovements, and, secondly, todefine “silent” resistance and present to the ambiguity ofis aim define and work, followingthe the firstly, parts of resistance to “active” Lithuanian motivations justifications forand search for certainstrategies adaptation.of definenamelymore understand allows butalso precisely to adaptation, past; to the him, triple scheme notonly this themostprevailingemphasizes behavior communism, under regime. Ibid, pp. 4 Jakub Ibid. Ibid, pp. 81. Vardys Sedaitis, and 1997, pp. 80. Klumbys, 2009,pp. 7. K Ibid. Ċ stutis Girnius, “Pasipriešinimas, prisitaikymas, kolaboravimas,“ [Resistance, Adaptation, and þ “Active” Resistance to the Soviet regime in Lithuania can be as“underground defined can regime inLithuania Soviet the to Resistance “Active” 27 ionis, 2007,ionis, pp. 3. Girnius argues that “an orcollaborate” Girnius adapt, individual and, arguesthat can resist, according to Naujasis židinys, 1996, Nr. 5, p.268. Forest Brothers Forest 9 . 31 Their ranksincluded 30,000 around 29 Lithuanian hasopposition its roots 32 After the partisan movement was 34 The revolutions of in1956 28 Therefore, the Therefore, 33 The main The 30 CEU eTD Collection literary literary clubs and manifested their by opposition raising national flag, the writing anti-Soviet Lithuanian youth. in by Lithuania,way ofprotest especially self-immolations”motivated aprominent was “politically example, for regime, the with clashes violent into time to time from came which independence.” Theirmain andonly was task “to give the nation back its freedom and torestore activities. because of their werearrested ofthis leaders many group unarmed resistance;” Lithuanianthe Freedom League, which is as defined “mostthe radical inorganization the reestablishment of independence. of Lithuanian reestablishment the of ideas promoted Church, Catholic the like also, they West; the to information politicalin establishment 1976,whosememberswereformer Lithuanian the Group of Helsinki prisoners whose aim was to record human rights violations and spread this 41 40 39 38 national, andpromoted values.” Catholic cultural religion andto publish started periodicals in which they “disseminated anti-Sovietideas and former partisans anddeportees. former partisans (1) the Catholic Church; (2) human rights advocates; (3) nationalists, with some ofthem were groups: threedifferent wascomprised of resistance Underground andresistance. public/civil independence. illegal some of and seekforsociety adapted, Lithuania’s organizedecided to opposition part 37 36 35 resistance wereneeded.” resistance Clark and Pranevi Ibid, pp. 39. Ibid, pp. 35. Ibid, pp. 31-33. Jakub Vardys Sedaitis, and 1997, pp. 84-85. Ibid. þ Lithuanian “active” resistance can be divided into two main types, i.e.main two underground into types, bedivided “active”resistancecan Lithuanian Along with opposition,underground werealso there of signs public/civil opposition, ionis, 2007,ionis, pp. 21. 40 þLnjWơ 41 These people were usually members of folklore societies, tourist or tourist folkloresocieties, of members usually were Thesepeople , 2008. 35 Thus, while a large part of Thus, lives”and lived “double of whilealargesociety part 36 The Catholic Church resisted the heavy restrictions on 38 Finally, the nationalists were gathered around weregathered nationalists the Finally, 10 37 Human rights advocates emerged with the with emerged advocates rights Human 39 CEU eTD Collection collaboration with the communist regime. Some scholars, like Klumbys, refuse to use the use to refuse Klumbys, like scholars, Some regime. communist the with collaboration the as named already be can system the to adaptation of level which arises dilemma Both adaptation and isand collaborators one of mostthe disputed issues andin controversial history.Lithuanian collaboration withpeopleconformists, into tothe whosuccessfullyadapted regime,butstill “silently“ it opposed the Soviet regime were of different levels, and the Lithuania could be considered as part of “silent” resistance. partof the beconsideredas could Lithuania Existing Spacefor a NewNarration Identification and inthe Post-communist Lithuania 1.2.2 Ambiguityofthe“Silent” Resistance: Between AdaptationandCollaboration and independence.“ but alsoand “free“fostering national self-awareness“ in thinking“ the questfor“promoting role played animportant “active“ in not only resistance Nevertheless, independence. goal the national of supported including and LCP,wasawakened wholethe society, Forthis metaphor, see also Balutyte, 2007. 47 46 45 Venclova. 44 43 workers and collective farm farm peasants.“ andcollective workers of close ties strata theunderprivileged mostly population,the with included the and“kept the LCP or belonged to the “silent“ part of society. Therefore, USSR,excludingthe the underground the resistance, in occurred Lithuania. Lithuanian undergroundVardysin Sedaitis, and percentof 1965-1978, 10.3 all eventsdemonstrations and in protests 42 scholars or professionals“ slogans or by “drawing symbols of inslogans statehood by“drawing symbols Lithuanian public or of places.” In Lithuania, there is a tendency to call oneself a ”silent” resistant, including the former members of the LCP. ofthe members former the including resistant, ”silent” a oneself call to atendency is there Lithuania, In Jakub Vardys Sedaitis, and 1997, pp. 85. like, ofresistance, years the during not were but scholars, prominent are today dissidents ofthe Some Vardys Sedaitis, and 1997, pp.85. Jakub þ þ The aim of this part of the thesis is to present the controversial debate on who in Finally, it is important to note that Lithuanian dissidents did not have “prominent have not did dissidents Lithuanian that note to important is it Finally, ionis, 2007,ionis, pp. 44. ionis, 2007,ionis, pp. 23-27. 46 44 in their ranks, because most of the intelligentsia were members of were mostof intelligentsia the ranks,because in their 45 However, later, during However, later, of period the 11 47 The problem of dividing 43 42 perestroika According to , the , CEU eTD Collection by other scholars to define the term “collaboration.” todefine term the by scholars other is used mentioned above, regime, the to “internal adaptation” of meantime, definition the the adaptation,” namely compliance, could also be called members of the “silent” resistance. of “silent” the members becalled could also compliance, namely adaptation,” the Catholic Church. Catholic the towards regime thecommunist of opposition strong the babies despite their baptize secretly might be even against it.be even might against personally and values new these absorb not does former the is that compliance and conformity possibility receiveto personal foradvantages such a position. public appraisal but to avoid public troubles. to but appraisal or punishment achieve and gains personal notto certain values, newnormative a new and adapts situation to kritikoje,“ [The Metaphor“Silent Resistance and Strategies of Conformism in Soviet Literary Criticism], that the person adapts person the that individualsmeans that a adapt to new regime, buttheimportance of this form of is adaptation 56 55 54 53 52 51 50 49 48 (compliance). adaptation” “external and (conformity) history during the Sovietperiod suggests dividing into“internal adaptation adaptation” their situation and accept the existing order. existing the accept and their situation who describes it as the internal state of mind, when people lose hope in any radical changes of keep to define distinction the between and to and collaboration. adaptation its “political colour,” becauseof “collaboration,” term Colloquia Elena Baliutyte, “Tyliosios rezistencijos” metafora ir prisitaikymo strategijos sovietme Vardys Sedaitis, and 1997, pp.62. Ibid. Ibid. Ibid. Ibid, pp. 37. Ibid. Ibid, pp. 36. Klumbys, 2009,pp.7. On the other hand, compliance or “external adaptation” means that an individual an means that adaptation” “external or compliance hand, other On the The issue of adaptation to communistthe regime is widely by Klumbys,discussed , No.19, 2007, pp. 60, at: 55 Therefore, many people that belonged to the group of “external of group the to belonged that people many Therefore, voluntarily 54 Vardys and Sedaitis give an example of such people, who used to http://www.llti.lt/failai/Nr19_05_Baliutyte.pdf , without any resistance. , without 49 However, Klumbys, while analyzing Lithuanian 12 53 The most important difference between important difference The most 48 50 while others argue that it is important Conformity or “internal adaptation” “internal or Conformity 51 52 Sucha person understandsthe , (accessed, April7, 2010). þ io literat nj ros 56 In CEU eTD Collection http://www.luni.lt/index.php/2009_10_15_LUNI_Vilnius._Mindaugas_Pocius._Kolaboravimo_sampratos_probl Collaboration1944-1953], kolaboravimu 1944-1953 metais forthcoming chapters. Iwillforthcoming how candidates from chapters. demonstrate communists’ former the ranks in broadly more the bediscussed will and betweenadaptation collaboration position its and resistance “silent” Thisof problem as anactof collaboration. whatonly and resistance as“silent” what canbe asto perceived exists a moral confusion and,therefore, regime, the to adapted externally and internally both was, terms in Klumbys’ or regime, communist the of USSR. the services expose and ”punish” just one form of collaboration, i.e. expose form and ”punish” justone collaboration, of to “collaboration“ uses decided term whichalso the law (1999), In themeantime, Lustration Republic of RepublicLithuania.“ of resistance fortifyan actwhen Lithuanian helpedannexation,ofcitizens occupation the or to suppressedthe Lithuanians or in any case members ofintelligentsia. among other way aidedGirnius,was the to according which, crimes, a regime’s of justification or services, security an illegalholding responsible posts in regimethe occupation regime, betrayal or denunciation of people to to as suchactions incorporates “collaboration” term the that claims act against the http://www3.lrs.lt/pls/inter3/dokpaieska.showdoc_l?p_id=111555 59 58 ema 57 60 ofanewregime.” diminish opponents neutralize or to andhelps citizen cooperates certain form of relations“a is collaboration that argue andcollaboration butbetween adaptation of forms adaptation between a citizen of an occupied country and regime, i.e. when a Lithuanian criminal code,2000, Article 120, at: Ibid. Definition of K.Girnius found Mindaugasin: Pocius, Lustration Law, 1999, Article 2, at: , (accessed 7, April 2010). In Lithuania, it is often claimed that everyone in a certain manner collaborated with Collaboration is conceptualized also anddefined in Lithuanian the “as criminal code Scholars, who still argue that the distinction should be made not between different between not made be should distinction the that argue still who Scholars, 60 (Vilnius: Lietuvos istorijos leidykla, 2009). Excerption from the book at: found 59 Five years isof imprisonment forseen for suchas punishment crime. , [The Other Side of the Moon: The Fight of Lithuanian Partisans against Partisans ofLithuanian Fight The Moon: ofthe Side Other , [The http://aurmonas.home.mruni.eu/?page_id=154 58 Kita m 13 ơ nulio pus , (accessed 7, April 2010). secret ơ : Lietuvos partizan collaboration with security with collaboration active , (accessed April 7, 2010). participation or ǐ kova su 57 Girnius CEU eTD Collection 67 66 65 64 Transmigrants”, 63 Access], and Relevance Movements: Ideological Liberal paveldas: aktualumas irprieinamumas,” [The Archival Foundationof Lithuanian Emigration Catholic and century, became stronger during interwar period and was later transferred to the Lithuanian transferred tothe later andinterwar was during period stronger century, became and ideological differentiation. and ideological newspaper [Inexterminable Soviet-Time: Memory, Recollection, and Political Power], one. liberal differentideological streams could be observed, namely, the catholic, or conservative, and the 62 elite. cultural and political Lithuanian the from came emigrants, these for and by people who from these camps immigrated into the USA. 61 to Displaced Person Camps of the World War II“ i.e. name, received aspecial people fled to the West, mainly to the USA. the mainly to West, the fledto people 60,000 from Lithuania mass forcedand around emigration Soviet The diaspora. occupation Lithuanian the was communists, the and “silent“ and “active“ both resistance, of members 1.2.3 AnExcursus onResistance intheLithuanian Diaspora communist Lithuania. post- new inthe capital political their retain will and recognition societal and political regain will they collaboration and adaptation between distinction the of confusion moral and from ambiguity the “silent” resistance. Thus of the asmembers redefinetried to themselves Ibid. Ibid,pp. 23. Dapkut Ibid. Vytis Daiva Dapkut Rubavi ý It is important to note that this Lithuanian diaspora was not a monolithic body body wasnota monolithic thatthisnote isand diaspora to important Lithuanian It Another group of actors that was important during the Soviet occupation, next to nextoccupation, was important during Soviet the that of actors group Another ơ iubrinskis, “To Be of Use YourFor Own Country” –Missionary Identity of Lithuanianthe þ and Bal ius, Vytautas. “Neišgyvendinamas sovietmetis: atmintis, prisiminimai ir politin Aidai 66 ơ Lithuanian émigré and pedagogueKazys Mockusin1953the diaspora and Ilona Bal Social Sciences þ inskyt wrote that these emigrants have also brought with themselves their political their themselves with brought also have emigrants these that wrote ơ 61 , 2008,pp., 22. þ inskyt , No., 3(53), 2006, pp. 28. dipukai 67 ơ , “Lietuvos išeivijos katalik This ideological divisionin Lithuania emerged inthe 19 (in English, Dee Pees). This term means a “relationship a means term This Pees). Dee English, (in 62 The people from Thefrom people have emigration wavethis of Knygotyra 14 63 located in Germany and Austria. It is used ǐ ir liberal ideologini , No.50, 2008, pp. 22. Colloquia 65 64 , No. 18, 2007, pp.129. Many people, among ǐ srovi ơ galia,” ǐ archyvinis th CEU eTD Collection http://www.iseivijosinstitutas.lt/index.php?cid=534 in Exileamong Lithuanian Catholics and Liberals], Išeivijos institutas, 2007, intellectual bygroup represented the intomore Western society. rather by integrating the but policy segregation of liberalsthe Lithuanian needs arguedthat the maintain nationaldiaspora to identity itsnot bya and possible betrayal of country. the betrayal of and possible regime of Soviet a andthe saw it as threat Lithuania ties with any were against Soviet close Catholics so-called the i.e. side, conservative more The Union. Soviet the from Lithuania establish Lithuanian schools and try to segregate segregate from society. andtry “foreign” the Lithuanian schools to establish identity.national Lithuanian retain to how on disagreements the on based mainly was conflict Their Catholicsforpeople,” example, most famoussuch the Maceina liberal andGirnius.as philosophers, argued that in order to maintain Lithuanian patriotism, one needs to 69 68 asKami because, issues religious Lithuania. Soviet the with communicate to how and identity national Lithuanian Here, I will focus on theirin discussed broader second chapter. bein each opposed and 1997,which other will the 1993 two main differences, namely as independence their duringLithuania’scandidates presidential the representatives elections their perceptionsafter also but resistance of strategies different favored only not stream ideological each on how to retain because fight, ideological ignore this it to is impossible regime, Soviet tothe itsand resistance diaspora, especially, in the USA. 72 71 70 Darius Kami Ibid, pp. 24. Ibid. Ibid. Ibid. These two ideological groups were also divided on strategies how to act and save The main conflict between these two ideological streams was not based onthe not was ideological streams two these between The mainconflict þ aitis, “Lietuvos katalik ǐ ir liberal 68 Therefore, while speaking about the Lithuanian Lithuanian the while speakingdiaspora Therefore, about þ aitis notices, “among liberals there were also Catholic also were there liberals “among notices, aitis 72 ǐ In the meantime, the more liberal wing, mainly wing, liberal more the meantime, Inthe Santara-Šviesa ideologiniai skirtumai egzilyje,“ [The Ideological Divisions (accessed May 16, 2010). 15 decided to use the possibility of decidedto 71 70 On their part, 69 CEU eTD Collection Krupavi 77 76 75 74 44. Community: AProject forCultural Ties], Studies of Lithuania‘s History, ResearchPapers, Issue 20, 2007, pp. LCP started tosupportLCPstarted (1) its communist the past: approach to Foundations for a New Political Culture 1.3 Lithuanian Transitional Period: Two Moments of“Historical Amnesia” or by supported native Lithuanians in newthe political environment. be to in order needed was stance less nationalistic liberal and a more that diaspora the successof failures of liberalsBobelis the LozoraitisandAdamkus,proved to and unexpected electoral Thecomplete Lithuania. ownposition to redefinewithin its newindependentthe could diaspora inafter be independence,identity becauseit dynamism of the the had observed However,as it in diaspora. willnationalisticthe stream of be following presented chapter, the and more conservative afollowerthe of was KazysBobelis candidate, presidential another meantime, the In group. liberal the namely latter, the to belonged also Adamkus Valdas and “awakeningthe of nonconformistmoods.” this managed manner tothe tocontribute development they of Lithuanian opposition and to forbidden literature and to foster critical thinking towards the Soviet regime. critical foster Soviet and the thinking towards to literature forbidden Lithuaniabring to to relations thesebilateral contrary,the on communism,but, using still, inknown such find that wantedto a way SovietUnion inthe ideological support diaspora, the 73 establishing relations with the Soviet writers and intelligentsia during1966-1967. and writers establishing Soviet the relationswith The period The of consensus and the period ofconfrontationwere and more identified broadly discussedby Ibid. Ibid,pp. 48. Ibid. Ar nj nas nas Streikus, “Soviet Santara-Šviesa þ I would suggest dividing Lithuanian transitional period intodividingI would stages, three Lithuanian suggest transitional period Two Lithuanian presidential candidates from the diaspora, namely Stasys Lozoraitis ius (see in Jankauskas and Ž decided to accept this offer. accept this to decided ǐ 6ąMnj Lietuva ir išeivija: kult dis , remained united and avoided dealing with , remained dealingwith communist unitedavoided the and past ơ ruolis, 2004). period ofconsensus 76 nj rini ǐ ryši 16 74 ǐ However, their aim was not to supportnot to However, theirwas aim projektas,“ [Soviet Lithuania and the Émigré , when the former members of the 75 Therefore, in 77 referring to 73 It was It CEU eTD Collection of Mass Violence New-Discipline-in-Human-Rights.pdf 78 a French philosopher and writer of 19 the of a French writer philosopher and forget the past, i.e. the activities of former communists in the Soviet regime. As Ernest Renan, marked namely itboth decided “historical by andto were amnesia,” was reconciliation certain opposition. It promoted the idea of forgiveness and reconciliation. The periods of consensus diaspora victory Adamkusof in presidential the Duringelections. thisperiod of reconciliation, the played Lozoraitisin emergedin the the 1997with presidential finished candidate 1992and with the role lustrationemphasized (3) wasstarted;and of andaprocess of mediatoropposition,led by Landsbergis; in the Vytautas period, this “sins”former of communists were same the during of communists, between supported consensus period that ones the which emerged duringthefirst parliamentary elections in 1992 between reformed the the former forand sake the actors independence; itsformer ofLithuanian (2) communists and the native conclusion referring already to the second chapter of my of be presented. will thesis chapter second the to already referring conclusion Finally, willbedescribed. the situation its the new leaderparty communisttransitional to and differentopposition and groups the LCP willbe outlined and the adaptation formerthe of of beanalyzedandtherelationship will of confrontation period Secondly, the characteristics. creation and development of the Lithuanian Reform Movement might be “necessary for the building of a nation.” Kora Andrieu, “Transitional Justice a New Discipline in Human Rights,” January 2010, January Rights,” Human in aNewDiscipline Justice “Transitional Andrieu, Kora In this part of the thesis, firstly, I will discuss the period of consensus, namely, the , Sciences Po, Paris, at: , (accessed April 7, 2010). http://www.massviolence.org/IMG/article_PDF/Transitional-Justice-A- th century, argues “historical amnesia” sometimes amnesia” “historical argues century, 78 17 period of reconciliation period of period ofconfrontation 6ąMnj Online Encyclopedia 6ąMnj dis , and its main dis , andnative which CEU eTD Collection 6ąMnj http://www.lrytas.lt/-12127553891212719115-p1-Istorija-T-Venclova-Etninis-nacionalizmas-pad%C4%97jo- Nationalism Helped forTotalitarian System to Prolong its Ruling], gathering, by dominated intellectuals.“ the AcademyLithuanian inof thebeginningSciences, and itwas “aLithuanian middle-class development of the just because of the “dangerous situation of transition.“ Venclova, onecannotjustify “the apologetical dealing with communist regime“ inLithuania communism only alsobut towards their towards own tradition of thinking. not critical were who Michnik, or Havel like intellectuals, critical lacked Lithuania that argues and transition of moment the at past the with dealing of way Lithuanian the criticizes Group, forgiving”most for Lithuanians. Venclova, who wasthe leader of Lithuanianthe Helsinki of “moment wasa period the transitional Therefore, Moscow. reaction of violent possible goal,namely for questthe Lithuanian independence andfightagainst onethreat,i.e. the ordinary high dissidents, andofficialspeople, intellectuals of were LCP the underone united 81 80 culture.” political Soviet of monolith superficial the hidden formerly under was society of of time a civil a “sudden emergence the Lithuanian andthe opposition communists’ democracy. Itis marked by the political consensus of formerly confronting actors, namely, the perceived as the moment of “awakening” of moment as the perceived totalitarinei-sistemai-prat%C4%99sti-savo-valdym%C4%85-video.htm 79 83 82 1.3.1 The Rise of Tomas Venclova, ”Etninis nacionalizmas pad Vardys Sedaitis, and 1997, pp.101. Alfred Erich Senn, Vardys Sedaitis, and 1997, pp. 104. Ibid. dis The year of 1988, when Lithuanian Reform Movement Reform Lithuanian when 1988, of year The In order to understand the awakening of Lithuania, one has to trace the creation and creation the trace has to one Lithuania, of awakening understand the to In order “an amalgam of “an amalgam intellectuals amood for changeof representing membersof and the Lithuanian Awakening 6ąMnj 6ąMnj dis dis : the Period of Consensus Reform Movement. It was created by Lithuanian intellectuals in , (Berkeley:University of CaliforniaPress), 1990. 80 During thistransitional all period, Lithuanians, namely 83 ơ Clark and Pranevi and Clark jo totalitarinei sistemai prat 79 nomenklat and a starting point of Lithuanian transition to transition Lithuanian of point starting a and 18 82 nj ra Lietuvos Rytas . Vardys and Sedaitis claim that this þLnjWơ , (accessed 8, 2010). April 6ąMnj Ċ call the initial membership of membership initial the call sti savo valdym dis , June 6, 2008, was created, is usually created, was ą 81 ,” [Ethnical According to CEU eTD Collection Lithuanian communists, managedLithuanianuniteforcesmobilize communists, theirand to to society. and intellectuals dissidents, of comprised was which regime, communist the to opposition “nationalist” dissidents, but in the end they also became its members. its became also they end in the but dissidents, “nationalist” nationalists. so-called the League, Freedom Lithuanian the or Church Catholic the regime than dissidents. the and Party Communist re-establishment of independence. of Lithuanian re-establishment cooperation with theLCP. with cooperation 6ąMnj They notice that even dissident organizations could not mobilizeThey notice organizations couldnot thateven dissident society. regime.”the to opposition heartof lay the at that non-conformity of attitude general the Pranevi http://www.alfa.lt/straipsnis/10320485/?Sajudis..the.cradle.of.Lithuanian.independence=2010-03-11_08-24 88 87 belonged to belonged group ofintellectualsthe to which was neveramonolithic one. intellectual”, call him “apolitical byVardyswho accurately and who an defined Sedaitis, Lithuania neverhas been perceived as andisa dissident, his“oppositional position”most the 86 85 92 84 91 90 89 (accessed April 8, 2010). perestroika LCP keen to implement the reforms proposed by Moscow within the context of Internet page Ibid Clark and Pranevi Vardys Sedaitis, and 1997, pp. 95. Vardys Sedaitis, and 1997, pp.103. Clark and Pranevi Clark and Pranevi Vardys Sedaitis, and 1997, pp.103. Ibid. dis Therefore, in begining, the Therefore, were “cultural resurrection, democratization and economic sovereignty“ in sovereignty“ economic and democratization resurrection, “cultural were Thus at the beginning,the Thus at þLnjWơ .” 91 argue, Lithuanian society of was “non-involvement argue,Lithuanian indelay,apart because society was 84 In the beginning, it was even decided not to accept ”extremists”, namely ”extremists”, accept to not decided even was it beginning, the In Alfa Vytautas Landsbergis was the leader of of the leader the was Landsbergis Vytautas staff, “ þLnjWơ þLnjWơ þLnjWơ , 2008. , 2008. , 2008. 6ąMnj 88 dis Only in the end of 1989, did themain goal of : the Cradle of Lithuanian Independence,“ at: Independence,“ of Lithuanian Cradle : the 6ąMnj 6ąMnj dis 90 It offered a more moderate stance towards Soviet the towards stance moderate more a offered It did not represent thewholeAs and didnot society.Clark dis tried to play the role of mediator between the 89 19 6ąMnj dis 85 movement, who in who movement, 87 92 6ąMnj The first goals of Thus Lithuanian dis become the become 6ąMnj , dis 86 CEU eTD Collection University of FebruaryAarhus, 2004, at: Science, of Political Department 18, No. Report Research DEMSTAR Lithuania,“ in Politics “Understanding Activities],and Kaunas: Litterae universitatis, pp. 42, In: Algimantas Jankauskas and Darius Žeruolis, reasons why after the break away from the CPSU and the internal split, the LCP successor LCP the split, internal the and CPSU the from away break the after why reasons changingto himself realities political and position on middlethe ground” wasone of the adapt rapidly “to Brazauskas, Algirdas LCP, the of secretary first of the ability the that claim life.” political its for fighting partner junior a itself “found it notice, diversity withinof opinions its members was also the main ofitsreason later break-up. 98 97 96 95 May 18, 2010). 94 93 to people’s support 1.3.2 The Rebirth oftheFormer PeriodCommunists: the ofConfrontation emerged.supportingwith aconfederation Russia” whodefended of “whowere suspected “patriots” independence andthe“Communists” firstthe half 1992.” of pulsating consensus of fragmentation political forces.” inso-called resulted Moscow) with (conflict confrontation political of character external andthe forces political moderate independencenamely Lithuanian AsKrupavi wasdeclared. organized massmeetingsand“served soil asthe growingfor diverse plants.” Ibid, pp. 151. Vardys Sedaitis, and 1997, pp. 194. Ibid, pp. 8-9. Algimantas Jankauskas and Darius Žeruolis, 2004, pp.8. Ibid, pp. 125. A. Krupavi In 1989, Lithuanianthe Communist Party was decliningbecause of enormous the achieved, was goal main the moment the till only united remained movement The 94 However, afterwards, when external threats disappeared, the “radicalization and “radicalization disappeared,the threats when external afterwards, However, þ ius (ed.), Politin 6ąMnj was overtaken by inner confrontations that rose to dis 96 ơ s partijos Lietuvoje: atgimimas ir veikla 6ąMnj and could not act independently from it. As Vardys and Sedaitis and As Vardys it. from independently act not could and 6ąMnj dis dis pulsating consensus http://www.demstar.dk/papers/UnderstandingLithuania.pdf ” occurred ” became completely fragmented and the fight between and fight the fragmented completely became 95 and, as Jankauskas and Zeruolis notice, “the notice, and, Zeruolis as Jankauskas and 20 97 relations among the main political , [Political Parties in Lithuania: Rebirth þ ius states, “the of ius predominance states, 98 ClarkandPranevi ideological fever ideological 93 However, the However, , (accessed , þLnjWơ in CEU eTD Collection 104 103 102 101 by stating that they, independence LCPbecameafter thefirstpresident Lithuanian and rehabilitated communists similarly to many other from crisis its economic savesuggested toLithuania resistants, were Lithuanian patriots, especially 100 99 LDDP. the communists, former of party successor the weregiven to seats majority of the where elections” Clark and Pranevi acknowledgement but of also hadresponsibility As prestige. noproblemsits of restoring prosperity.” ofindependence” “as only supporter but“Soviet-stylealso asasymbol a credible of ideals.” communist and,in manner,managedthis nottobe “associated in publicmindthe illusory with till period” day. this party, the LDDP, presented by a well-known journalistcommunistand Raimundas writer, Kašauskas, in 1989: Democratic Labour Party Lithuania. of Party Labour Democratic Clark and Pranevi and Clark Vardys Sedaitis, and 1997, pp. 148. Ibid. Ibid. Clark and Pranevi Actually, the Lithuanian Communist Party not only circumvented the circumvented only not Party Communist Lithuanian the Actually, The members of former regime also managed to overcome the main challenge “executioners of direct repression” that are still know accepted they inwhen the partyand Army] ranks? Red the by and activists party by crimes heinous were committed where localities [and various Siberia from echoes the hear nation,facethey when be the members able to decent its will how its willithow restore prestige, But inthepast. made mistakes In 1989 the Lithuanian Communist Party acceptwill responsibility for 102 þLnjWơ þLnjWơ 99 managed to become “a major political force throughout managed becomemajor force post-Soviet to political throughout the “a 101 þLnjWơ 100 , 2008 , , 2008. Brazauskas,in end,the wasable topresenthimself and his party not The LCP actively participated in Lithuania’s fight for independence for fight in Lithuania’s participated actively LCP The 104 state state ”tolerance was clearly in displayed 1992legislative the The main reason why they succeeded was an economic plan they plan economic an was succeeded they why reason main The 21 . Brazauskas, the lastfirst secretary of the 103 CEU eTD Collection members of “silent” resistancebenot agencies, as perceived could secret LCPthe asmembersof values, communist or but rather as collaborators who opposition and praising Inthe meantime,wereactive insuppressing those resistants. with the regime. regime externally adapted people couldbe communist whothe to as “silent” perceived It is also argued is that argued It acknowledged. resistancewas “silent” defining of problem regime. The advocates;nationalists; fought which againstdirectly andthe (3) public/civil resistance of Lithuanianthe opposition:human Catholicthe underground Church;(2) rights (1) beseen actions can resistance asan“active” was arguedthat It were discussed. collaboration as a betrayal by Lithuanian dissidents. is seen during theirinitial period transitional the stance independence. Lithuanian Therefore, Russification. members However, the of in LCP, the beginningthe seek for didnot complete direct opposition.any against harshly acted it hand, one the On patriotic. and On repressive both the was communism other hand, it tried to keepregimecultures of andits different opposition. Firstly,itwas claimed thatLithuanian Lithuanian culture and traditions from http://www.lrytas.lt/?id=11909530651190502837&view=4 Rytas 105 Culture Conclusions:1.3.3 Momentsof for Amnesia”asFoundations Political “Historical a New Landsbergis. by Vytautas political competitor for the remnants of the very a LDDPbecame againinstrong becausethe Lithuania started confrontation ideological policies. economic their concerning Algirdas Brazauskas: “Ir tuomet dirbome Lietuvai,“ [And Then We Also Worked for Lithuania], for Worked We Also Then [And Lietuvai,“ dirbome tuomet “Ir Brazauskas: Algirdas , 28 September, 2007, Homepage of newspaper Secondly, the concepts of “active” and “silent” resistance and the controversy of controversy the and resistance “silent” and “active” of concepts the Secondly, In this chapter, I In this chapter, have discussed the historical context of the Lithuanian communist Lithuanian the of context historical the discussed 105 Thus, with the rebirth of former communists, new 6ąMnj Lietuvos Rytas dis , (accessed April8, 2010). 22 and its newly found Homeland Party, led Lietuvos CEU eTD Collection pp. 1326. 106 will thenewfor adialogue spaces Lithuania.inpresent post-communist the different actors. of communication of cross-points the analyzing by Thebe examined will culture similarpolitical a new of strategies of these identity innew the environment bediscussed.political will Finally,the developmentgradual actors on how to deal with 1997. Thememory interplay thememory of different andof dynamics redefinition groups, the past actually revealed duringtheirnarratives Lithuanian through presidential in the elections 1993 and political culture. Firstly, adaptation the inpast actors of independentLithuania willbe political dialogue while forsearching consensus in various issues related Lithuanianto future. theemergenceof and for new basedon reconciliation foundations laidculture a political the was influentialin necessary Lithuania the asnewand post-communist and actors, political emerged former who mainly communists, the towards past, communistthe towards approach Lithuanian amnesic casethe werechosen. Such forward-looking strategies an apologetic or in this manner, might “undermine the democratic spirit of might of spirit manner,“undermine in democratic the cooperation.” this “todemocracy” forobstacle groups to compete recognition and and encourage of suffering,” mightan become memory aparticularcollective with “afascination sometimes notices, A. Misztal As Barbara consolidation. democratic towards directed was amnesia” “historical of In period reconciliation the Lithuanian independence. move to innecessary towards order was amnesia” “historical of consensus period the During regime. the within activities their past of newinterpretation and “rebirth” future their for conditions LCPthe created amnesia”is claimed Lithuanian was discussed. by It cooperating that opposition closely with communists. former the for interpretation and fora new narration created space collaboration and ambiguity adaptation the of that Barbara A. Misztal, ”Memory and Democracy,“ The following chapterwill analyze more profoundly emergence of the new this Finally, transitional the of period Lithuania towards democracy itsand “historical American American Behavioral Scientist 23 , Vol. 48, No. 10, June 2005, 106 Therefore, in the Therefore, CEU eTD Collection space for apeaceful Lithuanianon the conversation andpolitics its future. and conditions the created and opponents native eternal among bridges new built candidates language” diasporic “electoral the of style and behavior Such of and tolerant a calm former communists. the sins” of forget “past the to in evenenabled cases some or mollify managed with and Lithuanian to the and their past system tactful the peaceful dealing political discourse. accusatory opposition former communists,to whohasleadership lost and electoral becausesupport ofits be also studied briefly the candidates from Lithuanianthe namely internal dissidence, itwill Thirdly, pastactivities. of their accusations the from themselves liberated they namely their opponents, of challenge the overcome managed to they also that show will Paulauskas for electoral support strong victory and Brazauskas, electoral the of resistance. Furthermore, they that redefinemanaged to andpresentthemselves a “silent”as part of Lithuanian the communists inthenew Lithuanian environment bepolitical will and examined willbeshown enemies. even or opponents the as seen were time long to redefine himself and tosupport the candidates from the liberal part of the diaspora, whofor wasforced diaspora Lithuanian the of wing nationalistic the and conservative of candidate the the dynamicsbe revealed will It self-identification. their and candidates diasporic the discuss will I Firstly, of returneescandidates in1993 and theirand the Lithuanian 1997 relation claimed to communist past. identity, mainly, I will present how and why the presidential C HAPTER E It will be also argued that the diaspora members have emerged as important actors in It willbe actors members that have important diaspora alsoargued the emergedas theformer of from circle the candidates presidential of localization the Secondly, present narratives is Lithuanian the toof The chapter this presidential aim the of LECTIONS IN LECTIONS 2: N ARRATIVES OFTHE 1993 AND 1997: C OMMUNIST P L ASTDURING OCALIZATION OF 24 P AST L ITHUANIAN M EMORIES OFTHE P RESIDENTIAL CEU eTD Collection in pastin and present 111 interchangeably. 110 candidates. Bobelis supported Brazauskas. popular most the two support to they decided and forecasted was failure complete their (because competition 109 108 107 and cosmopolitanism. defined be better in this terms the Catholic Therefore, division could of nationalism identity. of liberal thesisthe in alsothe post-independencediasporic group, Lithuania,the this claimed conservative the or Catholic namely ideological was intwo Lithuanianthe streams, the previousdivided diaspora chapter, office. President’s for theLithuanian candidate himself asa inwas running 1997 campaign and electoral Lozoraitis’ theheadof served as 1993. Bobelisin wasa candidate i.e.both elections, in 1993 in in Lithuania. competed new of presidential Lozoraitis elections the leaders independent the becoming of interest the with homeland their to returned who Bobelis, Kazys and Adamkus, Valdas of Lozoraitis, them namely, presidential Lithuania, candidates Stasys future were also left the country and fled to the will work be define usedto Lithuanian exileWest, end atthe of SecondWorldthe War when people usually, with the final destination at the USA. Among exile, community,overseasethnic community,community.” exile refugee, likeincludes guest-worker, words expatriate, larger domain immigrant, semantic that home. returning of idea the abandoned never but homelands Communist Past of Lithuania 2.1 Diaspora Candidates and Their Localization ofMemories within the Susanne Lachenicht and KirstenHeinsohn (ed.), In this thesis, the electoral the from withdrew candidates presidential other and Bobelis of1993, terms elections of end the In “conservative Ibid. wing of diaspora” and “Catholic wing of diaspora” will be used Rogers Brubaker, “The ‘Diaspora’ Diaspora,” The term “diaspora” means dispersion of people, who were forced to leave their It is important to distinguish these presidential candidates. As it was mentioned in the mentioned was it As candidates. presidential these distinguish to important is It , (Frankfurt; New York: Campus Verlag, 2009), pp. 8. 111 As andHeinsohn can Lachenicht “diasporas argue encourage 110 and the liberal one. However, asit inwill be this section seen and However, liberal the one. Ethnicand RacialStudies Diaspora identities: exile,nationalism and cosmopolitanism 25 107 109 Today the term has received “a , Vol. 28, No.1, January 2005, pp. 3. and 1997.Adamkus in 1993 108 The term diaspora in this diaspora Theterm CEU eTD Collection second round of second round of in presidential elections 1997. cosmopolitan stream of it diaspora; the wasexpressedin hissupportfor Adamkus during the laterits decidedredefineidentity approach to presidential elections, the closer and to first in the failure his after Bobelis, candidate, presidential nationalistic and conservative the seen, be will it As itself. diaspora the within contention ideological an also but politicians Lithuanian members native and the diaspora between the fight only werenot elections presidential the Therefore, andnationalistic. conservative ashighly was known Bobelis meantime, in the diaspora, the of members liberal as known were Adamkus and Lozoraitis their aggression Lithuania.”against circles of the diaspora with liberals tocooperate Union Sovietthe issues cultural on the wasmetin conservative the as nothing the of agreement the example, for elsehomeland, their of interests the “but betraying of conservatives as a voluntary help by integration.retaining identity national wereoften Theliberals by alsoquite accused tothe the Soviets to legitimizestrategies of from segregation society and host the promoted universalisticthe ideas of 115 114 113 112 abroad.” for nations national athome both and interests, to asbeingantagonistic negative attitude, provides negative reaction within the circles of the conservative diaspora and is seen “as a the nation in nation the question.” the meantime, other members of the diaspora “see cosmopolitan elementselements.” atuniting the very strong heartbecome of homeland the of dream the and notion the nationalism: Kami Ibid, pp. 13. Ibid. Ibid. þ Thus the diasporic presidential candidates represented these two differentbranches. two these represented candidates presidential Thus thediasporic aitis, 2007. 114 Similarly,in liberalsthe the Lithuanian diaspora, conservative wereagainstthe 113 This association of cosmopolitan way of looking to the nation-state 115 26 112 In CEU eTD Collection 117 116 1965, of the intellectual 1965, of intellectual the liberalsof group the occupation Hewas within also aVice-Chairman,from the USgovernment. 1958 through was an active memberof Lithuanianthe community and the raised question of Lithuanian Lithuania.” independent in elite members of political the toother connected Adamkus, similarly, asLozoraitis, was “born into a“political”family and his family was well inresistance. Lithuanian the he wasactive leaving Lithuania, to Prior occupation. Soviet Lithuania independentthe of period. interwar the leaderin Lithuanian of in exile wasbased service diplomatic theUSA which and represented in inRomebecame and the 1987became in Lithuanian father, 1970,Lozoraitis representative andperiod during the Nazi and he occupations Soviet resided inItaly.After thedeath his of interwar the During Lithuanian.” a “transnational was already therefore, and, diplomacy communication. see allow not only find areas the limits us for to to but also common possibleof ground future differences and similarities in groups to other relation By of itactors. identifying this,will their insee self-identification need Lithuania, the post-communist their to and, secondly, we reveal need to firstly, we reasons; for two narrations present their to is important It Lithuania. of past communist the to their relation narrated diaspora the of streams conservative the in 1993and 1997 2.1.1 Diasporic Returneesduring andTheirNarration LithuanianPresidential Elections Ibid, pp. 193. Skulte, 2005, pp. 164. Adamkus as manyAdamkus Lithuanians as was in other fled West, the a displaced the person, who in engaged became andlater raised abroad a sonof diplomat, was Lozoraitis, and liberal the from candidates how reveal is to thesis the of section this of aim The Santara-Šviesa 27 (“Accord-Light”). 116 In the USA,he 117 Adamkus CEU eTD Collection 119 118 of Duringshared national Lozoraitis thepast. elections proclaimed“Ifeel of that our part and Adamkus, themselves in1997,presented Valdas during theircampaigns as electoral part for path to offer theLithuanian futuredevelopment. the re-evaluatein Lithuanianthe Communist the order namely,hadto communist past Party, they from descending actors political new towards more tolerant become leastto at or themselves redefine hadto they Lithuania, post-communist a new adapt to to in order that realize to had branch diaspora, of the conservative the from especially returnees, these However, suffering.“ “common of beinga part of past andwith a feeling communist perception Lithuanian the of perception of Lithuanianthe identity itsand communist past. the andmore towards andAdamkus, wasa“bigger”nationalistLozoraitis conservative inshowhe, to Bobelis thatfrom Lithuania to contrast background usedthis Soviets. the theliberation of andtowards againstcommunism directed inactivities participated actively till 1992 the Presidentof Lithuanian Supreme Liberationthe Committee (VLIK). From 1978 he wasthe Presidentof 1962 to Americanthe Lithuanian Council andfrom1979 121 120 (accessed May 17, 2010). in settling later USA. the down and inmedical studies he degree the doctoral obtained society.” into the host adapted was“successfully live”and successful “highly professional had also Soviets. partin the uprisingthe against BobelisLithuanian military volunteer took In officer. 1941, Kazys Bobelis, “Biografija,” [Biography], Ibid,pp. 164. Ibid. Ibid. Lithuanian from presidential candidates diaspora,Stasysthe Lozoraitis,in 1992/1993, Thus LithuanianLithuania back with candidates came presidential their to own Kazys Bobelis, a member of the conservative part of diaspora, was the son of the son of was the diaspora, of part conservative the member of a Bobelis, Kazys 119 118 In endthe World of WarTwo,he leftLithuania,firstly, living in Germany, where at: http://www3.lrs.lt/n/rinkimai/pr97/kandidatai/bobelis/biogr.htm 28 121 He also 120 , CEU eTD Collection Lietuvos Rytas So RichDoing and Much], in Becoming Who Had Is NoPerson SoMany Possibilities There [Stasys Lozoraitis: 128 127 126 February 9, 1993, pp.1. 125 Wait for a New Era], of of topics: (1) categories three into be could divided Their discourse past. the with identification theirshow which by used candidates mainthe topics the revealed campaign presidential electoral the family education. family ofhis cornerstone He claimedvalueswerethe patriotic that (1934-1938). foreign minister Kudirka) interwara renownedLithuanian and asasonof and periodpolitician a former independence comparable non-conformistthe to local and toSiberia.”dissidents deported the grandchild of Motiejus Lozoraitis, who was “varpininkas” a as himself continuity.Lozoraitis pictured of generational traditions the had patriotism the communist period in Lithuania was the nature of their patriotism. In the case of Lozoraitis, claim that they “have never been away, but always “were“ in Lithuania“ and 124 123 Rytas 122 during occupation. abroad representative andas thecountry‘s past of Lithuanian the himself asapart portrayed protecthis and mainhis alwaystohomeland goal was from Sovietthe Union. LDDP.” nation, part of our history,“ Sigita Urbonavi Members of the Lithuanian National Movement in the beginning of the 20th century. ý Art Šalna ( Vytis Šalna, “Lietuva iki šiol neturi valstyb Respublika‘s iubrinskis, 2006, pp. 30. , No. 26, February 10, 1993, pp. 7. nj ras Ra The analysis of LithuanianThe newspapers, of analysis two the One of the most powerful arguments for the explanation of their special role during the during role special their of explanation the for arguments powerful most the of One 123 Lietuvos Rytas Similarly,Adamkus, in spiritually,that, 1997, stated he hasneverLithuania left þ , No.27, February 11, 1993, pp. 17. as, “Po rinkim information, “Kas suvienys “vienytojus”?,” [Who Will Unite the Unifiers?], . þLnjWơ nature ofpatriotism 128 Lietuvos Rytas 125 , “Stasys Lozoraits: n ), 1993, pp. 7. As scholar, Vyrautas Asscholar, Vyrautas ǐ naujos eros pradžios teks palaukti,” [After the Elections We Still Will Have to 122 , January 12, 1998, pp.4. and “I know more about Lithuanian past than people of the ơ ơ r žmogaus, tur s strategijos,” [Lithuania Still Has No State Strategy], ; (2) ý Catholicism iubrinskas, argues “such category of argues“such returnees of category iubrinskas, 29 ơ jusio tiek prog Lietuvos Rytas Lietuvos ; and (3) 127 ǐ pasidaryt turtingu ir tiek padaryt,” (also a close follower of and fight forLithuanian Respublika Respublika 124 126 Bobelis also Lietuvos […] , during , are CEU eTD Collection at: 133 132 131 130 the Lifetime Trip to the Lithuanian Political Leadership], February, 1993, pp. 1. 129 134 condemn occupation. Soviet the he usedto where worldwide conferences, in incommunity and participation active Soviets, Lithuanian-American work against the the andfightwith newoccupiers. the Lithuania. mediathe hisstory how heof wasby his caught and parents puton trainthe leaving freedom. during Nazi the for he was Lithuanian fought organization a memberof occupation which the occupation, hewouldhave become amemberof because movement, partisan the already its Soviet in after if Lithuania he hadstayed that certain societal Hestated to changes. Lithuania it would be inappropriate to have a First Lady, who is a foreigner. Lithuanianniness because his wife was an nota Lithuanian;Italian and hefor stated that lacking for Lozoraitis attacked Bobelis example, For families. own intheir patriotism him a patriot could notbe considered a person, who did notfoster national identity and for that wasthefact candidates diasporic other two the and Bobelis between visible difference influenced by his patriotism for Lithuania, even, if it was expressed from overseas. presidentof Lithuania during Kazys theinterwar period, Girnius, and claimedthathe was example of a Lithuanianthe Catholic Church fight.and Lozoraitis its resistance was as an presented Lithuanian Catholic, who not only practiced religion but also assisted the Kazys Bobelis, “Biografija,” [Biography] “Biografija,” Bobelis, Kazys Ibid. Ibid. Ibid. Valdas Bartasevi http://www3.lrs.lt/n/rinkimai/pr97/kandidatai/bobelis/biogr.htm Respublika‘s Bobelis understood his patriotism in the similar way; the participation in the uprising the in participation the way; similar the in patriotism his understood Bobelis Likewise,Adamkus claimed that his emerge didnotpatriotism asa today or reaction Another important identificationAnother important communistwith the was their support pastfor strong 129 130 Adamkus said that he left Lithuania at the age of eighteen against his will and told According to him, his patriotism was expressed in his desire to stay in Lithuania in stay to desire in his expressed was patriotism his him, to According information, “Kas suvienys “vienytojus”?,” [Who Will Unite the Unifiers?], þ ius, “Valdas Adamkus: gyvenimo kelion 131 , Later, in the USA he communicated with the former with the in USAhe Later, the communicated Lietuvos Rytas 30 ơƳ Lietuvos politkos virš , (accessed 17May, 2010). , No.3, 6 January, 1998, pp. 3. nj nes,” [Valdas Adamkus: 133 134 Respublika However, one However, 132 , 9 CEU eTD Collection at: 137 Pope?..], at: Standpoints of Ateitininkai to Preserve National Identity], 136 , 135 religious believes.” 138 Pope. the and of Lozoraitis thepicture and with publishedbooklets with 200,000 titlethe “S.Lozoraitis. Lithuania a needs Catholic President” during occupation. the During electoral the campaign in period, Lithuanian werechurches he wasaLithuanian representative to Holy the forandfought thesurvivalSee of embassy this It with associated andpresented Pope, ashisthe isimportant tomention indeed, trustee. that, use order to them in apoliticalagainst fight Soviet the Union. underground media, including the all that stated was It regime. Soviet the against resistance its in Church Lithuanian Roman Catholic Church, Vincentas Sladkevi Vincentas Church, Catholic Roman from support by Church.Bobelis,the waseven supported Lithuanian the Cardinal of the organization youth Catholic has Lithuanian the re-established thatintheUSAhe fact, mentioned the is inwas a“bigger”Catholic. who his biography, Bobelis, with Lozoraitis a competition former communists, who were seen as less religious or even atheists. of candidate the the asan against advantage waspresented of Lozoraitis members,especially closely with his andrelated predecessor his views. religious ThusCatholicism of diaspora the but also Adamkushead Lozoraitis wasthe electoral of Adamkuscampaign. Therefore, was Lozoraitis. It might be explained by the fact, that not only both were members of the with he closely associated was however, diaspora visible; was less Catholicism of thetopic campaign Lietuvos Rytas Kazys Bobelis, “Biografija,” [Biography] “Biografija,” Bobelis, Kazys Rimantas Stankevi Rimantas Vytenis Andriukaitis, “Dešimt klausim Genut http://www3.lrs.lt/n/rinkimai/pr97/kandidatai/bobelis/biogr.htm http://www.leidykla.eu/fileadmin/Acta_Paedagogica_Vilnensia/19/102-114.pdf In Bobelis’ campaign religion also played a significant role. In elections of 1993, there ơ Lietuvos Rytas Gedvilien , No. 23, February 5, 1992, pp. 16. Ateitininkai ơ þ and Aurimas Šukys, “Ateitinink ius, “Šventasis T “Šventasis ius, 138 , No., 28, February 12, 1993, pp. 8. Moreover, Bobelis, similarly as Lozoraitis, has also received an open , 137 which combined “national identity with Catholic identity and identity Catholic with identity “national combined which ơ vas –S.Lozorai vas Catholic ChurchChronicles ǐ iš kelion , ơ s po Lietuv ǐ þ nuostatos puosel ius, who in his interview in interview in his who ius, þ io patik io Acta Pedagogica Vilnensia 31 136 In the meantime, in Adamkus electoral in Adamkus meantime, the In ą ơ ,” [TenQuestions From the Trip inLithuania], tinis?..”, [Is S.Lozoraitis Trustee ofthe Trustee S.Lozoraitis [Is tinis?..”, , (accessed May 17, 2010). ơ jant tautin used beto sent toLozoratis,in 135 Lozoraitis was also closely also was Lozoraitis , (accessed May 17, 2010). Ƴ identitet , Issue 19, 2007, pp. 114, Respublika ą ,“ [The stated CEU eTD Collection 143 February 9, 1993, pp.14. 144 142 President?], 141 Much ToPreach aSermon in Church…],the against the Nazi Nazi occupation. the against emphasized hisyouth years in Lithuania, whenhewas a member of military fightingtroop namely cooperation with the Soviet Lithuanian artists and academicians was seen very seen was academicians and artists Lithuanian Soviet the with cooperation namely of intellectuals 140 139 fundaments of fundaments a new were Lithuanian statehood laid. help whenthe Lithuanian theindependenceperiod resistanceand consolatory during seen as his from activities,diplomatic Vatican toWashington, connections with the times.” Soviet the moral of of a genocide consequences the Lithuania “wouldfor eliminate who anewwas seen a“savior” independent and,as therefore, flagthe free its of occupation. during Lithuania overseas” carried who of veteran diplomacy as “a Community World Lithuanian the of by chairman the presented was Lozoraitis resistance. “active” as partof weredepicted Adamkus and Lozoratis returnees, long inactive.for Both and remainedand time newregime apolitical adapted to the resistance, many“silent” asmembersof the who,similarly to former the contrast communists, relation its Lithuania Adamkus,as andBobelisLozoraitis, during occupation of and the with and toretain the Lithuanian customs.” hismanagedsuch children,language a mannereducated Lithuanian topreservea“clean” that he is going to vote for Bobelis, namely, “a person who was a real Catholic all his life, in who, in contrast to the Sovietthe to in contrast who, Vytenis Andriukaitis, ( Valdas Bartasevi Leonas Mulevi Leonas Vytautas Bieliauskas, “K Bieliauskas, Vytautas Daiva Norkien worse. Lithuanian spoke Adamkus and Lozoraitis Adamkus, in autobiographical the publishedin article was forportrayed independenceFinally, in asthe strongest diaspora fight the the Respublika ơ Santaros-Šviesa þ , “Kartais dar labai norisi bažny ius, “Ar per greitai, ar per l per ar greitai, per “Ar ius, þ ius, ( , January 22, 1993, pp. 4. Lietuvos Rytas Lietuvos Rytas ą rinksime Lietuvos prezidentu?,” [Who Will We Elect To Serve AsLithuanian Serve To We Elect Will [Who prezidentu?,” Lietuvos rinksime 144 nomenklat Later in the USA he became the chairman of organization chairman in the the Later USAhebecame the which actively resisted the Soviet regime. However, its tactic, , No.23, 1992), pp. 16. , No.3, 1998), pp. 3. Respublika 140 nj ơ tai?,” [Is It Too Fast or Too Slow?], or Too Fast ItToo [Is tai?,” ra þ ioje pasakyti pamoksl , sacrificed all his life to Lithuanian independence , November 28, 1997, pp. 3. pp. 1997, 28, , November 32 143 141 ą 142 …”, [Sometimes I Still Want So He was portrayed as a person His main achievements were achievements main His Lietuvos Rytas Lietuvos Rytas in 1998, , No. 25, , No. 139 CEU eTD Collection 149 February 1993, pp. 1. 147 and in manner helped hisnation.this totheSovietLithuania literature bring Western forbidden he how electoral usedto campaign used bringto forbidden books in Lithuanianthe language. Adamkus duringremembered his century, who, during the smuggler”). smugglers”“book “Book from history Lithuanianthe originate occupation late19 the of of the Russian empire and its politics of Russification, 148 146 145 of in reprinted some parts which later newspaper the were for InaTVdebate, theLithuanian as independence. himself portray a“more fighter active” ofresistance. the tradition oldreferring to Lithuanian ambassador smuggler,” of Adamkus asthe Lithuanian the overseasand resistance ”book as a symbolic wasdepicted Lozoraitis for Lithuanian independence; the active fighters freedom.” because missionits of“enlightening”of democracy SovietLithuanians “about and Lithuania, which claimed be to legally Lithuaniarepresenting abroad. forLiberation the of Supreme Committee his leadership in emphasizedthe Bobelis campaign, its interests. present and defendto Lithuania in to events order other or conferences international in any participated never had him, to in contrast Lozoraitis, diaspora. being blamed himself membersof bythe conservative of waseven communist these is ItAdamkusmembers of by that noticed also diaspora. skeptically the conservative the most of his most electoral of raise timein to 1993 spent hostility other towards diasporicthe candidate Kami Valdas Bartasevi ý Ibid. Respublika‘s iubrinskis, 2006, pp.30. þ Bobelis, in the elections of 1993, tried to question the “heroism” of question andto of of Lozoraitis triedin “heroism” Bobelis, to the elections 1993, the Thus, as one might observe, the conservative candidate from the diaspora Bobelis diaspora the from candidate conservative the observe, might one as Thus, aitis, 2007. 145 146 After achievingindependence this organization very was evaluated positively Therefore, Adamkus was able to portray himself as a information, “Kas suvienys “vienytojus”?,” [Who Will Unite the Unifiers?], þ ius, ( Lietuvos Rytas , No.3, 1998), pp. 3. 147 Thus both Lozoraitis and Adamkus were shown as 33 Respublika 148 149 knygnešys During the electoral , hearguedthat Respublika (in English: , 9 th of th CEU eTD Collection and London), pp.3. London), and 150 1993 only it. In1993,peopleconfirmed confidence showed in formerthe communist Algirdas Lithuanian and voters failure the Landsbergis and of in Bobelis thepresidential elections of among became lesspopular the “politicsalready of andaccusations“ discourse aconstant used by nativethe Lithuanian mainlyopposition, byits leader Vytautas Landsbergis. Such a Lozoraitis. candidate diasporic liberal the towards by discourse accusatory using the inthe diaspora leaderthe dissidence of Lithuanian the prevailing in the diaspora. Bobelis wanted to mobilize his supporters and to present himself as ideological streams two between boundaries certain draw intended to of diaspora the from beginning,post-communist candidate presidential conservativethe part Lithuania. In the infordynamics the identity diasporic the might asan serve explanation seeking adialogue, function The identity, isthird towardsbuilding on which of directed aconsensus pastand the future.“ history and ashared a life-in-common, to call attention “to thirdly, and action,“ provide between“to members boundary andothers,“ secondly, abasis forgroup collective Towards Ideological Reconciliation inthe Homeland 2.1.2 Dynamics of Diasporic Returnees’ Identity in Post-Communist Lithuania: in diaspora the of presidential 1997. the elections from his compatriots towards discourse incriminatory less used and nationalistic less became will be seenin followingthe section afterof the electoral thesis, this failure in 1993,Bobelis However,ideological fight Lozoraitis it within thediaspora. As avoided Bobelis. attacking lasting long internal an of sign a were accusations Such abroad. liberation Lithuanian believes, lacked“Lithuanianiness,”diasporic tospeakfor and the stream religious courage liberal the claimed that who diaspora the of part nationalistic the presented Bobelis Lozoraitis. James Booth, However, his strong pro-Catholicism, nationalism, and heroic discourse was already was discourse heroic and nationalism, pro-Catholicism, strong his However, W. James Booth argues that the “assertions of identity“ seek, firstly, to “draw a Communities of Memory: On Witness, Identity and Justice 34 , (Cornell University Press: Ithaca 150 CEU eTD Collection 152 151 parliamentary elections, the Electoral Campaigns 2.2 Former Communists andTheir Redefinition of Memories ofthe Past during in before diaspora. ruptured the was which intercommmunication, their for anew possibility created also but diaspora the dynamics of identity not onlymanaged unify to leaders the of ideological different streams in These occured. diaspora Lithuanian the of branch conservative the within identification himselfand his Thus presented agradual aspartof political group. change self-the of Rytas, be might it As Adamkus, in printed of 2, which displaysseen in electoral poster No. the Appendix diaspora. the from compatriots their follow and position liberal more a follow to namely identity, a new for search to politics, Lithuanian in the participate to wanted they if positively. independence very evaluated call Lithuanian after Bobelis were one, a pro-communist to used liberal organization of activities the the Moreover, of Hope.“ President second in elections,the was still highly praised within society and was namedeven as“the remained the factthat the despite who, Lozoraitis Also a President. became who Brazauskas, former communist Brazauskas. communist former was repeated during comeback” apolitical scored the firsthave communists former presidentialin which first the became also Union, Soviet the from away break elections when the victory was celebrated by the Ibid. Vardys Sedaitis, and 1997, pp. 197. during the presidential elections of Adamkus1997, Bobelis already actively supported Lithuanian communists became the first to come back to power; incomepower; first the Lithuanianbecameto 1992, after the backto communists diaspora, of the members conservative forced the situation such a political Therefore, 151 Wall Street Journal This phenomenon called a“Lithuanianwas syndrome” wrote that “Lithuania, the first republic to 35 Santara-Šviesa Lietuvos , which 152 and CEU eTD Collection to the Polish President Alexander Kwasniewski and was seen as a neo-communist. of Lithuania. One of the most searching identity for anew group withinand theirplace thenew political democratic system important tools to achieve a new status was a redefinition“Silent” Resistants of 2.2.1 Former Communists and their Redefinition ofIdentity: From Communists to elections. the activities their towards andtolerance escalate compromise anddid pastnot this issueduring instead 1993 Lozoraitisin andwho, of attacking, 1997Adamkus, have chosenthestrategy of In candidates. diasporic were rounds second in the candidates electoral main their meantime, nativeleaderLandsbergis. Inthe opposition,during ofthe the presidential wasthe campaign level discursive in the but electoral, in the not challenger, main their that revealed be will It environment. political newLithuanian inlocalize the themselves to a narrative succeded and managed through their redefine past to regime, with communistthe associated candidates, associated in the public mind with the former mind inthe associated with the public the LDDP and its leader LDDP Brazauskas. the its and Art conviction.“ by neitherbeen “hadcommunists he“ hisenvironment that or electorate and“assured the 157 156 155 154 153 Lithuanian Communist Party,later served as“a deputy premierin the ladder.” career party climb Communist “wentthe to Ibid. Ibid. Ibid, pp. 147. Lane, 2001, pp.142. Ibid, pp. 199. nj ras Paulauskas, who was a former general prosecuter and was supported in elections by in elections and wassupported prosecuter formerwas ageneral who ras Paulauskas, After the collapse of the Soviet Union, former members of the communist party were party communist the of members former Union, Soviet the of collapse the After Thus the aim of the following part of my thesis is to reveal how these two presidential two these how reveal to is mythesis of part following the of aim the Thus Brazauskas came “from a middle-class Lithuanian family” and hisafter studies he 154 Another presidential candidate afftected by the shadow of communism was 155 However, Paulauskas despite his young age, “was youngage, his despite Paulauskas However, nomenklat 36 nj 153 ra He was the last leader of the .“ 156 He was quite often compared often quite Hewas 6ąMnj dis administration” 157 CEU eTD Collection 162 161 2007), pp. 10. 160 thesis. 159 Lithuania. for “eternal” the Sovietregime forwork but the not he did Brazauskas arguedthat attain them,economicforget during achievements occupation, the andthepeoplein whowork to order would not beruins?”intoit turned independence one after the or rural agriculture a sign of patriotismpatriotism: but in hisdefinedmemoirs,well very published histerm office, understanding of after rather a sign Brazauskas during inhis Soviet the regime.achievements Thepresidential candidate of new economic its and Lithuania for work the with bolshevism.” related firstly was them for Patriotism whofought for resistance“silent” andas patriots itsLithuanian independence. of the former communist regime tried to portray themselves as a part of the Lithuanian 158 the years of the Soviet occupation. As Rubavi their activities andan Lithuaniannation the past explanation their contribution of to during of contention were (1) were of contention issues main The memories. of interpretation its providing by past their justified communists former when in Lithuania, elections presidential in the prominent also was legitimization Ibid, pp. 14. Ibid, pp. 8. Algirdas Brazauskas, Referring to the patriotism expressed ineconomic policies which was mentioned inthe first chapterof my Rubavi Former communists defined patriotism differently to the members of the diaspora. the of members the to differently patriotism defined communists Former As my analysis biggestcontent two the of Lithuanian newspapersa revealssuch new political elite. political new nomenclature former the communist of power andeconomic political justify the and all sortsand“work for the benefit of Lithuanianthe people” areusedworking to ofresistance” “silent of party notions the nomenclature: communist functionaries former the of Legitimization that is especially prominentformin the memoirs of the representativesthe core of the þ ius, 2007,pp. 129. 162 159 Similarly, in the elections of 1992, a member of electoral member Brazauskas a of of 1992, elections in Similarly, the “Whois biggerpatriot: onethe who during occupation was strengthened the Ir tuomet dirbomeLietuvai nature of patriotism nature 158 , [And Then We Worked for Lithuania], for We Worked Then , [And ; and (2) þ ius notices: 37 fight forindependence fight 160 According to him, to . Political leaders . Political (Vilnius: Knygiai, 161 CEU eTD Collection 168 167 Light], 166 Demerits], 165 164 Beginning We Should Unify Diaspora 163 between andtheopposition” formerelites ruling the transition was “negotiated Lithuanian communists and movement. the opposition As Clark and Taylor argueLithuanian seceded the of cooperation the through finally achieved was Lithuanian independence that constant claim havingforfoughtof Lithuanianthe independence. Indeed,agree one has to slogans. example of Landsbergis, to the Lithuanian independence and questioned their patriotic personalities. notthis solelyby influenced common sense of and patriotism, leadershipthe of certain makesomebody to independence them more was by and patriotic, achieved only of rule the during the occupation forgotten andsuch arebeing patriots ignored. a mannermany“real” him,losers,“ loud in for to because isashelter patriotism, such according of a patriotism too the source was perceivedas by a neo-communisthis opponents. of patriotism was “all patriotism.people” andorder to avoid Russification,they therefore, itmight be also considered as a certain didform of regime in serve for the not to Lithuanians the needfor wasa there communists, former to the need “communist ideologist” but andrather an“honest“communist specialist.” worker” a“good been a hasnever Brazauskas arguedthat Rajackas Raimondas academic the headquarters, Clark and Pranevi Ibid. Arvydas Juozaitis, “Prezidentu tampa ne tas, kuris nori, o tas, kuris gali,“ [Only Two Days Left Till the Rimvydas“Naujasis Valatka, Prezidentas: privalumai ir tr Ibid. Linas Linkevi Lietuvos Rytas Another important identification of the former communists with the past is their past the with communists former the of identification important Another In 1997, the theme of patriotism also entered the electoral agenda of Paulauskas, who of Paulauskas, agenda theelectoral entered also themepatriotism of In 1997,the Lietuvos Rytas 164 167 þ ius, “R. Rajackas: Gal pirmiausiai der Thus, in this manner, he minimized the Thus,inthismanner,heminimized for ofhisopponents, contribution þLnjWơ , No. 277, November26, 1997, pp. 7. , January 12, 1998, pp. 4. , 2008. ] , Lietuvos Rytas , No. 21,February 1993,3, pp. 9. ơWǐ suvienyti išeivij 38 nj kumai,“ New[The President: The Merits and 165 He claimed that “onebeware should Heclaimed that ą ?,“ [R.Rajackas: Maybe in the 166 According to him, 168 163 Still, former Still, According CEU eTD Collection 173 172 Lithuanian electorate, namely I will examine their defensive discourse and self-representation. and discourse defensive their examine will I namely electorate, Lithuanian overcome the shadowCommunist Past 2.2.2 Overcoming theOpponents’Challenge: Liberation fromtheShadowof the of their communistnot as guided by their “freewill“. and bebyMoscow as”forced“ could portrayed activities past and their Lithuanian dissidence past and received strong support from the 171 judge aright others. to receives alsobut deal his past own with to necessity the only not escapes “resistant” such a new 170 169 has never in believed ideology. thecommunist himself as foran ordinary person whoworked Lithuania andnotforoccupiers by he claiming is their “silent” opposition to the regime. demoralization.” profound to led sometimes “which compromises, display their “waited weresatisfied forand convictions” an hour,” opportune with which, Lithuanian to according anddissident Venclova scholar “did the during occupation not of “all people,” including theLithuanian in communists, fightthe independence. of People, even Lithuanian independence.during seekingtheir occupation, way towards as suddenly people”butas constantly, present “converted themselvesnot triedcommunists to destiny. communists managed to become “one of those people” who always cared about Lithuanian Ibid. Rubavi Linas Linkevi Rubavi Venclova,1999, pp. 85. In this section of the thesis, I will analyze how former communists managed to In their electoral campaigns, Brazauskas, similarly as Paulauskas, emphasized the role the emphasized Paulauskas, as similarly Brazauskas, campaigns, electoral their In As Rubavi þ þ ius, 2007,pp. 121. ius, 2007. þ ius, ( þ ius argues, one of argues,ius oneof mostdiscourses the dominantof communists former the Lietuvos Rytas , No. 21, 1993), pp. 9. 172 173 In this manner, former communists became a part of the 170 171 During the elections Brazauskas presented Brazauskas elections the During Thus, according to Rubavi to Thus,according 39 169 In former manner,this þ ius, inius, case, this CEU eTD Collection Us All Without Exceptions], 176 Driving Force in Politics], 175 My DoingCar, Shopping, and Housecleaning], parduotuves, tvarkysiu namus,“[Daniela Lozoraitiene: After Becoming a First Lady,I Will Continue Driving 6ąMnj Movement Independence Lithuanian the of leaders later and founders the of one Landsbergis, wasVytautas Brazauskas Algirdas candidate former communist tothe of accusations, them. redefining their identity but also the dynamics of memory of ordinary people who voted for success of notonly elections in1993revealed in1992andtheir theelections presidential Likewise in 1997, the weekly columnist of regime. communist the of remnants the without future democratic the for fight namely, simply people struggleittwo is of forpower but political a “fightbetween Past andFuture,” communist regime. communist bepresidentcould not aperson hadwith that anycontact of structures repressive the the understand anation sufferedthat much so lostand has its memory,”meaning that Lithuanian when the generation of Brazauskas and Landsbergis will disappear.” investigation of communistthe “itto him, past”and according befinished naturally, can only Valatka, wrote thattheelections of “Lithuania that1997 proves yethas not finished its to interview 174 archbishop Tamkevi Sigitas during the elections was their past and their “collaboration” with the “invaders.” As a conflict of opposing memories. The wife of Lozoraitis, Daniela Lozoraitien Daniela Lozoraitis, of wife The memories. opposing of a conflict Vilius Kaminskas, “Sigitas Tamkevi Rimvydas Valatka, “Praeities baubai liks politikos varomoji j Neringa Lašien dis and the leader of the native Lithuanian opposition. In the meantime, the strongest meantime, the In the opposition. leader and native Lithuanian of the the During the presidential elections of 1993, the opponent, who mostlyDuring language used the presidential opponent,who elections1993, the the of One of the main challenges of the opponents to the members of the former regime The elections of 1992 and 1997 were more than ordinary elections;The more ordinary was presidential it 1997 were than elections of 1992 and Lietuvos Rytas ơ , “Daniela Lozoraitien 176 However, the former communists and their victory in the parliamentary inthe victory their and communists former the However, Lietuvos Rytas Lietuvos Rytas on the 12 þ ius in the elections of 1997 states “Europeansnot in of1997states wouldius the elections þ ius: „Atsakomyb , December, 22, 1997, pp. 4. ơ : tapusi prezidentiene, ir toliau pati vairuosiu automobil , No., 296, December18, 1997, pp.13. th of February, 1993 declared that these elections are not are elections these that February, declared 1993 of Lietuvos Rytas Lietuvos Rytas, ơ saisto mus visus be išimties,“ [Responsibility Binds 40 , No.28, February 12, 1993, pp.9. ơ ga,“ [The Ghosts of the Past Will Remain the and today its Rimvydas editor, 175 Ƴ , vaikš ơ , in an , þ iosiu 174 Ƴ CEU eTD Collection 179 Rytas pilie 178 Party, became his direct opponent in elections Paulauskas. During the elections, he was elections, the During in Paulauskas. elections opponent hisdirect became Party, Witnesses Lose Memory], Lose Witnesses 177 truth. goal alwaystoachieveindependencewas blamedLandsbergis and for distorting historical the chosen a “softer” tactics in his communication with Moscow. with inhiscommunication tactics a “softer” chosen he has therefore, and, independence Lithuanian openly support not he could USSR, the of analyzed. He argued that as a member of the Communist Party, even being against the politics newspapersboth letter by in the Lithuanian people to the anopen thispublishing accusation independent desires andwastooobedientto the of Gorbachev. heaccusedhis book, thatin Brazauskas 1988 he Lithuania wantnot did become to Autobiography time duringthe Vytautas of Landsbergis” electoral campaign in of 1997. In publicationthe of Landsbergis’ memoirs named “Independent Lithuania: Political of constant fight about the “sins” of the past. instead peace proclaiming electoral differentchose tactics decidedto Lozoraitis as similarly of 1997, later elections the won who Valdas Adamkus, candidate meantime, diaspora inhad roots communistthe regime by andwas officially supported Brazauskas. Inthe manner, he tried to fight againstcampaign, mainlyfocused Landsbergis onthepastwrongdoings of Brazauskas. In this the candidate of stillhis electoral in notevena incandidate, Brazauskas was of 1997, that a fact elections the “new generation” Paulauskas, Even despite reconciliation. the past, decided offer path towards the opponent’s to communist who also the instead about of member accusations of diaspora Brazauskas, the Lozoraitis, opponent Ibid. Algirdas Brazauskas, “J.E. Respublikos Prezidento Algirdo Brazausko atviras laiškas LietuvosRespublikos Audrius Ba Audrius þ , December17, 1997, pp.8. iams,“ [The Open Letter of the Interim President Algirdas Brazauskas to the Lithuanian citizens], 179 Another target of Landsbergis, and of the whole right wing, namely, the Conservative the namely, wing, right whole the of and Landsbergis, of target Another One of the biggest confrontations between Landsbergis and Brazauskas occurred with occurred andBrazauskas Landsbergis One between confrontations biggest the of þ iulis, “Prezidento laiškas: liudininkai praranda atmint praranda liudininkai laiškas: “Prezidento iulis, Respublika , December 11, 1997. 41 Ƴ ,“ [The Letter of the President: The President: of the Letter [The ,“ 178 However, he claimed that his 177 Brazauskas responded to Lietuvos CEU eTD Collection 183 Rytas 182 and Order],and 181 Candidates], 180 Brazauskasin won presidential the Also of elections. elections the 1997 the Lithuanian inregime andsucceeded changinga mentioned Asit above,in1993, public perception. was communistidentity to the related redefinetheir past managed to successfully communists itmightTherefore, bearguedthat during thepresidential former in1993and elections 1997, used extreme nationalistic rhetoric or showed a strongAdamkus. toLandsbergis lostinAdamkus, elections hasnever Paulauskas to contrast the antagonism to the former communists. of thefirstround successfully presidential overcame the in1997,whereonly elections there Brazauskas won presidential in elections and1993 Paulauskas togetherwith Adamkus Lithuanian parliamentary in former the elections 1992.Furthermore, communist candidate party political conservative his also but and elections popularity the inof nationalistthe Landsbergis notonlylostpresidential both opposition. interests defended of aggrieved the the party. by the decisionfather his of actions the condemn to going not is the of the court that he stated where publications, newspaper’s with tothese accusations reacted Paulauskas and not because of his personal actions and that the court led to imprisonmentledmental to into hospital oneof Lithuanian, Eduardas Narkevi have also Paulauskas Prosecutor State former the of legal actions the that found out was also from Moscow. work forhis pension this receives father Paulauskas’ now even fact that many for maderesponsible actions against Theopponents Lithuanians. loudrepressive the communist His past. work fatherused in to services KGB,secret the USSR,andthe of was the closely with thewith butalso “newgeneration” notonly of associated politicians Ibid. Interview with Art Lina Pe Lina Rimvydas Valatka, “Prieš rinkimus - paskutin , No.296, December18, 1997, pp.7. However, all these negative allegations towards the former communists did not raise not did communists the former towards allegations negative all these However, þ eli Lietuvos Rytas Lietuvos Rytas nj nien ơ and Dalius Stancikas, “Supuvusios teis “Supuvusios Stancikas, Dalius and nj ras Paulauskas,ras “Art , Decmeber13, 1997. , No.293, December15, 1997, pp. 4. nj ras Paulauskas iš arti,“ [Arturas Paulauskas at Close], ơ s pretendent 183 42 ơ tvarkos šaknys,“ [Rotten Roots of Lithuanian Law Lithuanian of Roots [Rotten šaknys,“ tvarkos ǐ lygtys,“ [Before Elections New Equations of the 182 Homeland Union and that Narkevi has also lost the first þ ius wasimprisoned þ ius,in 1984. Lietuvos 180 181 It CEU eTD Collection confederation Russia”. confederation with were definedcommunist as “of “enemies” anda their weresuspected supporting Political Prisoners andand Exiles the Lithuanian(LPKTS) Freedom League (LLL). dissidentcommunities: theNationalists Lithuanian Lithuanian the Union of (LTS), Union of small political Asa small groupings. consequence new parties by political werecreated in their homeland, it was difficult to accept the fact that the diasporic returnees defined returnees diasporic the factthat accept the to was difficult it homeland, in their the former communists. Firstly, for them, for the ones, who actively fought against the regime newLithuania. the post-communist in define identity and toattainand place political their inorder to power for anewleadership and ever than visible more became system and politics in general.” politics and system party bipolar the of basis “the become later which division,” “communist/anti-communist activities.” “ideological that struggles personal disputes, andpower ambitions parliamentary dominated 188 by the by 187 186 185 184 was in the hands of the New Identity during Lithuanian Presidential Elections in 1993 and 1997 2.3 “Active” and “Silent” Resistance: Search ofthe NativeOpposition for a namely waselectedasaPresident. candidate Adamkus past, thediaspora’s communist the regarding andapologetic more tolerant was apolitician who choose decided to electorate Vardys Sedaitis, and 1997, pp. 194. Clark and Pranevi Ibid, pp. 10. Ibid, pp. 9. Jankauskas and Žeruolis, 2004, pp. 9. 6ąMnj Lithuanian dissidence was quite skeptical towards both, the diasporicLithuanian the both, and skepticaltowards dissidence wasquite candidates The leadership of The leadership beginning the opposition native the of transitional during the period 185 dis According them,itbased “ideological-personalwas on grounds”andon the to coalition, internal fragmentation emerged. internal fragmentation coalition, þLnjWơ , 2008. 6ąMnj 188 dis Therefore, during the presidential elections, they had to search hadto they elections, presidential the during Therefore, . However, soon, after the elections of 1990, which were won were which 1990, of elections the after soon, . However, 186 The radical and moderate parts former parts movement of Theradicalthe moderate and 6ąMnj dis was dispersed throughout many differentdispersed and throughout was 43 184 Ž ơ ruolis and Jankauskas observe Jankauskas and ruolis 187 Former CEU eTD Collection 192 191 190 Lyga,1992, pp.3. 189 the USA. the of diaspora Lithuanian the by betrayed felt ones, nationalist the especially resistance, the of regime. communist the of eyes the through Lithuania in situation the perceived and,therefore, prisoners, political or opposition the members of active most Lithuanianthe visits duringdiaspora their in Sovietthe Lithuaniausually meeting the avoided Antanasin indissidents. Decemberof members hisinterview, Terleckas 1992, claimed of that butalso with Lithuanian the themselves not only compared themselves as expatriates representative of Lithuania and presented him Lithuania USofficials. andpresented the representative of to democratic values” aimed at consolidating post-communist society.democratic post-communist values”aimedatconsolidating castwas of off still trying remnants the to sovietismliberal- andauthoritarianism asetof radical wingof dissidence. Lanea society thatAdamkus claims with him “brought to which the mollified inevitably years, ten namely terms, two for President Lithuanian a as served campaigns,in the case of Lozoraitis, orthrough their presidency in the case Adamkus,of who phenomenon strong presidential of candidates from whoduring diaspora, the electoral is in shown Appendix2). Therefore, No.such a political situationin Lithuania createda inAdamkus, (this to 1997, diasporic candidates the support electoral resistance wasgiven to “active” of the of in members circle the the especially communists, former the over priority choose 1997. Inthismanner, had opposition options,between the to these two andnaturally, in elections, both 1993 and rounds of in second former tothe regime the related and people candidates between choose diaspora the to resistance Lithuanian of members the forced the Lane, 2001, pp.148. Ibid. Ibid. Antanas Terleckas, “Kod But the loss of But thelossleadership which of Lithuanian was the of opposition of factors the one 190 As in 1989, Lithuanian community USAinvitedof the as Brazauskas a legitimate ơ l laim ơ jo komunistai,“ [Why Communists Won], 44 191 189 Vilnius: Lietuvos Laisv Secondly, some members some Secondly, 192 ơ s CEU eTD Collection liberation through diplomatic channels or with open statements against the Soviet regime Soviet the against statements open with or channels diplomatic through liberation for Lithuanianfighters independence. opposition, (2) from the communist party, or(3) from overseas; still, all of them claimed beto from from (1) social underground the positions: Evenif them patriots. acted different all of communists and the diaspora, have revealed that each group of actors perceived themselves as Lithuanian elections presidential namely innativeformer 1993and 1997, of opposition, collaboration. the However, analysis memory of distinct narratives,groups’ during the from Soviet the adaptation occupation to and arguedthat their oscillated resistance, behavior on Lithuanian Statehood Different Imaginations Beyond 2.4.1 Similar Communist Regime: Experience during the sides. political Therefore, formerthe communists. against imputations avoided electoral whose discourse diaspora, the they served during occupation. the willin It be claimed situation the that by was “rescued” membersof the the Lithuanian former communists of activities the towards native opposition the stanceof was anaccusatory politicalnative opposition and the former communists emerged. The main reason of this contraposition arena as between confrontation later the be However,asitindependence. outlined, Lithuanian will a bridgenamely goal, final their on a consensus reached them of all betweennevertheless, occupation, two hostilecommunistsmembers andthe diaspora in have been distinct positions during the Soviet willformernative thedespite fact Itwillbe be groups opposition, that arguedthat presented. Communication 2.4 Interplay of Different MemoryGroups: A Framework foraNew In the diaspora, to be a patriot meant, for example, to struggle Lithuanian for example, the for meant, to be apatriot to In the diaspora, experiences The first of chapter Lithuanians discussed different thesis this during of memory different of analysis the of conclusions comparative some section, this In 45 CEU eTD Collection 194 193 liberal members diaspora.the of mediation the the of wasavoidedthrough only for democratic neededthe consolidation, much communistshave and damaged thecould native that so opposition, communication political rather look forward. when you have to feel guilty for the faults of others” is very “itdifficult morally memoirs stated, inhisAs Brazauskas here. see theirguilt own not did communists former but Party Communist inthe participation their of condemnation evenif one. createdapossibility fragile for agreement, of Moscow politics the from alienated later and condemned communists former the also but diaspora the only and fact dissidence in the not Lithuania.survive that Therefore, thethe post-communist and tocooperate in order wasneeded for common denominators search occupation. The during the and activities moral theirstance of picture similar arelatively create triedactors to behavior during communist the having regime, after regainedindependence, eachgroup of the possibility regainto independence.Lithuanian an emergent was sense patriotic, were allina certain who of actors, groups different nomenklat theirleadership in Communistthe Party by and toavoidstriving Russification of the through patriotism express to claimed communists former meantime, the In regime. the with contention direct and constant a in being meant patriotism dissidents Lithuanian For abroad. Ibid, pp. 14. Gediminas Ilg Gediminas However, the Lithuanian dissidence expected from the former communists a from communists Lithuanian expected former dissidence the the However, of patterns described different previously despite, that might beobserved Thus it nj ra in Soviet Lithuania. The factor that unified, during the eraof thatunified, the factor during inLithuania. The Soviet nj nas, Apsisprendimo genez 194 Thus I would finally, arguethat, between open an conflict, formerthe ơ , [Genesis of the Decision], ofthe , [Genesis 46 193 andarguedthatLithuania should (Vilnius: Vaga, 2004), pp. 33. perestroika, these CEU eTD Collection Office], 199 rinkim 198 197 Closerto Lithuania], 196 Lithuania], accusatory discourse towards former communists, in contrast to the native Lithuanian native the to incontrast former communists, towards discourse accusatory 195 reforms. economic economy” and dimension. economic the on focused mainly programs electoral whole Their language.” “technical very used campaigns electoral during the Paulauskas, Brazauskasand Both, past. communistthe ethnicminorities. national or other Poles” and Lithuaniansturned into only the whoones suffered during byignoring occupation the“others”. foster and towards tolerance to culture communistthe eliminate and aneedto achieve democracy astable aim about the to Adamkus spoke and reconciliation. Lithuanians haveunite to with each other and all politicians havecreate to a dialogue of peace ofcommunism.” past andthe legacies Soviet “ais rescueLithuania claiminga messianic savior from through coming to the discourse that mainly of future the They anidealistic picture promoted and human rights. democratic culture approach during the presidential normativecampaigns, giving priority to issues, such as a Style of 2.4.2 Communication andBehavior: A New Possibility for Dialogue of the of As discourse. notices,during firstVenclova the yearsofindependence, leadership underthe Ibid. Algirdas Brazauskas, “Darbas, darna, dora. Kandidato Venclova,1999, pp. 91. Interview with Valdas Adamkus, “Valdas Adamkus: pliusai ir minusai,“ [A Journey with the Candidate: Brigita Balikien ǐ programa,“ [Work, Harmony, The Honour. Electoral Program of Candidate to the Lithuanian President 6ąMnj Respublika Thus the diasporic candidates, such as Lozoraitis and Adamkus, decided to avoid such Adamkus, Lozoraitis decidedto Thus as candidates, and diasporic the Former communists avoided using patriotic or very normative discourse in relation to in relation discourse normative very or patriotic using avoided communists Former idealistic and universalistic more a chose diaspora the of members liberal The In the meantime, native Lithuanian resistance had a very nationalistic and patriotic and nationalistic very a had resistance Lithuanian native meantime, the In Respublika 198 dis The leitmotiv of Brazauskas electoral program was “work” leading to “civilized leading to was“work” program electoral Brazauskas Theleitmotiv of , “the fixation on the Nation with a capital letter intensified the conflict with ơ , January 1993,28, pp. 6. , “Kelion Respublika , January 30, 1993, pp. 6. ơ su kandidatu: artynLietuvos,“ Journey[A with the Candidate: Closer to , December19, 1997. 199 197 Ƴ Lietuvos Respublikos prezidentus Algirdo Brazausko 195 47 Lozoraitis expressed the ideas that all that ideas expressedthe Lozoraitis 196 CEU eTD Collection why a new political basedon certain beculture could created. consensus native opposition and of the more radical wing of the diaspora. It was one of the main reasons dialoguesofteninglater contributed the formercommunists with to and the position of the Such a behavior and a style of communication actually their opponents. towards tactful and more diplomatic they were also but regime communist created a new possibility for political opposition; members diaspora the notonly themselves as“independent”from presented the 48 CEU eTD Collection that the two presidential competitors, Brazauskas and Lozoraitis, could give a hand to each ahandto give could Lozoraitis, and Brazauskas competitors, presidential two the that former communists and started to speak about anew possibility reconciliation.of of Landsbergis from becauseLandsbergis alienated confrontation his of strong with the opposition,for example Vytenis Andriukaitis, aformer memberof the 3.1 Alternative: Towardsa Culture ofDialogueand Reconciliation democracies. their consolidate to much earlier succeeded Baltic States, two other the with together whyLithuania, states, post-communist other to contrast in reasons, main the of one as well as serve might diaspora seen from past were position.moreof communistleadership Political tolerant returned diaspora, liberal of the leadership the and mediation the with whose Especially more tactfully. their conflict returnemerge. tochannel to opposing the started dialoguesides gradually In manner, started this could also of culture new political A in Lithuania. socialization new political a for conditions the created be seen as the EU enter to goal” “common and the crisis, economic a severe ideas, diasporic liberal one of the reasonscross-points of communication among the adversary political sides. Itwill be revealed that the why create how the to managed they and emerged dialogue of strategies the analyze how political the actors ofmemories” the “new for conditions created which andstrategies the on focus will I fostered thesis, my of section this the emergence memoryredefinition and localizationin groups ofdifferent the in post-communist Lithuania, of the period of reconciliation in Lithuania. I will 201 200 Vytenis Andriukaitis ( The idea of contributiondiasporic todemocratic consolidationoriginates from Skulte, 2005, pp.12. E C LECTIONS IN LECTIONS HAPTER During the presidential elections of 1993, some Lithuanian of politicians native the After in havingpresented formerthe dynamics chapterthe ofidentity, namely self-the 3: N 1993 ARRATIVES OFTHE Lietuvos Rytas AND 200 1997: , No. 23, 1992), pp. 16. S TRATEGIES FOR THE P P ASTDURING AST 49 L ITHUANIAN N EW 6ąMnj F P UTURE OF THE OF UTURE dis RESIDENTIAL and a follower 201 Hestated CEU eTD Collection 208 (905), February 11, 1993, pp.1. 207 (904), February 10, 1993, pp.1. could not accept Lozoraitis suggestion to serve the because Prime asthe presidential accept Lozoraitis Minister to suggestion not could he for has apolitical stated that beenalwaysseeking peace. inearliermentioned two the newspapers, and this greeted initiative. 206 297, December19, 1997, pp.7. 205 Horse], Presidential the to Party in Leadership the Minister. suggested making a grandcoalition bealso offeredtoBrazauskas and theLithuanian Prime to February, hemadeIn thisletter, 1993. anappeal theLithuanian to political and parties 204 203 202 Lithuania. in crisis economic the for overcoming solution such wastheonly a pact of creation Parliament, Lithuanian the dissolve other and, similarly as in Spain, should sign a pact for peace where they would promise not to Brazauskas, published inBrazauskas, published firstpages the of sides.“ political conflicting reconcile the to feel aresponsibility and would as a conciliator“ “a President of tradition Similarly,in Paulauskas, heas1997, arguedthat a wouldPresident follow the existing inlived unjust system.” same the hereand born weall future, andthe grewup were “therehe arenopeople from stated peacefullybecauseas should political communicate actors Lithuanian that Brazauskasargued and former Brazauskas the Paulauskas. communists, Ibid.. Algirdas Brazauskas, “Gerbiamas pone, Stasy Lozoraiti, [DearMr. Stasys Lozoraitis], Stasys Lozoraitis, “Politin Arvydas Juozaitis, “Iki šviesos – tik dvi dienos,“ [Only Two Days Left Till the Light], K Ibid. Ibid. Ċ stutis Jauniškis, “A.Brazauskas nuo partijos vairo pers However, Lozoraitis was the first one, who wrote an official letter to his to opponent letter official an wrote who one, first the was Lozoraitis However, The idea of reconciliation was also quite often mentioned in the electoral campaigns of campaigns in electoral mentioned the quite often was also of The idea reconciliation 206 203 Brazauskas, the following withanotherofficialissued letter, also day, responded ơ s santarv 205 ơ s paktas,“ [The Pact of Political Reconciliation], Seimas Lietuvos Rytas for the coming 4 years. Lietuvos Rytas 50 ơ da antPrezidento žirgo,“ [A.Brazauskas Changes , No. 33, February 20, 1993, pp.2. 208 and However, he argued that he still Respublika 202 207 They argued that the Brazauskas has also Brazauskas Respublika Respublika Lietuvos Rytas on the 10 , No. 26 , No. 27 th , No. , of 204 CEU eTD Collection 216 215 214 213 212 211 pp. 10. imagination, 210 209 politics and culture.” members were the Therefore, seenas“thethis of group diasporic voice second of Lithuanian “politicsthe of dialogue.” nationalism and promoted conservative Lithuanian criticized the world” and as one of “the cosmopolitan exiles,” nationalism” a “conservative criticized mostthe influential social and cultural critic in twentieth-century the Lithuania” who intellectual group USSR the in the and lived with LozoraitisUS. Together belonged and Adamkus,he tothe last decades were laid by mentioned,famous Lithuanian LozoraitisAs already opposition. Lithuanian native by the not was dissident and Lozoraitis from member diaspora the liberal Venclova, stream whoof the was diaspora, expatriated foundations from of which the culture and from the Lithuanian intelligentsia” Lithuanian the from and culture Lithuanian mainstream from alienated been always “has Venclova that mention to important chose alsoof but path confrontation. the mistake” historical 1990, Landsbergis notonly toshakerefused hands with Brazauskas, which was seenas “a communists. Because,inMarch in Lithuanian independenceof 1990, when wasproclaimed side of the over. not werestill elections political opponents to create a peaceful political dialogue with the former Ibid,pp. 33. Ibid,pp. 47. Ibid. Ibid,pp. 53. Ibid,pp. 47. Leonidas Donskis, Leonidas Bronius Genzelis, Ibid. Thus Lozoraitis and Adamkuscamefrom diasporicthe which environment, both, It is notacoincidence that the culture of a political dialogue wasby suggested the ( Amsterdam: Rodopi,2005), pp. 50. 6ąMnj Loyalty, dissent,and betrayal: modern Lithuania and East-Central European moral Santara-Šviesa dis : priešistor 216 This “voice” became heard in This“voice” heard became the presidential Lithuania during 209 Nevertheless, this letter was seen as the firstinitiative from the ơ . 211 ir istorija Leonidas Donskis argues that Venclova can be seen be “as Venclova can seen arguesthat Donskis Leonidas 212 and shaped the discourse of the liberal diaspora. It is , [ 6ąMnj 213 dis 51 andis byDonskis “adefined as citizen of : Prehistory and History], 214 like Lozoraitis orAdamkus. 210 (Vilnius: Pradai, 1999), 215 CEU eTD Collection 219 218 217 mistakes.” fewer waywith “follow the but “Lithuania enterprises paideven2percenthigher wages than Sovietthe average, after in that indicated itinwas notice,book, 1989, intheir years.As Vardys and Sedaitis, records oftheLithuanian economy the Soviet during wasdiscourse strengthened bythegood managerwas developing who Lithuanian economy during communist the regime. situation. Lithuanian economic focusedhe ontheeconomicand arguedthat asaPresidentwould problems improve and mostly look “close thebooks” inhis future. to towards the program Brazauskas electoral problems. theeconomic solve all to ability an face”and moral “new a with scene thepolitical re-enter to of past andthe main actors the letthe “forgetpast” should one In this case, forward. moving and “forgetting” the past towards oriented is more directly dialogue, creation a political of for the impetus differently than the argument, economic This pragmatic secure future. move financially solvereconcilestagnation towards in andto to needthe economic order to butalso memory between toconvince for “politicspeople of adversarial dialogue” the groups, Strategy 3.2 Economic Argument: Economic Development as a Forward-Looking followedconfrontation by was in of a period reconciliation Lithuania. post-independence the liberal cultureelections; firstly, ideas these werespreadbyLozoraitis, andlater by Valdas Adamkus. This of “politics of dialogue” was one of the main reasons why the period of Gediminas Ilg Ibid. Algirdas Brazauskas, ( This was the main strategy mainThis former by strategy communists, was the used argued to Lithuanian the who deal only may applynotpeacefully, the to strategy of In the with the past order one nj nas, 2004, pp. 12. Respublika , January 28, 1993), pp.6. 217 He claimed: “we are not going to come back to the past” 218 He presented himself as a successful state successful asa himself Hepresented 52 219 Such a CEU eTD Collection was membership Itwas in EU. the achieved in 2004 when Lithuaniafull became member a of Overcoming Divisions 3.3 HistoricalArgument:Strategyas a Returning Narrative for West of the to belief in the birth of a “new in andpeople’s former communists politics Lithuanian by the the to markedof re-entrance the crisis hardships haveand alsoplayed asignificantrole indeveloping anew political culture, economic case, crisis.this In economic severe of hostages the were the they because Party rule. at: 226 225 224 223 222 221 220 the 13 the Moscow”,“moredevelopedto approach conciliatory forefront. inflation,“suffering from and unemployment declines the inliving severe came standards” to so strongly by used nativethe Lithuanian opposition in remained backgroundthe and the and hardships.” excessive hyperinflation independenceproduced liberalization an“economic the by after factthat the the Parliament,in 1992,but also towin the Presidential Office,in 1993. It might be explained “prosperity.” labeled is as oneof often quite Estonia,Russia.” Latvia and Algimantas Mankus, “Karališkiai,“ [ “Karališkiai,“ Mankus, Algimantas Ibid, pp. 122. Ibid, pp. 142. Ibid. Lane, 2001, pp.141. Ibid. Vardys Sedaitis, and 1997, pp. 68. http://www.culture.lt/satenai/?leid_id=768&kas=straipsnis&st_id=4375 225 th After independence, Lithuanian of one key the of goals foreign Lithuanian the policy Thus it might be argued that people “forgave” the former leaders of Thus itmight beCommunist the people“forgave” argued that the The success of this economic strategy enabled former communists to enter not only of in“bloody” a of 1991,organized January 223 The economic hardships were also one of has main of also why the were Brazauskas one hardships Theeconomic reasons 222 homus postsovieticus homus Therefore, during the elections “the theme of anti-communism” of theme “the elections the during Therefore, 220 Therefore, the Lithuanian economy during the Soviet regime Soviet the during economy Lithuanian the Therefore, Karališkiai ], 221 Šiaur ơ .” 53 s At 226 coup d’etat ơ 224 nai which had only two years before, on ,“ 2005, , (accessed May 22, 2010). in order to restore theSoviet restore to in order CEU eTD Collection Live Better], Live which strategy, acertain seen beas also mightWest the to returning of narrative the that Lithuanian foreign policy issues. on the overcamedivisions opponents the and for communication aspace created candidates, communists which merged with the ideas of the native opposition and the diasporic come backEurope.”come to and membershipwas seen“a state” Union European the to a full-fledgedas European door become Lithuania “hasto that in1997,also elections declared duringPaulaukas, presidential 233 232 as fastas European Community possible.” balance its foreign policy between the East and the West” and it was “vital to join the 231 230 229 European Community. join to the imperative the also but expressed deal Russia way in with a “friendly” to necessity past; itstands for progress, thefuture, prosperity and security.” getrid as communist the a wayto of is Pavlovaite constructed “Europe asstates Therefore, space.” andcultural economic political, a “common into and world democratic West Lehti and David J. Smith (ed.), 227 Laurinavi 228 Frank Cass, 2003), pp. 199–218. andRussia. past communist Lithuania’s namely the “other”, the from distance anditwas usedasawayto states” family a belonging, European of natural of place the integration EU.Asthe asa was largely to Inga argues, “European return presented Pavlovaite Art Ibid. Algirdas Brazauskas, ( Today the European Union. 2003. Pavlovaite, ý Inga Pavlovaite , “Paradise Regained: The Conceptualization of Europe in the Lithuanian Debate”, in Marko in Debate”, Lithuanian the in of Europe Conceptualization The Regained: “Paradise , Pavlovaite Inga .Laurinavi nj ras ras Paulauskas, “Art Therefore, Iwould agreewith ideathe expressed by Pavlovaite and would alsoargue In the elections of onlynot his Brazauskas inIn theelections of 1993, program declared electoral the þ ius claims that with its membership in the EU, Lithuania integrated itself into the into itself integrated Lithuania EU, in the membership its with that claims ius Lietuvos Rytas þ ius,” New Vision of Lithuania’s Foreign Policy,” Respublika nj 230 , No.274,, November22, 1997, pp. 7. ras ras Paulauskas. Nusipeln 233 231 Post-Cold War Identity Politics: Northern and Baltic Experiences, ( Thus the expression of Thusformer by of goals such political expression the the According to him, According goal to important most the Lithuaniaof “wasto , January 28, 1993), pp. 6. 232 ơ me gyventi geriau,“ [Arturas Paulauskas. We Deserve to Similarly, the so-called neo-communist Art neo-communist so-called the Similarly, 54 Lithuanian Foreign Policy Review 229 227 London: Moreover, , 2006, pp.1. nj ras 228 CEU eTD Collection Oxford, at: 234 between reconciliation of dimension the include should also but justice, criminal on namely, or“moral” condemning criminals, not focus only the perpetrators should or punishing on andits actors astate political In todevelopenvironment deals with its apeaceful order past. 238 237 236 16, Issue No. 4,1995, pp.694. 235 and society.” state of interaction between that shapeandcontours indetermining overall indispensable the role plays an culture “political because system elementpolitical of state’s an important democracy.” to intransitions elements democratization.” or development political state-building, as processes such “in role important an play may culture world,the politics.”have people pertain asthese towards to Gradual Development of a NewPolitical Culture 3.4 The Cross-Points of Communication on Dealing with theCommunist Past: policy. foreign westward-oriented the to contribution their and face” “new their prove to managed communists former mission,” manner,communists “European to the In with andthis their their opponents. commitment all Lithuanian politicians.was not constructed exactly for this aim, did functionIt as an arena forserved agreement among almost as one of theoccupationSoviet and belonging theEast.Membership to of Union, European the if even it tools of the of years reconciliation the namely, past, the forgetting at aimed is and continuity, historical expresses between the former Stephen Fischer, “Political Culture and Social Capital,” Lecture notes from Political Sociology,University of Referring to leadersthe of communistthe parties, who belonged but did not give any direct orders. Ibid. Ibid. World,” Third of the aNewDefinition and Culture “Political Kamrava, Mehran One of the key elements of the political culture is a way in which a certain country Political culture could be defined as“the pattern of beliefs and assumptions ordinary http://malroy.econ.ox.ac.uk/fisher/polsoc/PoliticalCultureLecture.pdf 237 235 This is similar to Larry Diamond, “who sees it as one of the primary 236 Therefore, it is often argued that political culture is culture political that argued often is it Therefore, 55 234 As Kamrava notices, political , (accessed 2010). May 17, Third Quarterly World Third , Vol. 238 CEU eTD Collection 240 239 need to eliminate economic hardships. However, one has to observe that this strategy thiswas strategy observe that has to one However, hardships. economiceliminate need to region.” for consolidation inleading “has democratic been stability and actors, good the overall members, and Iwould addtheirand past stancethe towards behavior tolerant former with the in politicalare experts of politics; leadership Lithuanian they argued thatthe diaspora the wasdiaspora also confirmed Lopata,Jankauskas,interviewees, byher andLukosaitis, who role returned of the significant The diaspora. of Lithuanian members the conservative some ithas re-socialized not only elite communistthe butalso the Lithuanian native opposition and elite. political communist the re-socialized have could members diaspora of socialization thatthepolitical the in notices also diaspora Latvia andLithuania, returned of political inheron the leadership the whichconcentrates liberal views. Skulte, dissertation, the with returnees by diasporic the were created communication for conditions Firstly, the in Lithuania. culture a newpolitical of the development allowed that strategies seen ascertain conflicts. forchannel andanew Lithuanian the future dialogue”political past wayto hasoffered anew of “politics The democracy. consolidating and crisis economic in overcoming hurdles ismain fight past the the one over a constant itwas realizedthat former communists, and the periodsystem. Despite the short of between confrontation native Lithuanian the opposition political in their communists, the namely actors, former the of inclusion of path the chosen challenging process. is balance two these options anextremely between opposing to Naturally,the two sides. Ibid. Skulte, 2005, pp. 180. The second strategy to escape the confrontation over the past, was to emphasize emphasize the wasto past, the over confrontation escape the to strategy The second be also might which conditions, main three observe to possible was it chapter, this In As ithas been demonstrated in thesis,this Lithuania duringits transitional has period 240 56 239 Iwould argue that CEU eTD Collection 242 241 especially poor people or coming from the rural from rural places, coming people the or especially poor voters, many hand, other the on still, actors; political among battlefield new a became policies one-sidedby formerfrom mainlyused and hand, the communists. Indeed, one economic States vis-à-vis some other post-communist States.” post-communist other some vis-à-vis States Lithuaniamay help explain success the to part) (in of indemocratic consolidation the Baltic phenomenon of members diaspora the returningto participate in politicsthe of and Latvia exiles. Iwould agreewith whocomesSkulte, tothe similarconclusions, and claims that“the mostly European the entrance Union, by liberal of the andideas hardships, to returned the the by andinfluenced economic the developed wasgradually democratic consolidation, aimedThus Iwouldanew work. reconciliation arguethat Lithuanianculture, and political at andcommon communication afor amutual created space foreign The new of policy goals Europe” was one of to thein “returning maininterest their also but cross-points Russia with relations closer for only not communists and “common tasks” of all Lithuanian former of support the argue that Iwould Union. European the into was theentrance politicians. former regime. the with communicate have to would opposition national the that became clear It discourse. anti-communist and nationalistic of the loss accept the andto will people’s acknowledge the development andof “forgiveness” of a newinevitably,emergence In thisit hope. manner, to did contribute people’s of signs visible of most the were communists former the of a victories electoral more conciliatory The elite. former the communist trust again started to Landsbergis, led by party,Vytautas approach of the native opposition, who had to Skulte, 2005, pp.12. Lane, 2001, pp.141. The third condition of the development of a new political culture and communication and culture political new a of development the of condition third The 57 242 241 who were disappointed with ruling whowere disappointed CEU eTD Collection The dynamicsLithuania,had toredefine theiridentities mollify and their stances towards their opponents. of infind in of almostdemonstrated a place the to post-communist order groups all actors, identity in theforgetting pastbutrather the atconsolidating democracy movingforwards.and post-communistat not wasaimed which amnesia” “historical by a positive marked was reconciliation period of consensusLithuania and thestages, namely intotwo the dividedbefore Lithuanian only which was transitional period, period of the of confrontation. division the extended have I manner, this In Lithuania. in transitional wasreconciliation It was alsoobserved. revealed that the period of Firstly, candidates. also diaspora but the present were former communists the presidential in elections in1993 and1997, not which only Lithuanianthe native opposition, the butactors apolitical through communication which was developed during Lithuanian the itsapproach to pastconstructed memories andits in werenot by or onea vacuum group of Lithuanian transitionalperiod.ItwasshownthatSovietits the during Lithuaniabutalso in only of werealso not groups active actors Since these anddiaspora. the native opposition investigatememorycommunist namely hasto one also past, Lithuanian groups, other the understandin was to apologeticthis revealed with communists. the dealing order that It suggested analyzingnot only behavior andthe redefinitionthe identity of formerthe of and past communist Lithuanian onthe theresearch has broadened study This and tolerance. claimed, but have rather scientists social Lithuanian many as as memory, an societal of impetuslapse the as seen be solely not for the development of a newinclusion and success formerthe of in communists political post-independencethe Lithuania should culture of dialogue As the narratives of the candidates during Lithuanian presidential duringelections LithuanianAs the presidential narratives of candidates the 1997, shouldbe of from this definedperiod asthe that I suggested period,1993 to This thesis has shown that the conciliatory dealing with the communist past and the C ONCLUSIONS 58 CEU eTD Collection ethnic RussiansorLithuanian theLithuanian Poles, and such minorities, inthe as their role dialogue could be developed. Due to the limitations of this thesis, Icould notstudy the role of localized in society amanner that apolitical in them Lithuanian the post-communist such that such with demonstrated memories delete rather a conciliatory dealing pastdidnot the but was It of confrontation. politics the avoided and arena its political from former communists democracy thanmanyeasier post-communistother Lithuania states. exclude didnot the launch a dialogue among Lithuanian different politicians. to possibility the gave itself, nation Lithuanian and past the the towards stance liberal Their independence. after of unification elements important most be the one to turned diaspora into EU,the Lithuanian the integration the hardships and of as theeconomic such dialogue, a politics for catalysts possible to next that observed was It past. communist its with dealing Lithuaniaits transitional justice namely contribution process, wayof to Lithuanian and in consolidation democratic on the anditsinfluence diaspora the role of intermediary candidates. andby the former the diaspora communists defeated was Lithuanian native opposition the presidential both elections lackduring and of tolerance; discourse their accusatory opposition lost communists, towards former the redefined their confidence stance aspeople in native Lithuanian the Thirdly, emerged. resistants “silent” of and regime communist the of of“victims” discourse the Thus, society. Lithuanian the of suffering” of “common the aspart themselves regime presented communist the activities during past accusationstheir of cameoverthe Lithuania be in post-independence accepted to inorder the former communists elections.voters inthepresidential Secondly, tobe by proved the andunsuccessful refuted liberal of became members discourse because anationalistic diaspora more conservative the All of these factors, revealed in my thesis, show why Lithuania could consolidate its could consolidate why in my Lithuania revealed show thesis, factors, All of these One of the most important observations of this thesis is the acknowledgement of the 59 CEU eTD Collection communist states, one should also consider this feature nation. of the feature thisconsider oneshould also states, communist in post- the culture political consolidation and the democratic and comparingwhile studying in general that argue would I Therefore, phenomenon. atransnational highly is shown, was it the development of Lithuanian politics, society, andin Because Lithuania. ethnicities residing of other diaspora butalso the Lithuanian diaspora the construction of its past memories, as diasporic thismeaning issue, to notonly approach of analysis the roleof the returned the could the political develop reflects of the nature haveculture, Lithuanian the arguedalso analyzing dealing period and its Lithuanian the which communisttransitional with past, I buildingto in aconsensus post-communistthe Lithuania. future scholars Therefore, while contributed also have they that be predicted might It Lithuania. in process justice transitional 60 CEU eTD Collection at: http://malroy.econ.ox.ac.uk/fisher/polsoc/PoliticalCultureLecture.pdf at: Sociology, University Oxford, of Fischer, Stephen. “Political Culture and Social Capital,” Lecture notes from Political European moral imagination, Leonidas. 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Ƴ parduotuves, tvarkysiu namus,“ [Daniela Lozoraitiene: After þ iams,“ [The Open Letter of the Interim President Algirdas President Interim the of Letter Open [The iams,“ , No.28, February 12, 1993. , No.23,February 5, 1992. , Essays, New York: The Sheep Meadow Press, 1999. þ ius: „Atsakomyb ius: ơ Lietuvos Rytas ǐ nj : tapusi : tapusi prezidentiene, ir toliau pati vairuosiu iš kelion ras Paulauskas iš arti,“ Paulauskasras Paulauskasiš arti,“ [Arturas at ơ jo totalitarinei sistemai prat sistemai totalitarinei jo 64 ơ s po Lietuv Lietuvos Rytas , December 17,1997. ơ saisto mus visus beišimties,“ mus visus saisto Lietuvos Rytas ơƳ Lietuvos politkos Lietuvos virš ą ,” [Ten ,” [Ten Questions From the ơ da ant Prezidento žirgo,“ Prezidento da ant , No. 296, December 18, , No.277, Ċ sti savo valdym savo sti Lietuvos Rytas Lietuvos Rytas Lietuvos Rytas nj nes,” ą , , ”, , CEU eTD Collection Respublika Brazauskas, Algirdas. “Gerbiamas pone, Stasy Lozoraiti, [Dear Mr. Stasys Lozoraitis], Lithuanian President?], Lithuanian Bieliauskas, Vytautas. “K Closer toLithuania], Balikien President: The Witnesses Lose Memory], Ba Respublika in Politics], Force Driving the Remain Will Valatka, Rimvydas. “Praeities baubai liks politikos varomoji j Equations of of Equations Candidates], the Valatka, Rimvydas. “Prieš rinkimus -paskutin Merits andDemerits], Merits Valatka, Rimvydas. “Naujasis Prezidentas: privalumai ir tr Becoming RichandDoing SoMuch], ir tiek padaryt,” [Stasys Lozoraitis: There Is No Person Who Had So Many Possibilities in Urbonavi Strategy], Šalna, Vytis. “Lietuva iki šiol neturi valstyb neturi šiol iki “Lietuva Vytis. 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Nusipeln rinksime Lietuvos prezidentu?”, [Who Will We Elect To Serve As ơ naujos eros pradžios teks palaukti,” [After the Elections We Still su Lietuvos,“ kandidatu:artyn [A Journey with Candidate: the Lietuvos Rytas Lietuvos Rytas Lietuvos Rytas , January 30, 1993. , January 22, 1993. Lietuvos Rytas ơ , January 12, 1998. vas – S.Lozorai , No.28, February 12, 1993. Lietuvos Rytas Respublika ơ r žmogaus, tur r žmogaus, , Decmeber 13,1997. ơ , No.274, November 22,1997. Lietuvos Rytas tai?”, [Is It Too Fast or Too Slow?], , No. 1997.293, December 15, ơ ơ s pretendent s strategijos,” [Lithuania Still Has No State No Has Still [Lithuania s strategijos,” 65 , January 12, 1998. ơ ] me gyventi me gyventi Paulauskas.geriau,“ [Arturas , , December 11, 1997. þ ơWǐ , No.27, February 11, 1993. Lietuvos Rytas io patik suvienyti išeivij suvienyti ơ nj jusiotiek prog ơ , December, 22,1997. ǐ tvarkos šaknys,“ Roots tvarkos [Rotten of kumai,“ [The New President: The lygtys,“ [Before Elections New ơ ơ ga,“ [The Ghosts of the Past tinis?..”, [Is S.Lozoraitis Ƴ ,“ Letter [The ,“ of the , No. 21, February 3, ą ǐ ?“ [R.Rajackas: pasidarytturtingu Lietuvos CEU eTD Collection Still Want So Much To Preach a Sermon in the Church…], Respublika Respublika‘s Candidate to the Lithuanian President Office], President Lithuanian tothe Candidate BrazauskoAlgirdo rinkim Norkien Respublika Pluses andMinuses], Pluses Interview with Valdas Adamkus,“Valdas Adamkus: irpliusai minusai,“ Adamkus: [Valdas Brazauskas, Algirdas. “Darbas, darna, dora.Kandidato Lozoraitis, Stasys. “Politin Stasys. Lozoraitis, ơ , Daiva. “Kartais labai “Kartais dar bažny norisi , Daiva. , February 9, 1993. , No.26(904), February 10, 1993. information, “Kassuvienys “vienytojus”?”, [WhoWill Unite the Unifiers?], Respublika ǐ programa,“ Harmony, programa,“ [Work, TheElectoral Honour. Program of ơ s santarv , December 19,1997. ơ s paktas,“ [The Pact of Reconciliation], of Political [ThePact s paktas,“ Respublika þ ioje pasakyti iojepamoksl pasakyti 66 Ƴ LietuvosRespublikos prezidentus , January 1993. 28, Respublika , November1997. 28, ą …”, [Sometimes I …”, [Sometimes CEU eTD Collection Table 1.Results Presidential of the Lithuanian Elections in1993 3. Including3. invalid votes. vote. to right the had who citizens those from % 2. memberKazys Bobelis declared his support forBrazauskas). elections the from withdraw to decided others because candidates two only remained campaign (in of electoral end the At 1. order to strengthen the electoral supportpuslapis/ankstesni-rinkimai/rinkimai-pagal-rusi.html for oneSource: The Central Electoralof Commission of thethe Republic of Lithuania, http://www.vrk.lt/lt/pirmas-two candidates, for example the diasporaStasys Lozoraitis Brazauskas Algirdas Electorate A PPENDIX N O .1: Votes R ESULTS OF THE 3 1993 L , (accessed May 25, 2010). AND ITHUANIAN 67 1,211,070 2,102,420 1997 767,437 P RESIDENTIAL (voting from 15.2) abroad: (voting 83.1) from abroad: 1 E % LECTIONS IN 76.8 38.1 60.1 2 CEU eTD Collection Kazys Bobelis Rolandas Pavilionis Kazys Bobelis Vytenis Andriukaitis Vytautas Landsbergis Art Valdas Adamkus Electorate Table 2.Results of Lithuanian Presidential Elections in1997 nj ras Paulauskas Votes (December 1 24, 1997) st 1,852,468 round 838,819 105,916 294,881 516,798 16,070 73,287 6,697 % 15.73 44.73 27.56 71.45 68 5.65 0.36 0.86 3.91 2 (January nd 4, 1998) round 1,921,806 968,031 953,775 abroad: 24.48) abroad: abroad: 75.52) abroad: (voting from (voting from % 49.22 49.96 73.66 CEU eTD Collection Personalities: Adamkus ] Adamkus.” Antanasfuture.” abetter bring will Smetona: peace and Adamkus.” changes for vote democratic to ”Only Bobelis: Kazys necessary is it I answered, vote, to whom for ”We asked who those “To allLandsbergis: Vytautas are forces.” waiting political any on dependent isnot Adamkus a peace, for search his ”In Andriukaitis: Vytenis for good changes,Supporting words: order, and justice.Lithuanian President, Antanas Smetona (April 1919It – June 1920) is importantLandsbergis, in the middle:to Kazysvote Bobelis, down onIn the forefront: the for Valdasright: Adamkus, Antanas above on the left:Valdas VytenisSmetona Andriukaitis, above (theon the right:grandchild Vytautas of the first ”Kvie žmoni – Lietuvos “Kartu Source: Catchwords of the Electoral Poster: Translations: A þ iame sausio 4- sausio iame PPENDIX L ITHUANIAN N ąMą O Lietuvos Rytas balsuoti už Vald už balsuoti .2: ǐ gerovei“ - [Together for the Welfare of the Lithuanian People] Lithuanian ofthe Welfare the for [Together - gerovei“ T P HE RESIDENTIAL E , No. 305, December31, 1997, pp. 11. LECTORAL ą Adamk ǐ ” - [We Invite You on the 4th of January to Vote for Valdas for Vote to of January 4th the on You Invite [We - ” E P LECTIONS OF OSTER OF 69 V ALDAS 1998 (2 A ND DAMKUS IN THE IN DAMKUS ROUND )