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Conde, Jonathan (2018) an Examination of Lithuania's Partisan War Versus the Soviet Union and Attempts to Resist Sovietisation

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Conde, Jonathan (2018) an Examination of Lithuania's Partisan War Versus the Soviet Union and Attempts to Resist Sovietisation Conde, Jonathan (2018) An Examination of Lithuania’s Partisan War Versus the Soviet Union and Attempts to Resist Sovietisation. Masters thesis, York St John University. Downloaded from: http://ray.yorksj.ac.uk/id/eprint/3522/ Research at York St John (RaY) is an institutional repository. It supports the principles of open access by making the research outputs of the University available in digital form. Copyright of the items stored in RaY reside with the authors and/or other copyright owners. Users may access full text items free of charge, and may download a copy for private study or non-commercial research. For further reuse terms, see licence terms governing individual outputs. Institutional Repository Policy Statement RaY Research at the University of York St John For more information please contact RaY at [email protected] An Examination of Lithuania’s Partisan War Versus the Soviet Union and Attempts to Resist Sovietisation. Submitted in accordance with the requirements for the degree of Research MA History at York St John University School of Humanities, Religion & Philosophy by Jonathan William Conde Student Number: 090002177 April 2018 I confirm that the work submitted is my own and that appropriate credit has been given where reference has been made to the works of others. This copy has been submitted on the understanding that it is copyright material. Any reuse must comply with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 and any licence under which this copy is released. @2018 York St John University and Jonathan William Conde The right of Jonathan William Conde to be identified as the Author of this work has been asserted by him in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 Acknowledgments My gratitude for assisting with this project must go to my wife, her parents, wider family, and friends in Lithuania, and all the people of interest who I interviewed between the autumn of 2014 and winter 2017. The kind nature of my willing participants and their eagerness to contribute, to what I believe to be an interesting area of scholarly research, has illuminated this project greatly. The testimonies of my interviewees represent an updating of the historiography surrounding the experiences of normal people inside Soviet Lithuania. I would like to especially pay tribute to those of my interviewees who are no longer with us. For her time spent translating and assisting in the interview process, a special acknowledgment must go to my wife Renata. Special thanks must also go to my father-in-law, for working on my behalf to arrange interviews, and for transporting me to various locations in Lithuania, as well as agreeing to being interviewed himself. For their academic advice and constant presence, I would like to thank Dr Christopher Price, Dr Peter Whitewood and Dr Ian Horwood from the University of York St John’s History department. This thesis was enthused by the astonishing activities of thousands of Lithuanians in their pursuit of independence. The work of numerous historians, writers, and activists to reveal the nature of the Lithuanian nations occupation and liberation have informed this thesis. Particularly influential have been the comprehensive works of Anatol Lieven on Baltic history, Grazina Miniotaite on non-violent forms of resistance, V.M. Leskys and G. Reklaitis on the violent insurgency of the Lithuanian partisans, as well as the incredible research of Michael Bourdeaux on religious repressions inside Soviet Lithuania. While I have benefited from support and assistance, I alone bare responsibility for this work. i Abstract The modern history of Lithuania can be described as the Lithuanian nation’s struggle for independence from the Russian Empire and the Soviet Union. Lithuania had been a part of the Russian Empire since losing her independence in 1795, when it was divided and occupied by Russian and Prussian armies. Independence was again achieved following the collapse of the Tsarist system after the 1917 Bolshevik revolution. Lithuania remained an independent republic until the commencement of the Second World War. Therefore, the Ribbentrop- Molotov pact defines the commencement of the Soviet occupation for Lithuania. This project is as an examination of the Soviet occupation, aiming to record the testimonies of people who lived under Soviet conditions. Through the use of oral history, a picture of a national resistance tradition emerged. This resistance took on many forms and surfaced at various times throughout the fifty-year Soviet occupation. Foreign concern in Lithuanian domestic politics has helped inform Lithuanians of their position in the world. Geographically speaking, being isolated between Germany and Russia was a precarious position to be in in the twentieth century. Foreign entanglement in Lithuania stimulated the Lithuanian resistance tradition and fuelled the nationalists cause in the latter days of the USSR. This study argues that the memory of independence and the evoking of this national tradition of resistance have helped shape the Lithuanian nation’s collective memory and how they view themselves among the nations of the world. Nationalist writers depicting the struggle for independence have sometimes ignored the negative experiences and hardships felt by ordinary Lithuanians who lived through the independence process. This thesis encompasses their view of how exiting the USSR affected Lithuanians and examines the interaction between Soviet identity and Lithuanian patriotism. ii Contents Introduction ............................................................................................................................................ 1 Chapter One: Violent Resistance .......................................................................................................... 11 Sovietisation ...................................................................................................................................... 11 Post War Resistance .......................................................................................................................... 12 The Forest Brothers .......................................................................................................................... 14 Partisan legacy and new forms of resistance ................................................................................... 29 Chapter Two: Nonviolent Resistance, Dissidents and the Catholic Church .......................................... 33 Nonviolent resistance ....................................................................................................................... 33 Post-Stalin ......................................................................................................................................... 38 Dissent............................................................................................................................................... 39 The Chronicle of the Catholic Church of Lithuania ........................................................................... 40 Open Dissent to Soviet Rule, the Helsinki Accords, and the Protest era .......................................... 46 The Role of Lithuanian Exiles ............................................................................................................ 49 Chapter Three: The Gorbachev Era ....................................................................................................... 53 The Perestroika Period ...................................................................................................................... 53 Rebirth .............................................................................................................................................. 56 The Baltic Way to Freedom ............................................................................................................... 59 Independence declared .................................................................................................................... 62 The Singing Revolution...................................................................................................................... 65 Concluding Remarks.............................................................................................................................. 72 Appendices ............................................................................................................................................ 82 Appendix One - Interviews ................................................................................................................ 82 Appendix Two - Appeal by Vytautas Landsbergis to the people of the Republic of Lithuania December 22nd 1990: ........................................................................................................................ 84 Appendix Four - Appeal to the United Nations Secretary General Mr Javier Perez De Cuellar. ..... 86 Appendix Five - Appeal to the People of Lithuania ........................................................................... 87 iii Introduction Where there is power, there is resistance Michel Foucault In 1795 Lithuania was annexed and occupied by Tsarist Russia and would endure being part of the Imperialist Russian empire for 123 years until the end of the Great War offered the possibility for the re-establishment of an independent republic.1 From the start the Tsarist policy of Russification pursued a course of suppressing separatist currents on the fringes of its expanded
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