Index

Abomey, Benin, 231 ai-Hasan bin Sulaim an (Sultan of Kilwa) : see also specific coun tries and regions (cant.) modem Islamic religion of, 100, 101 creation of, 19-20, 21- 23 relationship with Kilwa's surrounding area, urban industrial landscape of, 21-22 110-111 African American s, West-African cultural and ai-Hasan bin Talut (Sultan of Kilwa), 98 spiritual influences on, 230-231 al-Idrisi, 132, 174 African culture, Egyptian source of, 171-172 Ali ibn al Husain (Sultan of Kilwa), 110 African Diaspora, 14-15, 129-130, 219-241 al-Khuwarizmi, 172 African-derived cultures of, 219-220, 223- Allison, Philip, 189, 190, 191, 194, 196, 201- 224 202, 208, 213 African societal change and, 231-232 al-Mas'udi, 132, 135, 136 effect on agricultural production, 227 al-Mawahib, Abu, 100 interpretation of, 230- 232 Almoravid s, 168-169 Afrocent ric approach, in African historical al-Muhallabi, 173-174 archaeol ogy, 171-172 Alodia , Sudan , 52- 53 Agba, Nigeria , 193, 208 Alok, Nigeria, Cross River monoliths of, 190, Agriculture 203-204 in post-Meroitic Lower Nubia, 45, 46-47, 49 Amir Muhammed (Sultan of Kilwa), 114, 118 in , effect of slave trade on, 227 Anglo- Boer War (1880-1881), 334 women 's role in, 9 Animals : see also Cattle resources Aksum, Ethiopia, 40-41 symbolic significance of, 302 Akwanshi, 194, 201, 206- 209 Ankole royal settlement, Bweyorere, Uganda, al-Bakri , 174, 179 134 Alcacova, Diogo de, 102 Anthrop ology al-Dimashqi, 166-167 Africani st, 163 ai-Hasan bin Sulaiman (Sultan of Kilwa), 93, of colon ialism, 163, 164 95,98-101 , 102-109 Arab historical sources, in African historical ceramics production and, 104-109, 11 2 archaeology, 11-12, 13, 183 cloth production and, 103-104, 110 "Arab stimulus paradigm" of, 170-171 gold trade and, 102, 103-104 "colonial justification" model of, 170

393 394 Index

Arab historical sources, in African historical Bantu-speaking people archaeology (cont.) Arab-Swahili hegemony of, 65-66 "colonial justification" model of, 170 Shungwa ya tradition of, 62, 67, 68 misinterpretations of, 168-169 Barbosa , Duarte, 102, 152 script, 130 Barolong , Tswana polity, 273 : see also ; Mosques ; Muslims Barrow, John, 281 attitudes toward Africans, 166-167 Bathlaping people, 280 influence on Swahili society, 133 in battle of , 286 trade with relocation of capitals of, 287, 288 Mijikenda people, 64 Batlokwa people, meat distribution practices , 60 of, 317 "Arab stimulus paradigm ," 170-171 Batn el Hajar, Lower Nubia, 47-48 Archaeology: see also Historical archaeology, Batswapong people, 278 African Beach, David, 245-246 of Africa, prehistoric, relationship with Beads, blue glass, African-American, 229 historical archaeology , 381, 382 Beer, maize, 226 pre-Columbian, 380 Beer consumption, in Meroitic culture, 40 Argin, Lower Nubia, 49 Bekum, Nigeria, Cross River monoliths of, Aswan Dam, Egypt, 53 198-199 Aweera (Boni) people, 62, 67, 68 Bengulu people, 260 Benin Bacwezi people, 12,380 Abomey,231 Badimo (Tswana ancestral spirits), 26 Dassa,231 Bafut, Nigeria, lineage stones of, 210 fetish markets, 230 Bahurutshe, as Tswana polity, 273 Hueda, 129-130, 226, 231 Bahurutshe people, capital of, 280 Savi, 223, 224, 226, 227, 228, 229, 231, Bain, Andrew Geddes, 280, 286 232-236 Bajuni people, 62 pottery artefacts from, 232-235 Baker, Albert Weir, 356 Bight of Benin, during African Diaspora, 221• Bakgalagadi people, 305 222 Bakwena Bamodimosana people, relocat ion of maize cultivation in, 225-226 capitals of, 287, 288 map of, 223 Bakwena people, 4-5, 22, 273 Bigo, Uganda, 134 capitals of: see also Ntsweng, Bin Ahmed, Hassan, 69 relocation of, 287, 288 Bin Talut, AI-Hasan (Sultan of Kilwa), 98 cattle resources of, 303 Biravira Hill site, , 255-256 meat distribution practices of, 318-319 Blacksm ithing, in West Africa, 228-229 trans-Kalahari trade dominance by, 305 Blouberg , , Maleboho War as Tswana polity, 273 battlefield of, 326, 327-330, 332-334, Ballana, Lower Nubia, 49 338,343 Bamalete people, 280 Bocarro, Gaspar, 118 Banda, Ghana, 271 Boka botuom, 200, 208-209 Bangwato people, 23 Boka mkwanbuk, 199 capital of, 291 Boka nkang, 197, 198 morafe of, 276 Bondei people, 63 relocation of capitals by, 287, 288-289 Boni (Aweera) people, 62, 67, 68 Banqwato people, relocation of capitals by, Book of the Zanj, 65-66, 67, 68 287, 288-289 Botswana Bantu Sabaki-speaking people, migration of, Modipe Hill, 284, 285 60 Ntsweng, 4-5, 19, 23-26, 27 Index 395

Botswana (cant.) Cattle resources (cant.) Ntsweng (cant.) of (cant.) abandoment of, 305, 306 post-butchery body parts distribution Bakwena people of, 22 patterns of, 317-320, 321-322 establishment of, 305 rinderpest epidemic in, 305 faunal assemblages from, 306-322 as status indicator, 303-304 Phalatswe, 19, 275-278, 288- 289, 291 taphonomic analysis of, 312-317 , 321 abandonment of, 276 Cemeteries ..African" church of, 23 in Cameroon, 231 as Bangwato capital, 275 Meroitic, 38, 42 drinking water supply of, 276, 277 in Ntsweng, 25 establishment of, 275-276 post-Meroitic, 49 historical documentary sources about, 276 West African, 231 layout/social composition of, 276, 277, Central Cattle Pattern, of agropastoralism, 274, 278 283,284 size of, 277, 278, 281 Ceramics Bottle gourds, 39 of the African Diaspora, 234 Broederstroorn, South Africa, 274 associated with Cross River monoliths, Bullets, soapstone, 326-327, 337 Nigeria, 203, 204 Bunce Island, Sierra Leone, 223 from Chizhou Hill site, Zimbabwe, 250, Burchell, William, 280, 281, 284, 289-290 251-252, 254-255, 256-257 Bur Gao, , 67 of coastal Burial sites: see also Cemeteries; Mortuary Kwale Ware, 75, 78 practices; Tombs; Tumulus burials Tana Tradition, 75-76, 78 Refuge Period, Zimbabwe, 256 Triangular Incised Ware, 75-76, 78 Butchery practices colonoware, 224, 234 at Modderfontein dynamite factory site, from Gao, Mali, 176-177 South Africa, 360-361, 365 from , 263, 264 of Tswana, 312-320, 321, 378 Hellenistic/Romano-Egyptian, 39 Bweyorere, Uganda, 134 from Kilwa, Husuni Modelled Ware, 106, 108, 109, 1\2 Cabral, Pedro Alvares, 103, 1\6, 1\8 Red Painted Ware, 106, 108, 109, 1\2 Calabar, pottery figurines from, 212 Wealed Ware, 106, 108, 109, 1\2 Calabar Museum, 189 from Lower Nubia, 50 Cambridge History ofAfrica, 132-133 Meroitic, 38-40, 41, 45 Campbell , John, 280, 281, 284 as grave goods, 42 Candomble, 230 from Modderfonte in dynamite factory site, Cape Delgado, , 96 South Africa, 361-363, 366 Cape of Good Hope, Castle of, 10 Moloko, 273, 284 , South Africa, 10, 14 passive model of production of, 105-106 Capitalism, as historical archaeology theme, of Refuge Period, Zimbabwe, 256 379 Romano-Egyptian, 45 Cattle resources Sotho-Tswana, 273, 282 of Bakwena people, 303 Tana Tradition, 75-76, 78, 106, 107, 108 of Tswana people West African, 232-235 butchery practices, 312-320, 321, 378 Chademana mayo people, 258 Central Cattle Pattern model of, 305 Chake Chake, Pemba, Tanzania, 137 gender-based control of, 304-305 Chambani Mjini, Pemba, Tanzania, 151 herd management strategies, 310-312 Charleston, South Carolina, U.S., 219 Ntsweng faunal assemblages of, 306-322 Chikede gumbo people, 259 396 Index

Chirape, 259 Cross River monoliths, Nigeria (cont.) Chittick, Neville, 17, 180-181, 182 of Ukelle and Nsadop, 194-200, 203-205 Chizhou Hill site, Zimbabwe, 246-255, 260 world perspective on, 213-214 archaeology of, 250- 255 relationship with oral tradition s, 264-265 Dahalo people , 62, 67, 68 ceramics, 250, 251-252, 254-255, 256-257 Daima, Nigeria , 171 cultural historical importance of, 260-261 Daiso (Thagicu) speakers, 64 environmental setting, 246-250 Danyi plateau, Togo, 226 location and local geograph y, 246, 247 Dassa, Benin, 231 Nemarundwi nzou dynasty and, 246 Daud (Sultan of Kilwa), 113 nzou totem and, 259 Detal Okwa, 196-197 Chombo, Kenya, 75, 76, 77 Dewe shumba people, 259 Chonyi, King of, 69 Diba people, 145-146 Chony i people, 68, 70 Diet, effect of tributary demand s on, 226 : see also Missionaries Difaqane , 14; see also Tswana people, in medieval Nubia, 53 difaqane/ period in 19th and 20th century Africa, 23 , 64, 68-69, 70 in northern Africa, 21- 22 subgroups of, 68 Chuka people, 63 Diop, Cheikh Anta, 171-172 Chwaka, Pernba, Tanzania, 104, 136, 137, 141 , Direct historical approach, 272-274 142, 144, 151, 153 criticism of, 275 Cloth : see also Textile production Dissonance, in African historical archaeology, as tribute, 70 9, 10 as West-African trade good, 227-228 Dithakong, South Africa, 280, 281 Colonialism abandonment of, 287 in Africa, 18-20 battle of, 286 anthropology of, 163, 164 Dogon people, settlement organization among , resistance to, 19-20 3 global,379 Dombotombo Hill site, Zimb abwe, 255, 256 " Colonial justification" model, 170 Dongola Reach, Sudan, 52-53, 54 Colonoware, 224, 234 Dure site, Zimbabwe, 255 Come, Benin, 232 Duruma people, 64, 68 , 136, 141 Correia, Manoel, 356 East African Coast, Swahili people of, 180• Court traditions, 7, 9 183 Creole cultures, 237 East Coast Fever, 351 Creole language, 220 Eastern Africa : see also specific countries Crops, West African , 225-226 historical sources related to, 131-134 Cross River monoliths, Nigeria, 17, 189-217, Kanbalu , 132 382 Eating, symbolic significance of, 302 communicative and symboli c significan ce of, Egypt 206-209 Aswan Dam, 53 cultural ecology of, 203-205 bread-and-beer culture of, 40 as cultural history, 192, 194, 197, 203 in Kilwa gold trade, 97 geographical location, 190, 192 Kushite domination of, 35 geological and environmental context, 192• Ottoman Empire in, 53-54 193 as source of African culture , 171-172 of Ikom, 192-194, 213 XXVth dynasty, 35 relationship with circum-Barnenda regio n Egyptology orientation, of African historical lineage stones, 209- 211 archaeology, 19 Index 397

Ekoi-speaking people, 193 Graffiti, 24-25 Ekpe masking tradition, 212 Gray, John, 134 Ekulogom, Nigeria, 190 Great Lakes region, Africa, 3, 12 Elmina, Ghana, 129-130,231 steel production in, 387 Emangabe, Nigeria, Cross River monoliths of, Great Zimbabwe 190, 210-211 faunal assemblages from, 301-302, 322 , 63 gold trade-related expansion of, 96 Empire of Ghana, Almoravid conquest of, relationship with Kilwa, 97-98 168-169 , 286 Encyclopedia of Precolonial Africa (Vogel ed.), Gurajena dziva dynasty, 258 380 Gurajena people, 255-256, 259-260 Ethiopia, amhari texts of, 7 Gurajena village, 246, 254, 260 Ethnographic data, in African historical archaeology, 269-270, 271 Haggard, Rider, 189 Eurocentrism, of African historical ,9 archaeology, 2, 7-8, II, 12, 182,220, Hananwa people, in the Maleboho War of 379-380 1894, 326-345 Expedition to Beriqua, 281 Chief Leboho, 327 oral histories of, 326, 333-334 Faras, Nubia, 46 post-war indenture, 340-341 Ferreira, Pedro, 152 praise poems of, 338-339, 344 Fewkes, J. W., 272 rock art of, 16, 341-344 Flora (slave), 384 Harris, W. c., 280 Fogaca, Pero Ferreira, 117-118 Haruni, 142, 153 , , Kenya, 11,70, 131 Hassan bin Ahmed, 69 Healers, African-American, 230 Gabati, Upper Nubia, 19, 38, 39, 41 Histoire archeologique, 376 Gama, Vasco da, 91, 116-117 Historical archaeology(ies), African, 375-391 Gambia, 224 Africans' attitudes toward, 23-26, 385 Gao, Mali, 164, 167, 172-180 Afrocentrist approach in, 171-172 Arab historical sources about, 172-174 , 179• analogous relationships in, 270 180 ArabiclIslamic written historical sources in, archaeology of, 172-180 11-12, 13, 183 Gadei site, 174, 176, 178 "city-centric" approach in, 163 Gao Ancien site, 174, 176-178 definitions of, 6-8, 379-380, 385-386 Gao-Saney site, 174-176, 177, 178 development of, 3-6 Muslim presence in, 174-175, 177-179 direct historical approach in, 272-274 proto-Songhai origin of, 176-177 criticism of, 275 Gato, Zimbabwe, 255 Early Iron Age, 380 Gede, Kenya, 97, 146 Egyptology orientation of, 19 Gender roles, in modem African societies, 9 ethnographic data in, 12-13 Geographical Dictionary (Yakut), 132, 152 Eurocentric orientation of, 2, 7-8, II, 12, Geography (Ptolemy), 132 182, 220, 379-380 Georgia, U.S., African-American bead artefacts European historical sources in, 7 from, 229 goals of, 381-382 Giryama people, 68, 69 homologous relationships in, 270 Glassware, from Modderfontein, South Africa, increasing importance of, 1-2 363-364,366 Iron Age, 2, 134, 380 Gold Coast, West Africa, 221-222, 224, 227 lineage histories in, 7 "Govera" people, 259 Islamic orientation of, 11-12 398 Index

Historical archaeology(ies), African (cont.) Islam, in Africa (cont.) non-European historical sources in, 2-3, 7 in Ghana, 168-169 oral traditions in, 7, 12-13 influence on Arab historical sources, 165 previous, 11-15 in modem Africa, 23 progress as focus of, 381-382, 386-387 in northern Africa, 21-22 regional characteristics of, 129-134 in Pemba, Tanzania, 135-136, 137-138, 144 relationship with Shi'i Islam, 101, 112 American historical archaeology, 6-7, of Sultans of Kilwa, 100, 101 376-378 , 101, 112, 169 anthropology, 6, 381, 382 of Swahili people, 127 history, 381, 382 in Western Sahel, 179 modernity, 8 prehistoric archaeology, 388 Jamestown settlement, Virginia, U.S., 93 relevance of, 380-384 Jebel Adda, Lower Nubia, 49 during 1960s, 381 Jenne-jeno, Mali, 170-171 during 1970s, 381-382 , 68, 70 themes in, 15-23 Digo and Rumba clans of, 68 alternative histories, 16-18 , South Africa: see also capitalism, 379 Modderfontein dynamite factory site, colonial order and resistance, 18-20 Transvaal, South Africa creation of modem Africa, 21-23 1887-1896,347 theoretical orientations of, 8-11 Joubert, Piet, 328-329, 330, 332, 340 dissonance, 9, 10-11 multivocality, 9-10, 16, 17 Kadada, Sudan, 42 Historical records, dissonance with Kaditshwene, South Africa, 280, 286 archaeological records, 9, 10-11 Kadiyaru people, 68 Hoodoo, 230 , 63, 64, 68 Houlouf cemetery site, Cameroon, 231 Kanbalu, , 132 Hueda, Benin, 129-130,226,231 Kaole, Tanzania, 103 Karagwe, Tanzania, iron smelting in, 3 Ibadis Kharijite sect, 169 Karanga people, 243, 256, 257, 258-260, 265 Ibn al Husain, Ali (Sultan of Kilwa), 110 Karanog, Lower Nubia, 46 , 91, 97-98, 100-101, 102, 104, 110, Kashef administration, of Ottoman Egypt, 53- 112, 113, 132, 133, 166-167 54 Ibn-Buzurg, 132 Kauma people, 64, 68 Ibn Khaldun, 168 Kawkaw (Gao), Mali, 172, 173-174 Ibrahim (Sultan of Kilwa) settlements, of Mijikenda people, 64-65, conflict with Rukn ai-Din, 118-119 66,71-73,79-81 gold trade and, 116-117 Sacred Groves of, 71, 80 interactions with the Portuguese, 116-119 Kenya Ideology, definition of, 325 Bantu-speaking people of, 62 Igbo Isaiah, Nigeria, 269 Chombo, 75, 76, 77 Ikom, Nigeria, Cross River monoliths of, 192- Gede, 97, 146 194,213 Kiluluma,64 Incan Empire, 226 ,64 Ingrams, W. H., 144, 147 Mossequejos and, 69 Iron production, 228-229 Portuguese trade with, 103-104 Iron-working, 74, 386-387 Manda, 97, 180-181, 182 Irrigation, saqia water-wheel, 45, 46-47, 49 Mijikenda people's traditional histories of, Islam, in Africa, 11 59-89 Index 399

Kenya (cant.) Kilwa, Tanzania (cant.) Mombasa, 69-70, 74, 97,103,147-148 Sultans of (cant.) Fort Jesus, 11, 70, 131 coin minting by, 97-98, 101 Mbaraki Pillar, 150-151 Daud,113 population, 117 gold trade and, 91, 96, 97-98, 102, 103- Mwangea Hill, 68 104 Oromo migration into, 70-71 Ibrahim, 95, 116-119 Takwa, 146 Islamic religion of, 100, 101 urban of, 60 loss of power, 114-115, 118 Kerma, Nubia, 33 Portuguese interactions with, 91-94 Kgalushi Maleboho, 330, 331, 338, 340 relationship with Kilwa's surrounding Kgatla-Pedi cluster, 284 area, 110-111 Kgotla, 304, 305 relationship with royal family and Khama III, 278, 288-289 merchant class, 114-115 //Khauxa !nas site, , 14 Kilwa Chronicles, 11 , 94-95, 96, 98, 100, 101, Khoikhoi society, 14 110, 112, 113, 114, 115, 119, 133-134 Khoisan Kingston, Jamaica, 219 healing rituals of, 273-274 Kirkman, James, 131, 180, 182 trance dancing among, 273-274 Kolo people, 282 Khoisan speakers, 305 Kongo-Angola region, 229 Kibi, Chief, 330, 339 Koumbi Saleh, Mauritania, 167, 168-169, 170, Kichokochwe, Pernba, Tanzania, 141, 143, 144, 179 145 Kruger, Paul, 328-329, 334, 335, 338, 340, Kidder, Alfred, 272 341,350 , 63 Kush, Kingdom of, Meroitic State of, 33, 35- Kilio people, 67 42 Kiluluma, Kenya, 64 ceramics, 38-40 Kilwa, Tanzania, 91, 92, 132, 146 diet, 40 Arab historical records of, 91 disintegration of, 40-41 architecture, 109 in Lower Nubia, 43-51, 55 conflict with Mafia, 110-111 metal-working technology, 40 Great Mosque of, 23, 98-99,111-112 , 113 monarchy, 37 collapse of, 113 pyramids, 40-41 rebuilding of, 114-115 rituals of consumption, 40 Husuni Kubwa center of, 98-100, 111-113 textile production, 40 Mahadali dynasty and, 98, 118 trade, 37 oral history of, 133 wine drinking, 40 population, 117 KwaGandaganda , South Africa, 274 Portuguese arrival at, 92 Kwena ba Modimosana ba Mmatau people, relationship with Mornbasa, 117 283 settlement of, 95 Shirazi Dynasty and, 96 Land Act (South Africa), 357-358 Sultans of, 17,91-123, 384 Landscape history, 388 ai-Hasan bin Sulaiman, 93, 95, 96, 98- Langa people, 328 101, 102-109 , 110-111, 112 Lead bale seals, 227-228 ai-Hasan bin Talut, 98 Leboho, Raisibe, 338 Ali ibn al Husain, 110 Leboho, Thomas, 326, 333-334, 337, 344, 378 Amir Muhammed, 114, 118 Lemos, Duarte de, 52 ceramic production and, 104-109, 112 Leopard Society, 213 cloth production and, 103-104, 110 Lepalong, South Africa, 283 400 Index

Levi Jordan Plantation, Texas, U.S., 230 Mali Linguistics, historical, 386 Empire of, 166 Literacy, 23 Gao, 164, 167, 172-180 Livingstone, David, 9, 23, 303 Arab historical sources about, 172-174, London Missionary Society, 280-281 , 286, 303 179-180 Looms, West African, 228 archaeology of, 172-180 Lotlhakane , 280 Gadei area, 174, 176, 178 Lovedu people, 328 Gao Ancien site, 174, 176-178 Lower Nubia, 42-44 Gao-Saney site, 174-176, 177, 178 Argin,49 Muslim presence in, 174-175 , 177-179 Ballana,49 proto-Songhai origin of, 176-177 Bam el Hajar, 47-48 Jenneieno, 170-171 Jebel Adda, 49 Timbuktu, 178 Karanog,46 Moroccan administration system in, 170 Mahas-Sikoot region, 53, 54 Malindi, Kenya, 64 Meroitic, 43-51, 55 Mossequejos and, 69 post-Meroitic, agriculture in, 45, 46-47, 49 Portuguese trade with, 103-104 Lungo people, 68 Manda, Kenya, 97, 180-181, 182 Mansa Sulayman, 166 , ceramic styles from, 106 Mantatee people, 286 Mafia, conflict with Kilwa, 1I0-1ll Manyika people, 243, 244 Mafingo pots, 146-147, 148 Mapene, Chief, 330 Magenge people, 141 Mapunda, Bertram, 142, 144 Mahdali dynasty, and Kilwa, 98, 118 Masebe, Chief, 330 Mahas-Sikoot region, Lower Nubia, 53, 54 Mata, Mzee Abdala Hamad Sirnai, 142-143, Mahe people, 231 144,145 Mahonje tradition, 258 Material culture Maize, as West African crop, 225-226 African historical archaeology of, 15, 17-18 Maize beer, 226 effect of colonization on, 18-19 , 64 as " text without words," 378 Makuria, Sudan, 52-53 Matlala, Chief, 330 Malaria, 276 Matseokwane, Chief, 329, 339 Maleboho, Chief, 327, 330, 331, 338, 340 Mauch, Karl, 246, 260, 261 Maleboho War of 1894, Transvaal, South Mauritania, Koumbi Saleh, 167, 168-169, 170, Africa, 16, 326-344, 378, 387 179 Blouberg battlefield of, 326, 327-330, 332• Mavhiringidze, Zimbabwe, 246-247 334, 338, 343 Mavindidze, Zimbabwe, 259 Hanawa people's participation in, 326-345 Mazambara Hills site, Zimbabwe, 255, 256, Chief Leboho, 327 258-259 oral histories of, 326, 333-334 Mbaraki Pillar, Mombasa, Kenya, 150-151 post-war indenture, 340-341 , 63 praise poem about, 338-339, 344 Mbuyuni, 75, 76, 77 rock art about, 16, 341-344 Meat: see also Butchery practices photographs of, 339-340 cultural significance of, 302 (ZAR) forces distribution patterns of, 317-320 participation in, 327-331, 332 gender factors in, 318-320 Malaboch Extinguisher of, 334-337, 338, MeroelMeroitic State, 33, 35-42 340-341 ceramics, 38-40 written documentation of, 330-334, 338, diet, 40 340-341 disintegration of, 40-41 Index 401

MeroelMeroitic State (cant.) Modderfontein dynamite factory site, in Lower Nubia, 42-51 , 55 Transvaal, South Africa (cont.) metal-working technology, 40 ceramics, 361-363, 366 monarchy, 37 establishment of, 350 mortuary culture, 38 faunal assemblages, 358-361, 365, 378 pyramids, 40-41 Fuse Dump, 356, 358-359, 360, 361-362 rituals of consumption, 40 General Works Managers House, 352-353 textile production, 40 glassware, 363-364, 366 trade, 37 Italy Village, 354, 355-356, 358-359 wine drinking, 40 as "liminal" space, 351 , 63 location, 348, 350-368 Meubah,210 Sophie' s Place, 356-358, 359, 360, 361• Mfecane, 258, 259; see also Tswana people, 364, 365, 366, 367 difaqane/mfecane period Modernity Mgombani, Kenya, 75 in Africa, 21-23 uMgungundlovu , South Africa, 310 as historical archaeology theme, 379 Michiweni, Pemba, Tanzania, 141, 144 material expressions of, 21 Middle Nile region, historical archaeology of, Modipe Hill, Botswana, 284, 285 33-58 Moffat, Robert, 280-281 , 286 Lower Nubia, 42-51 , 55 , Somalia, 97, 132 Kushite-Meroitic settlement of, 43-51 cloth production in, 104, 105 Ottoman presence in, 53-54 Moilatha, Hananwa capital, 330, 338-339 relationship with Egyptology, 33-34 Molepolole, Botswana, 24, 306, 318 Mijikenda Digo people, 62 Moloko society, 291 Mijikenda Duruma people, 63-64 Molopo River, 280 Mijikenda people, 17 Mombasa, Kenya, 69-70, 74, 97, 103, 147-148 Digo subgroups of, 68 Fort Jesus, II, 70, 131 migration of, 60, 62, 63 Mbaraki Pillar, 150-151 settlement history of, 73-78, 387 population, 117 archaeological evidence, 73-81 , 79-83 Morant, ' Breaker,' 340 dissonant sources about, 65-73 Mortuary practices Kaya settlements, 64-65, 66, 71-73 , 79• African-American, 230 81 Meroitic, 19,38,41-42 oral traditions of, 59-61, 62-65, 79-83 West-African, 230-231 Sacred Groves, 71, 80 Mosques origin of, 60-61 , 62-64, 65-73 Kilwa, Tanzania, 98-99, 111-112, 113 critique of, 65-73 Koumbi Saleh, Mauritania, 168-169 tribal identity of, 66 Pemba, Tanzania, 137-138, 139, 141, 142- Missionaries, 18, 19, 23, 291; see also London 143, 144, 145 Missionary Society Mossequejos people, 69, 70 Mkame Ndume, 16-17, 140-145, 147-148, 151, Mozambique, , 98-99, 102, 117 152-154, 155, 384 Mozungulos people, 69-70 Mkia wa Ngombe, Pemba, Tanzania, 104, 151 Msegeju people, 143 Mkumbuu , Pemba, Tanzania, 152 Mshirazi people, 143 Mmatshetshele mountain, South Africa, 283 Msuka Mjini, Pemba, Tanzania, 144, 145, 151 Modderfontein dynamite factory site, Mtambwe Mkuu, Pemba, Tanzania, 104, 136 Transvaal, South Africa, 378 Mtangani, Pemba, Tanzania, 141, 144, 151 artisans' villages, 352-353, 354-356, 358• Mteza, Kenya, 75, 76, 77 359 Mtsengo, Kenya, 75, 76, 77 butchery practices, 360-361 , 365 Muhammed Rukn aI-Din, 118 402 Index

Mukaranga, 260 Nigeria (cont.) Multivocality, in African historical Cross River monoliths (cont.) archaeology, 9-10, 16, 17 geographical location, 190, 192 Musawwarat, Sudan, 39-40 geological and environmental context, Musikavanhu , 258 192-193 Muslims of Ikom, 192-194,213 in Gao, Mali, 174-175, 177-179 relationship with circum-Bamenda region Shi'i , 101, 112 lineage stones, 209-211 Sunni, 101, 112, 169 of Ukelle and Nsadop, 194-200, 203• Mutapa State, 258, 259, 260 205 relationship with Zimbabwe, 14, 246, 260, world perspective on, 213-214 262, 263 Daima, 171 Mwangea Hill, Kenya, 68, 73 Ekulogorn, 190 Mwari culture, 257 Federal Antiquities Service, 190 Mwini people, 62 Igbo Isaiah, 269 Mzee Abdala Hamad Simai Mata, 142-143 , National Museum, Lagos, 190 144,145 Nkum people, 193 Mzilikazi, 283, 286 Nnam people, 193, 204-205, 208, 212 Noba, 38,40-41, 49, 51-52 Napata, Sudan, 33 NobataiINoubades people, 51-52 National Museum, Lagos, Nigeria, 190 Nobel Dynamite Trust, 350 Ndagoni, Pemba, Tanzania, 144 Nomoli,189 Ndara people, 68 Nova, Joao da, 116, 118 Ndebele people, 256, 260, 265, 282, 283, 288- Nsadop, Nigeria, Cross River monoliths of, 289 194-200, 203-205 Nde people, 193 Nselle people, 193 Ndirongwe, Zimbabwe, 255 Nta people, 193, 201-202, 204, 205, 207, 208, Ndo nwechii, 210 212 Ndzundza-Ndebele people, 328 Ntinta, Nigeria, Cross River monoliths of, 194 Nebeute , 210 Ntoon chiefs, 194,201-202,205 Nebrokpa, Nigeria, Cross River monoliths of, Ntsweng, Botswana, 4-5, 19, 23-26, 27 194 abandonment of, 305, 306 Neel, Fred, 340, 341 Bakwena people of, 22 Nemarundwi dynasty, 246, 263 cemeteries, 25 Nemarundwi nzou -samanyanga dynasty, 258, establishment of, 305 260 faunal assemblages from, 306-322 Nemarundwi people, 259-260 butchery practices analysis of, 312-320 Ngara totem, 259 from Kgotla area, 35, 307, 308-309, 311, Nguni Diaspora, 244 312, 313, 314, 316, 319, 320 , 244, 265, 281 taphonomic analysis of, 312-317, 321 Central Cattle Pattern and, 274 tooth wear and eruption analysis of, 310- Nguni-speaking people, 273 311 Ngwana, Pemba, Tanzania, 152 Nubaei people, 51-52 Nigeria Nuba people, 51-52 Agba, 193, 208 Nubia, 33-58, 380; see also Lower Nubia; Cross River monoliths, 17, 189-217,382 Upper Nubia communicative and symbolic significance Egyptology-oriented archaeology of, 11 of,206-209 Faras,46 cultural ecology of, 203-205 influence of Ottoman Empire on, 53-54, 55 as cultural history, 192, 194, 197,203 Kerma,33 Index 403

Nubia (cant.) Pemba , Tanzania (cant.) medieval, 47, 51-54 Portuguese presence in, 152 Christianity in, 53 Pujini, 135-155 development of, 41 architecture, 146-147, 148-150, 151, 155 post-med ieval, 51-54 description , 137-139 Nubian language, 53, 54 historical information about, 139- 143 Nubians, cultural identities of, 51-54 majingo pots from, 146- 147, 148 Nyowerwai , 259 Mkame Ndume and. 16-17, 140-145, Nzou totem, 259 147- 148, 151, 152-154, 155 Swahili origin of, 146- 148, 155 Ogoja, Nigeria, 213 underground shrine, 139, 142-143, 145, Ogomogom , Nigeria, Cross River monol iths 149-151 of, 195-200, 203-205 Ras Mkumbuu, 104, 144, 151, 181 Olifantspoort, South Africa, 282 settlement of, 127 Oppida, 50 Shamiani, 151 Oral traditions Shengej uu, 151 multivocality of, 9-10 villages and towns, 127- 128 as non-Islamic ideology. 165 written documentation of, 126, 128 , 60, 62, 64, 67, 70-71 Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, 131 -132 Oti, Obi Paul, 199 Peru, Incan Empire , 226 Otto. Johannes Danie l Jacobus, 356 Phalatswe, Botswana, 19, 275 -278, 288-289, Ottoman Empire, influence on Nubia. 53-54, 291 55 abandonment of, 276 Oudepost, South Africa, 385 ..African" church of, 23 Ouidah, Benin, 229, 232, 233, 235 as Bangwato capital, 275 Oycngi, Nigeria, Cross River monoliths of, drink ing water supply of, 276, 277 207,208 establishment of, 275- 276 historical documentary sources about, 276 Palapye: see Phalatswe, Botswana layout/soc ial comp osition of, 276, 277, 278 Pangani river valley, Tanzania, 3 size of, 277. 278, 281 Papaya, 225 Philology, 33 , 63 Pliny, 50 Pate Chronicle, 133 Pokomo , Pemba, Tanzania, 152 Peanut s. 225 , 60, 62, 67 , 328 Port au Prince, Haiti, 219 meat distribution practices of, 317 Portuguese Pemba, Tanzania, 125-162, 385 in Eastern Africa, 131 architecture, 127-128 interactions with associatio n with , 127 Mozungulos people, 69-70 ceram ic styles from, 106, 107, 108 Sultans of Kilwa, 91-94 Chambani Mjini, lSI, 152 in Pemba, Tanzania, 152 Chwaka, 104. 136, 137. 141 . 142, 151, 153 trade with Malind i, Kenya, 103-104 history of, 135- 137 Potato, historical importance of, 225 kingdoms of, 152 Pottery: see Ceramics location . 126, 127 Powhatan , 93 Mkia wa Ngombe, 104, 151 Progress, as focus of African archaeo logy, Msuka Mjini, 144, 145, 151 381-382, 386-387 Mtambwe Mkuu, 104, 136 Proto-Kwena-Hurutshe, habitat ion of Modipe Mtangani, 151 Hill, 284 oral traditions of, 126 Proto-Songhai origin, of Gao, Mali, 176-177 404 Index

Ptolemy, 132 Sayyid Rush ibn Sultan Hussain, 114-115 Pueblos, 272 Sebele II, 9, 24-25 Pujini : see Pemba, Tanzania Segeju people, 63-64, 67, 68, 69, 149 Pyramids Segotshane, 290 Meroitic, Lower Nubia, 38, 41 Senegal, Takrur Kingdom, 168 Western African versions of, l71-172 Senegambia, 229 Serowe, Botswana, 276 Qanbalu, 132, 136 Shambaa people, 63 Qasr Ibrirn, 53, 54 Shamiani, Pemba, Tanzania, 151 Qustul, Lower Nubia, 46, 49 Shanga, Kenya, 97, 182 ceramics from, 106, 107, 108 Rabai people, 63-64, 64, 68 Sharecropping, in South Africa, 351, 357 Rae, Colin, 326-327, 330, 332 Shaw, Thurston, 269 Rainmaking rituals , 289 Shengejuu, Pemba, Tanzania, 151 Ramodike, Nelson , 338 Shi'i Islam, 101, 112 Rand Daily Mail, 351 Shimba people, 68 Ras Mkumbuu, Pernba, Tanzania, 104, 144, Shiraz , Persia , as Swahili people 's origin site, 151, 181 59,61 Ratshatsha: see Maleboho, Chief Shirazi Dynasty, relationship with Kilwa, Reid, Andrew, 3, 5 Tanzania, 96 Rhapta, 131-132, 136 Shona culture, 244 Ribe people, 64, 68, 70 , 245-246, 264, 265, 291 Rice-growing, 212 Shoshong, Botswana, 288-289 Rinderpest, 305, 351 Shungwaya, 59-61 Ritual activities, African-Ame rican, 230 as Mijikenda homeland, 60-61, 62-64, 65-73 Rock art criticism of, 65-73 Hananwa, of Maleboho War of 1894, 16, oral traditions of, 59-65, 79 341-344 as Swahili homeland, 59-60 Khoisan , 273-274 Shungwaya people, of Somalia, 62 Rombo, Kenya, 64 Sierra Leone Royal court tradition s, 12 Bunce Island, 223 Rozvi people, 243, 258, 259, 265 nomoli of, 189 Rozvi state, Zimbabwe, 262 Siwa, 149-150 Rufiji Delta, Tanzania, 132 "Slave Coast": see Bight of Benin Rukn al-Din , Mohammed, 118 in Cape Town, South Africa, 14 Sabaki languages, 127 in Western Sahel, 166 Sabak i River, Kenya, 62, 64 Slave trade, trans-Atlantic, on the West African Sabaki-speaking people, 60 coast, 14-15 , 129-130 Sahel: see also Western Sahel African-derived cultures spread by, 219-220, historical archaeology in, 163, 164-165 223-224 Sai Island, Sudan, 53, 54 African societal change and, 231-232 Salvador, Brazil, 219 effect on agricultural production, 227 Sanhaja nomads, 168 interpretation of, 230-232 Santeria, 230 Soba, Sudan, 52-53 Saqia water-wheel irrigation, 45, 46-47, 49 Society for Historical Archaeology Savalou, Benin, 231 " Archaeologist as Storyteller" symposium, Savi, Benin, 223, 224, 226, 227, 228, 229, 231, 384 232-236 Newsletter, 237 pottery artefacts from, 232-235 Sofala , Mozamb ique, 98-99, 102, 117 Index 405

Sotho-Tswana-speaking peoples, 281 South Africa (cont.) Somalia Modderfontein dynamite factory site, Bantu-speaking people of, 62 Transvaal (cont.) Bur Gao, 67 ceramics, 361-363, 366 Mogadishu, 97, 132 establishment of, 350 cloth production in, 104, 105 faunal assemblages, 358-361, 365, 378 Shungwaya people of, 62 Fuse Dump, 356, 358-359, 360, 361-362 Songhai people, 167, 170, 172, 177, 179, 387 General Works Managers House, 352-353 Sonntag, Christoph, 330, 332 glassware, 363-364, 366 Sorcerers, African-American, 230 Italy Village, 354, 355-356, 358-359 , 259 as " liminal" space, 351 Sotho-Tswana, settlement layout and social location, 348, 350-368 organization of, 274 Sophie's Place, 356-358, 359, 360, 361• Sotho-Tswana-speaking people, 273 364, 365, 366, 367 South Africa, 5-6, 325-346 South African Factory for Explosives Limited, Broederstroom,274 350 Cape Town, 10, 14 South African War, 351 Dithakong, 280, 281 South Carolina, U.S., African-American bead abandonment of, 287 artefacts from, 229 battle of, 286 : see also specific countries European colonialism in, 378, 379 direct historical approach to, 272-274 gold rush, 347 critcism of, 275 industrial revolution, 347; see also historical sources about, 131 Modderfontein dynamite factory Spear, Thomas, 60, 62, 63-64, 65, 68-69, 70• Kaditshwene, 280 71,82 KwaGandaganda,274 Steward, Julian, 272 Land Act, 357-358 Storytelling, in historical archaeology, 384• Lepalong, 283 387, 388 Lephalala basin rock shelters, 273 Sudan Maleboho War of 1894, 16, 326-344, 378 Arabic historical sources of, 165-169 Blouberg battlefield of, 326, 327-330, Dongola Reach, 52-53, 54 332-334, 338, 343 Kadada,42 Chief Leboho in, 327 Meroitic culture in, 42-51 , 55 Hanawa people's participation in, 326• Sultan al-Hasan bin Sulaiman (of Kilwa), 93, 345 95,96,98-101, 102-109, 1I0-1ll, 112 Malaboch Extinguisher accounts of, 334- Sultan al-Hasan bin Talut (of Kilwa), 98 337, 338, 340-341 Sultan Ali ibn al Husain (of Kilwa), 110 oral histories of, 326, 333-334 Sultan Amir Muhammed (of Kilwa), 114, 118 photographs of, 339-340 Sultan Daud (of Kilwa), 113 praise poem about, 338-339, 344 Sultan Hassan bin Ahmed, 69 South African Republic (ZAR) forces Sultan Ibrahim (of Kilwa), 95, 116-119 participation in, 327-331, 332 Sunni Islam, 101, 112, 169 written documentation of, 330-337, 338, Swahili Chronicle, 133-134 340-341 , stone town sites of, II mining camps, 21 Swahili culture Modderfontein dynamite factory site, indigenous origin of, 182 Transvaal, 378 non-African origin of, 180-182 artisans' villages, 352-353, 354-356, , of Swahili coastal peoples, 127 358-359 Swahili people butchery practices, 360-361 , 365 ArabiclPersian origin of, 59 406 Index

Swahili people (cont.) Ta'rikhs, 130 Digo,70 Tegdaoust, Mauritania, 167, 170 historical archaeology of, 180-183 Textile production interaction with Arab traders, 60 Meroitic, 40 Islam of, 127 in West Africa, during trans-Atlantic slave Kiliti, 70 trade, 227-228 Kilindini, 70 Tharaka people, 63 purported Arabic influence on, 128, 133 Thomas, Cyrus, 272 relationship with the Mijikenda people, 66 Timbuktu, Mali, 178 Shungwaya origin of, 59-60 Moroccan administration system in, 170 trading centers of, 180-181 Tiwi people, 68 , 259 Tobacco pipes from Timbuktu, 178 , 60, 62, 67, 68 West African, 235-236 Takrur Kingdom, Senegal, 168 Togo Takumbeng royal cleansing cult, 210 Danyi plateau, 226 Takwa, Kenya, 146 fetish markets of, 230 Tana River, 60, 62 Tomatoes, 225 Tanzania Tombs, in Gao, Mali, 175, 176, 177, 178 historical sources about, 131-132 Torwa state, 262 Karagwe, iron smelting in, 3 Treaty of Berlin, 19-20 Pemba, 125-162, 385 Tribute, dietary effects of, 226 architecture, 127-128 Trouillot, Michel-Rolph,9, 17, 272 association with Zanzibar, 127 Tswana people ceramic styles from, 106, 107, 108 in Bechuanaland Protectorate, 303 Chake Chake, 137 in British Bechuanaland, 303 Chambani Mjini, 151, 152 cattle resources of Chwaka, 104, 136, 137, 141,142, 151, 153 butchery practices, 312-320, 321, 378 history of, 135-137 Central Cattle Pattern model, 305 Kichokochwe, 141, 143, 144, 145 gender-based control of, 304-305 kingdoms of, 152 herd management strategies, 310-312 location, 126, 127 Ntsweng faunua1 assemblages of, 306- Mkame Ndume and, 140-145, 147-148 , 322 151, 152-154, 155 post-butchery body parts distribution Mkia wa Ngombe, 104, 151 practices, 317-320, 321-322 Msuka Mjini, 144, 145, 151 rinderpest epidemic in, 305 Mtarnbue Mkuu, 104, 136 as status indicator, 303-304 Mtangani, 151 taphonomic analysis, 312-317 , 321 oral traditions of, 126 dijaqane/mjecane period, 278-285, 286 Portuguese presence in, 152 domestic architecture, 21-22 Pujini, 135-155 European historical sources about, 303 Ras Mkumbuu, 104, 144, 151, 181 historical continuity of, 291-292 settlement of, 127 initiation rituals of, 305 Sharniani, 151 merafe, 290 Shengejuu, 151 missionaries' influence on, 18, 19 villages and towns, 127-128 oral traditions of, 273 written documentation of, 126, 128 settlements of, 269-299 Rufiji Delta, 132 abandonment of, 280, 281-282, 286-288 steel production in, 387 effect of drought on, 286-288 Swahili settlements, 61 as land use strategy, 287 Index 407

Tswana people (cant.) West Africa (cant.) settlements of (cant.) Americanist historical archaeology of, 129, location of, 279 130 relocation of, 287, 288-289, 304 blacksmithing in, 228-229 size of, 280 "direct historical" approach to, 130 societies, 14 effect of European trade on, 226-228 trade, 303 food crops, 225-226 Tswapong Hills, rainmaking rituals associated Gold Coast, 221-222, 224, 227 with, 289 historical sources about, 130 Tumbatu, Zanzibar, Tanzania, 98 influence on , 230-231 Tumulus burials, Meroitic, Lower Nubia, 38, 41 iron production in, 228-229 Twaka, Pemba, Tanzania, 152 Islamic conversions in, 130 mortuary practices of, 230-231 Uganda oral histories of, 130 Bigo,134 societal changes in, 231-232 Bweyorere, 134 textile production in, 227-228 oral traditions in, 134 Western Sahel, 11, 164 Ukelle, Nigeria, Cross River monoliths of, Arab historical sources about, 165-169 194-200, 203-205 about Almoravid conquest of Ghana, 168- Ukoma, Pemba, Tanzania, 152 169 University of Botswana, 4 about Gao, Mali, 172-174, 179-180 Archaeology Unit, 5-6 "Arab stimulus paradigm" of, 170-171 University of Nigeria, Nsukka, 189, 190, 194 bias in, 166-167 University of the Witwatersrand, 334 "colonial justification" model of, 170 Upper Nubia, Gabati, 19, 38, 39, 41 Gao, Mali case study of, 172-180 "Upstreaming," 272 Islam in, 179 Usambara Mountains, Tanzania, 64 population centers of, 167 Ushemakota , 259 trade routes of, 167 Utenzi, Pemba, 152 Wine drinking, in Meroitic culture, 40

Venda people, 328 Yakiit,152 Vitongoje, Tanzania, 141, 144 Yams, 204, 226 volkstem, De, 330 Voodoo, 230 Zanj, Book of the, 65-66, 67, 68 Vredefort Dome region, South Africa, 282 Zanj, land of, 132 Zanj Sea, 135 Waata people, 62 Zanzibar Wanyika people, 69 association with Pemba, Tanzania, 127 Wanzirai, 259 Zanzibar Antiquities, 136, 149 Warfare, in West Africa, 231 Zanzibar Survey, 136-137 Wata people, 68 Zidaka, 147, 148 Waterberg, South Africa, 282-283 Zigua people, 63 Weaving implements West African, 228 Zimbabwe, 243-267, 243-267; see also Great West Africa, 129-130; see also specific Zimbabwe countries Chizhou Hill site, 246-255 during , 14-15,219-241, archaeological remains, 250-255 379 ceramics, 250, 251-252, 254-255, 256• towns, 221-223 257 trade centers and networks, 221-223, 225 cultural historical importance of, 260-261 violence during, 231 environmental setting, 246-250 408 Index

Zimbabwe (cont.) Zimbabwe (cont.) Chizhou Hill site (cont.) Refuge Period (cont.) location and local geography, 246, 247 Mazambara Hills site, 255, 256 Nemarundwi nzou dynasty and, 246 Ndirongwe site, 255 nzou totem and, 259 Torwa state, 262 Gato, 255 Zimbabwe Culture, 260-261 Karanga people, 243, 256, 257, 258-260, decline of, 244 265 relationship with Mutapa State, 260, 262, Mavhiringidze,246-247 263 Mazambara Hills, 255, 256, 258-259 sociopolitical organization of, 263 Ndirongwe, 255 Zimbabwe people, ceramics of, 257 oral traditions in, 243-244 Zimba people, 69 Portuguese in, 243 Zimuto Communal Lands, Zimbabwe, 246 Refuge Culture, 244-245, 265 Zimuto dynasty, Zimbabwe, 256, 259 Refuge Period, 244, 245, 387 Zimuto "govera 'l-maphosa ngara dynasty, 258 archaeology of, 256-258 Zimuto people, 256, 259 Biravira Hill site, 255-256 Zoutpansberg Review, The, 330 Chizhou Hill site, 246-255, 256-258 Zuid Afrikaansche Fabrieken voor Ontplofbare Dombotombo Hill site, 255, 256 Stoffen Beperkt, De, 350 Dure site, 255 Zulu, 14, 279 Gato site, 255 herd management strategies of, 310