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University of Cape Town The copyright of this thesis vests in the author. No quotation from it or information derived from it is to be published without full acknowledgementTown of the source. The thesis is to be used for private study or non- commercial research purposes only. Cape Published by the University ofof Cape Town (UCT) in terms of the non-exclusive license granted to UCT by the author. University Politics, Ethnicity and Jostling for Power: The Evolution ofInstitutions of Muslim Leadersnip and Kednisnip in Colonial Kenya, 1895-19G3 Town Cape of University Thesis S1JbmitfeD in fulfilment oftOe requirements lor toe Degree ofDoctor ofPoilosopoy Department ofNeHgious StuDies UniYllrsily ofCape Town December 2003 Acknowledgements The journeys towards completion of this work have made me to incur debts of gratitude to many people and institutions who have generously given me financial assistance in the form offellowships, from others I gained inspiration, moral support and constructive criticism towards improving this study. It is my greatest pleasure to have been associated with and acknowledge them. lowe a monumental debt of gratitude to my thesis advisors, Prof. Abdulkader Tayob and Prof. Muhammad Bakari whom I have grown to respect over the years for according me the benefit of their knowledge and wise counsel as well as offering steady guidance while allowing me the freedom to pursue my own intellectual development. I appreciate their encouragement and mentoring. I have also had the opportunity to share my thoughts on some aspects of this work in various forums. I would particularly like to thank Prof. John Hunwick and Sean O'Fahey who accorded me the opportunity to spend spring 2002, as a fellow of the Institute of Islamic Thought in Africa (IS ITA) at Northwestern University. My interactions with colleagues working on the themes on "Muslim Interaction with the Colonial State," sharpened my views on several issues. At ISITA, I was fortunate to have Dr. Muhammad Sani Umar read and made useful comments on some of my chapters. My colleague Dr. Ombongi made critical reviews of some sections. I appreciate the input of many others whom I might not be able to mention by name but since the conceptualization this study and the interpretations of the details are entirely of my own, I wish to absolve all those who assisted me of any shortcomings that might be detected and I take full responsibilities for errors therein. Over the course of my graduate studies I have enjoyed the company and friendship of many. I will not be able to mention all of them but nevertheless appreciate them all the same but to Matano Ndaro, Amimo Wanga, George Gona, Hamadi Boga, Mwinyi, Mwagomba Amani, Issah Chipera and JB Ndohvu, I say I am grateful for a friendship that sustained my resolve to push on. My studies at the University of Cape Town were made possible through a generous fellowship under the Universities Science Humanities Partnerships in Africa (USHEPIA), program.Town I would like to thank all those at USHEPIA who made it possible, Lesley, Nan Warner, Caz Thomas, Carol Ojwang and Zubaida worked tireless towards making my studies and stay at UCT a most rewarding experience. I will not forget the stimulating discussions with other USHEPIA fellows at All Africa House (AAII), which turned out for me not just a Graduate residence but a place where I made lifelong acquaintances. I would also like to appreciate the assistance of Latchme Basson and her staff at All Africa House for being such caring hosts. My home institution, the University of Nairobi, too deservesCape credit for granting me leave to pursue my studies. of My deepest gratitude is hereby reserved for members of my family, my mother, father, brothers, sisters, uncles, aunties and cousins whose encouragement over the years has keep me going. I would like to especially thank my aunt Mwanamisi for taking me to my fIrst school. With deep respect and appreciation I dedicate this work to my grandmother, Mwanasha Mvoya na Dzitso for a being the pillar of strength in our family. University 111 Abstract Politics, Ethnicity and Jostling for Power The Evolution ofthe Institutions ofMuslim Leadership and Kadhiship in Colonial Kenya, 1895-1963 Hassan Abdulrahman Mwakimako This study demonstrates the flexibility and manipulability of Islamic leadership in a pluralistic situation, and argues that colonial policies and practices concerning Islamic legal practitioners (qadis), their institutions (qadis courts) reflected British prejudices about ethnicity and race. In a broad sense this work first examines how power, politics, ethnicity and colonialism influenced the development of political institutions among Muslims. Secondly, it debates the basis of the authority of the (ulam~P as they were appointed to occupy the posts of Shaykh aI-Islam, Chief Kadhi, lower Kadhis, and pseudo Kadhis. The dissertation articulates the nature of colonial power as indicated by British colonial officer's responses to demands by Muslim populations in the towns of Mombasa, Nairobi and Mumias. It situates colonial power, especially its policy of 'indirect rule' and its impact, as the British colonial government embarked on administrative innovations that subsequently co-opted indigenous elites into the colonial administrative structures. The process began with the co-option of representatives of Arab communities of Mombasa into the Legislative Council, while similar demands by non-Arab Muslim communities were ignored. The study follows the development of opposing groups of civil society formed by different Muslim identity groups and exemplified by groups like TownCoast Arab Association, (CAA), Afro-Asian Association (AAA), Arab Association (AA) and African Muslim Society (AMS). The study points to the role and significance of ethnicity in political leadership among Muslim while tracing the institutionalization of race as colonial officers discoursed the states intervention on communal representations in colonial bureaucratic structures. The dissertation also focuses on how a section of Muslim elite, the cuiamiP were co-optedCape into the colonial bureaucratic structures and appointed to serve as Shaykh al-Islamof and Chief Kadhi. Through a chronology of appointments of prominent 'ulamiP to these posts the study identifies intra- Muslim competitions but also shows how preferences by colonial pro-consuls for (ulamiP of Arab descent created an impression that non-Arab people were not qualified or eligible for the post turning a religious form of authority into prevalent racialized politics. The chronology of appointments questions the notion that knowledge espoused by the (ulamlP propelled their influence and power and shows that loyalty to colonial policies and racial identity of appointees mattered more. The racialization of the authority of the (ulamlP was instituted from the topmost post of Chief Kadhi to the lower positions of town Kadhis registrars of Muslim marriage in Nairobi and Mumias where preference for Arabs continued toUniversity be practiced. This study was contemplated to identify, discuss and understand the role played by colonial authorities in the emergence of political and religious forms of leadership among Muslims during colonial Kenya. Its contribution is the argument that Muslim authority emerged in the colonial process of institutionalization and bureaucratization of its power and authority. 11 TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract----------------------------------------------------------------------- ii Acknowledgements .................................. , ........................... , .. iii Table of Contents--------------------------------------------------------- iv Abbreviations... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... x Glossary----------------------------------------------------------------- xi Chapter One 1.1 Background to the Study------------------------------------- 1 1.2 Research Problem-------------------------------------------------- 6 1.3 Objectives of the study--------------------------------------------- 6 1. 4 Argument---------------------------------------------------------- 7 1.5 Scope and Limitations of the Study---------------------------- 8 1.6 Justification of the Study------------------------------------------- 12 1.7 The Colonial State and Muslim Leadership: A Theoretical Perspective------------------------------------------Town15 1.8 Sources-------------------------------------------------------- 23 1.9 Analytical Approach-----------------------------------------------Cape 27 1.10 Organization of the Study-----------------------------------------------of 29 Chapter Two 2.1 Pre-colonial Organization of Leadership among Muslims in Mombasa------------------------------------------- 32 2.2 Mombasa, Gongwa, Kongowea and Mvita--------------------- 33 2.3 'Insiders and UniversityOutsiders: Social Composition in Mombasa------ 36 2.4 The Swah iIi------------------------------------------------------------38 2.5 The Mijikenda--------------------------------------------------------------40 IV TABLE OF CONTENTS (cont'd) 2.6 The Arabs----------------------------------------------------------41 2.7 The Social Organization and Leadership --------------------------- 42 2.8 Influences of early Islam in Mombasa----------------------------- 47 2.9 Power in Foreign Rule: Zanzibar and Leadership in the Coast of Kenya ------------------------------------------------- 53 2.10 Early British Interests in Mombasa--------------------------- 61 2.11 Conclusions------------------------------------------------------
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