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Wildlife and Forest Biodiversity Conservation in Taita, Kenya Njogu, J.G

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Wildlife and Forest Biodiversity Conservation in Taita, Kenya Njogu, J.G Community-based conservation in an entitlement perspective: wildlife and forest biodiversity conservation in Taita, Kenya Njogu, J.G. Citation Njogu, J. G. (2004). Community-based conservation in an entitlement perspective: wildlife and forest biodiversity conservation in Taita, Kenya. Leiden: African Studies Centre. Retrieved from https://hdl.handle.net/1887/12921 Version: Not Applicable (or Unknown) License: Leiden University Non-exclusive license Downloaded from: https://hdl.handle.net/1887/12921 Note: To cite this publication please use the final published version (if applicable). Community-based conservation in an entitlement perspective African Studies Centre Research Report 73 / 2004 Community-based conservation in an entitlement perspective Wildlife and forest biodiversity conservation in Taita, Kenya James Gichiah Njogu This PhD project was part of the research programme Resources, Environment and Development Research Associates (REDRA) of the Amsterdam Research Institute for Global Issues and Development Studies (AGIDS). It also formed part of Working Programme 1, Natural resource management: Knowledge transfer, social insecurity and cultural coping, of the Research School for Resource Studies for Development (CERES). The Netherlands Foundation for the Advancement of Tropical Research (WOTRO) jointly with the Amsterdam Research Institute for Global Issues and Development Studies (AGIDS) of the University of Amsterdam funded this research. The School of Environmental Studies of Moi University (Eldoret, Kenya) provided institutional support. Published by: African Studies Centre P.O. Box 9555 2300 RB Leiden Tel: + 31 - 71 - 527 33 72 Fax: + 31 - 71 - 527 33 44 E-mail: [email protected] Website:http://asc.leidenuniv.nl Printed by: PrintPartners Ipskamp B.V., Enschede ISBN 90.5448.057.2 © African Studies Centre, Leiden, 2004 Contents List of maps viii List of figures viii List of boxes viii List of tables ix List of plates x List of abbreviations x Acknowledgements xii PART 1: THE CONTEXT 1 1. INTRODUCTION 3 Background to the problem 3 The research problem 7 The research questions 8 Study goal and objectives 8 General methodology and scope of the study 9 Study area 10 Plan of the thesis 11 2. WILDLIFE AND FOREST BIODIVERSITY 13 The concept of biodiversity 13 The problem of biodiversity loss 17 Conservation efforts 18 Conservation approaches 20 Kenya’s biodiversity 23 Taita animal and plant biodiversity 30 Conclusions 32 3. THEORETICAL ISSUES IN THE CURRENT CONSERVATION APPROACH 34 Reforming the wildlife and forest biodiversity conservation approach 35 Entitlement rights 40 The stakeholders in wildlife and forest biodiversity conservation 43 The concept of community-based conservation and incentives 49 Conclusions 52 v 4. THE RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 54 General approach 55 Sampling and asking questions 56 Observations 60 Existing data 60 Field experience, quality and weakness of the data 61 PART 2: ENTITLEMENT STRUCTURES FOR WILDLIFE AND FOREST BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION 63 5. THE TAITA PEOPLE AND THEIR TRADITIONAL ENTITLEMENT STRUCTURES 65 The Taita people 66 The traditional entitlement structures 69 Economic life 73 The advent of the European and impact on traditional entitlement structures 77 The demography of Taita 81 Some socio-economic aspects of the Taita 87 Conclusion 96 6. ENTITLEMENTS: LAND USE AND TENURE 97 Land, land use and tenure 97 Taita Taveta land use and tenure 108 Conclusion 126 7. WILDLIFE AND FOREST CONSERVATION 131 The biodiversity conservation entitlement typology 131 Wildlife biodiversity conservation 137 The history of wildlife conservation in Kenya 139 Forest biodiversity conservation 148 The history of forest biodiversity conservation 149 Conclusion 153 PART 3: WILDLIFE AND FOREST BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION: STAKEHOLDERS AND CONFLICTS 155 8. STAKEHOLDERS IN TAITA’S WILDLIFE AND FOREST BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION 157 Stakeholder definition 157 Stakeholders in Taita 160 Stakeholders as perceived by members local communities 168 The role of stakeholders in wildlife conservation in Tsavo National Park 170 The role of various stakeholders in the Taita Hills forest reserves 171 Stakeholders in wildlife and forest biodiversity conservation compared 173 Conclusion 176 vi 9 DIRECT HUMAN-WILDLIFE CONFLICTS 178 Direct human-wildlife interactions and conflicts 178 Competition for land 180 Competition for pasture and water 185 Direct exploitation of wildlife 186 Forest exploitation as source of destruction of wildlife habitats 188 Wildlife and forest biodiversity-related crimes 189 Numbers and nuisance of wild animals 195 Wildlife impact on human 199 Increasing direct human-wildlife conflicts 205 Conclusion 206 10. WILDLIFE AND FOREST BIODIVERSITY MANAGEMENT-RELATED CONFLICTS 208 Community participation efforts in wildlife conservation 208 The Kenya Wildlife Service management strategies 216 Forest conservation and management-related conflicts 225 The case of Taita 227 Conclusion 233 PART 4: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 235 11. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 237 Conclusions 237 Recommendations 252 ANNEX 1 259 REFERENCES 261 vii List of maps 1.1 Taita Taveta District 12 6.1 Taita land use 112 List of figures 2.1 General relationship between biodiversity and economic development 17 2.2 Average monthly rainfall for Voi in Taita Taveta District, 1969-1999 26 2.3 Annual rainfall for Voi in Taita Taveta District, 1969-1999 26 3.1 Theoretical and conceptual framework 35 3.2a Reforming the use of natural resources 39 3.2b Reforming the use of natural resources - I 39 3.2c Reforming the use of natural resources - II 39 3.3 The stakeholder identification model 46 4.1 Socio-economic data collection methods 55 5.1 Taita Taveta district population trend 82 5.2 Age and sex structure (1989 and 1999) 85 6.1 Taita Taveta high-potential land equivalent (HPLE) per capita 124 7.1 Foreign income from coffee, tea and tourism between 1988 and 2001 139 7.2 Chronogram showing wildlife conservation and management, institutional evolution 146 8.1 General view of stakeholders in biodiversity issues in Kenya 158 9.1 System of human and wildlife movement cued by moisture availability in the plains 179 List of boxes 5.1 Major land alienation for private use and related conflicts during the colonial era 80 6.1 The unanticipated effects of land tenure reform in Kenya 101 6.2 Some important cases of customary land claims from indigenous communities in Kenya 104 6.3 “Land and inequality in Kenya: A time bomb waiting for radical reform” 107 7.1 IUCN classification of protected areas based on management categories 133 7.2 Critical issues affecting wildlife conservation in protected areas in Kenya 140 7.3 Wildlife conservation and management: Major events during the colonial period 142 8.1 Kenya’s efforts to implement the Convention on Biological Diversity 163 8.2 Taita Taveta County Council 165 9.1 “KWS rangers despatched to tackle rogue jumbos and lions” 200 9.2 Summary of direct human-wildlife conflicts 206 10.1 Summary of KWS community conservation efforts 210 10.2 KWS reorganisation in 1996 224 10.3 Summary of community wildlife conservation efforts in Taita 228 10.4 Summary of problems and conflicts related to community-based wildlife management in Kenya 230 viii List of tables 2.1 Taxonomic distribution of animal biodiversity in Kenya 24 2.2 Taxonomic distribution of plant biodiversity in Kenya 25 2.3 Taita Taveta (Braun's) agro-climatic zones 27 2.4 Summary of the hydrology in Taita Taveta District 29 4.1 Classification of research sites based on eco-zone and proximity to protected areas 57 4.2 Composition of focus groups’ discussants 58 5.1 Main ethnic groups in Taita Taveta (based on the 1989 census) 69 5.2 The eight locations and sub-locations in Dabida, Sagalla and Kasigau (1955) 72 5.3 Summary of calamities due to weather and important historical events in Taita (1888-2000) 84 5.4 Population size and density by Division 85 5.5 Population by sex, number of households and density by Division (1999) 86 5.6 Urban population characteristics by urban centre (1999) 88 5.7 Housing conditions (1999) 89 5.8 Literacy level by age and sex (1999) 89 5.9 Number of people employed in Taita Taveta District, by age and sex (1999) 90 5.10 Wage earners in the household (n = 169) 91 5.11 Households engaged in business (n = 169) 92 5.12 Symmetric measures of wage earning and engagement in business 93 5.13 Other sources of income (n = 169) 94 5.14 Main problems experienced in Taita, their coverage and urgency (n=169) 95 6.1 Land use and tenure in Kenya 103 6.2 Basic category of land in Kenya based on ownership and use 103 6.3a Taita Taveta District land use and tenure 110 6.3b Specific land-use types in Taita Taveta District 110 6.4 District contribution to Tsavo National Park 113 6.5 Ranches proposing to form sanctuaries 117 6.6 Taita Hills forest reserves 119 6.7 Ranches in Taita 121 6.8 Settlement schemes in Taita Taveta District 125 7.1 Categories of protected areas, their number and coverage 135 7.2 Nature reserves in Kenya 136 7.3 Kenya's biosphere reserves 137 7.4 Kenya's Ramsar sites 139 7.5 Proposed forest excision areas against total gazetted forest areas by 2000 152 8.1 Checklist of social actors in wildlife and forest biodiversity conservation 159 8.2 Main biodiversity stakeholders and social actors in Taita 161 8.3 Rank of main actors in biodiversity conservation in Taita (n = 169) 169 8.4 Local community members’ awareness of their ‘stakeholdership’ (n = 169) 169 8.5 Summary of stakeholders and their roles in forest biodiversity conservation
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