ETHNOBIOLOGY AND ETHNOECOLOGY Gary J. Martin The Global Diversity Foundation, Morocco I. Historical Development of Ethnobiology ogy because both fields have witnessed a similar II. Current Trends in Ethnobiology development in theory and methodology in recent III. The New Synthesis years. ecosystems, anthropogenic and natural Communities of organisms and their environment formed either through human action or through natural processes. In practice, it is difficult to establish the extent to GLOSSARY which an ecosystem is anthropogenic or natural, re- flecting the current and historical impact of people analysis, emic and etic Concepts derived from the lin- on the environment. guistic terms ‘‘phonetics’’ (representing speech ethnobiology A term coined in 1935 that has been sounds by precise and unique symbols and by techni- defined as the study of the reciprocal interactions cal descriptions of articulation, as practiced by between people and the biological organisms in their trained linguists) and ‘‘phonemics’’ (characterization local environment and, recently, as the study of bio- of speech through a minimal number of symbols, logical sciences as practiced in the present and the typically recognized by the speakers of a language). past by local people throughout the world. Many By extension, etic refers to the external explanation researchers consider that ethnobiology comprises of cultural knowledge and practice (such as the use numerous subfields, such as ethnobotany, ethno- of Linnean taxonomy or scientific nomenclature to ecology, ethnoscience, and ethnozoology, but there describe local useful plants), whereas emic denotes is no consensus on this point. the internal perspective of local people (e.g., ethnobi- ethnobotany and ethnozoology Approaches to study- ological categories and nomenclature). ing the reciprocal interactions between people and economic botany As originally conceived, a branch of the plants and animals in their local environment. applied botany that arose during the colonial period This definition has been criticized as broad and open- to identify and characterize economically important ended, but it captures the common goals of analyzing plants and the products derived from them. Cur- traditional biological knowledge and assessing hu- rently, it is a scientific endeavor that seeks to docu- man impact on the environment. These approaches ment the properties of useful plants through agro- include subfields such as paleoethnobotany and pa- nomic, archaeological, ecological, ethnobotanical, leoethnozoology, which evaluate archeological evi- genetic, historical, phytochemical, and other empiri- dence on the past interactions between people, cal approaches. It overlaps broadly with ethnobiol- plants, and animals. Encyclopedia of Biodiversity, Volume 2 Copyright 2001 by Academic Press. All rights of reproduction in any form reserved. 609 610 ETHNOBIOLOGY AND ETHNOECOLOGY ethnoecology Typically defined as the study of local fields; in the words of Brent Berlin, ethnobiology ‘‘com- knowledge and management of ecological interac- bines the intuitions, skills, and biases of both the an- tions. Recently, some researchers have proposed an thropologist and the biologist, often in quite unequal alternate definition, considering ethnoecology as an mixtures.’’ emerging field that focuses on local peoples’ percep- In one sense, ethnobotany, ethnobiology, and eth- tion and management of complex and coevolved re- noecology are new terms for old practices. People have lationships between the cultural, ecological, and eco- been exploring the usefulness of diverse plants, animals, nomic components of anthropogenic and natural and ecosystems since the dawn of humanity. Documen- ecosystems. It is concerned with the interaction be- tation of local people’s perception of the environment tween knowledge, practice, and production, and it emerged slowly over thousands of years as scholars is oriented toward applied research on conservation from many cultural traditions recorded local ways of and community development. classifying and using plants and animals. The onset of ethnoscience Arose as a minor subfield of ethnography European colonization of Africa, Asia, the Pacific, and concerned with recording in great detail local peo- the New World gave added impetus to the study of ples’ knowledge of biological organisms and the local knowledge of tropical and temperate organisms physical environment. Later, the term came to be and ecosystems. used in a more restricted sense by cognitive and Toward the end of the nineteenth century, academics linguistic anthropologists to refer to local classifica- began to use the prefix ethno- to refer to the way that tory systems (as an object of study) and their seman- local people view the natural world, in contrast to the tic analysis (as a methodological approach). In perspective of natural scientists trained in universities. France, the term is used to refer to ethnobiological They coined terms such as ‘‘ethnobotany’’ (first used in studies in general. print by Harshberger in 1896) and ‘‘ethnozoology’’ to indigenous, local, and traditional Adjectives used by describe these emerging fields of study that crossed the anthropologists, ethnobiologists, and other academ- boundaries of natural and social sciences. Interest in ics to describe people, practices, and knowledge. traditional environmental knowledge continued apace Indigenous denotes people (and their cultural prac- in the early twentieth century, and in 1935 Castetter tices and knowledge) who claim to be the original coined the term ‘‘ethnobiology,’’ setting as its agenda or long-term inhabitants of a particular place, in the systematic analysis of data collected by ethnobota- contrast to more recent colonizers. Traditional refers nists and ethnozoologists to achieve a deeper under- to established lifestyles, practices, and beliefs that standing of local peoples’ knowledge and lifestyles. Eco- guide cultural continuity and innovation—a defini- nomic botany gained importance as a parallel field tion that recognizes that traditions are always in a focused on useful plants and the products derived from process of adaptation and change. Local, preferred them. In 1954, Harold Conklin proposed the term ‘‘eth- by many researchers because it is the broadest and noecology,’’ originally conceived as a holistic and inte- least value-laden term, indicates cultures that are grated approach to understanding local ecological found in a specific part of the world. It is commonly knowledge and practice on their own terms, even while used to refer to people, whether long-term residents drawing on the concepts and methods of diverse scien- or recent arrivals (rural or urban), who make a living tific disciplines. A focus on classificatory systems and from the land and are knowledgeable about the bio- the linguistic and anthropological methods used to ana- logical resources in their environment. lyze them gave high visibility to an approach called eth- noscience. In the 1980s and 1990s, further development of these various lines of research gave rise to new definitions, ALTHOUGH THE 100th anniversary of ethnobotany innovative theoretical orientations, and sophisticated (coined in 1896), the golden anniversary of ethnobiol- qualitative and quantitative methodological approaches ogy (first used in 1935), and the silver anniversary of applied to local knowledge of the environment. In addi- ethnoecology (appearing in 1954) have passed, there tion, ethnobiology expanded beyond its original geo- is no consensus on the precise definition of these fields. graphical borders as the field gained importance in This is explained in part because of their relatively countries such as China, India, and Mexico. There is recent origin and the current surge in their theoretical, currently a new synthesis emerging—as yet without conceptual, and methodological refinement. Disagree- consensus—that defines ethnobiology as the study of ment over definitions is typical of multidisciplinary biological sciences as practiced by local people through- ETHNOBIOLOGY AND ETHNOECOLOGY 611 out the world, comprising both empirical knowledge An overview of these early texts and later works (savoir) and technical know-how (savoir-faire), and in- reveals that ethnobiology and natural history have clusive of subfields such as economic botany, ethno- evolved—much like the biological species and ecosys- botany, ethnoecology, and ethnozoology. tems that are their focus—through a process of punctu- ated equilibrium. Certain historical periods are marked by an intensive effort to expand empirical knowledge I. HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT of natural phenomena, often by incorporating local lore, OF ETHNOBIOLOGY whereas other epochs are characterized by an unques- tioned acceptance of published works. Despite the insights provided by archaeological and historical linguistic studies, setting an even approxi- mate date of the emergence of local biological knowl- A. Early Scholars in Europe edge is a matter of opinion. A detailed understanding Academics often trace their intellectual history to the of the natural world was key to the independent emer- era of Greek philosophers, who lived more than 2300 gence of plant and animal domestication over a period years before our time. This is when classical botany ranging from 8500 B.C. in southwest Asia to 2500 B.C. and zoology were brought into existence by scholars in the eastern United States. However, environmental such as Aristotle, who sought to summarize all current knowledge reaches even