Energy, Innovation and Transport: the Electrification of Trams in Spain, 1896-1935 1

Energy, Innovation and Transport: the Electrification of Trams 1 in Spain, 1896-1935 Alberte Martínez University of A Coruña (Spain) [email protected] To cite this article: Alberte Martínez (2012): Energy Innovation and Transport: The Electrification of Trams in Spain, 1896–1935, Journal of Urban Technology, 19:3, 3-24 To link to this article : http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10630732.2011.642571 Abstract The electrification of trams has been one of the most significant changes in urban transport. It led to price reductions, increased speed, better regularity, comfort and convenience and the popularisation of this means of transport. Its introduction required a new business model, characterised by massive investment, modern management and the use of more sophisticated technology. The Spanish case shows a certain delay in this process along with the importance of the foreign capital (from Belgium and backed by German electro mechanic multinationals), the little intensity of the backward looking effects, because the technological dependency, and the conquest of mobility as the main forward looking effect. Keywords : electricity, urban transport, tramways The electrification of trams has been one of the most significant changes in urban transport. It led to price reductions, increased speed, better regularity, comfort and convenience and the popularisation of this means of transport. Its introduction required a new business model, characterised by massive investment, modern management and the use of more sophisticated technology. In peripheral countries (where these factors were not very abundant), electrification led to the entry of powerful foreign business groups. These were mostly Belgians, often backed by German electro mechanic multinationals, interested in new openings for their products. Their strategy was very clear. Firstly, they initiated the unification and homogenisation of networks. Then they carried out electrification. Once the basic network was set up, they pulled back out of the Spanish market, pressured by the nationalist surroundings of the twenties. The aim of this paper is to study this process in Spain. In this sense, we will firstly look at the electrification of trams, both from a chronological and geographical point of view. Then we will analyse the change of the business model which facilitated the change from traction. Finally, we will evaluate the forward looking and backward looking effects of the electrification of urban transport. The process of tram electrification 2 1 A first draft of this article, in Spanish, has been published online, as a paper, in Fundación de las Cajas de Ahorro, Documento de Trabajo nº 535, 2010. I would also like to thank the useful comments and suggestions made by the three reviewers of the JUT. 1 The first trams (which used animal traction) circulated in New York in 1832, but were not popular in Europe, including Spain, until 1870 3. The American leadership was motivated by larger and faster urbanisation, the more extensive character of this and maybe also by its greater predisposition to technical advances. Applying steam to trams clashed with the social opposition derived from its contaminating character in urban surroundings, (especially in Europe), so its use was restricted to suburban lines (McKay, 1988). The history of electric traction, initially applied to trams and later to the railway, is usually divided into three periods: 1835-1881 was the phase of trials then 1881-1895 was the phase of resolving the problems of urban and suburban traction and subsequently those of interurban traction. Finally, from 1895, the adopted solutions were perfected (Cayón et al, 1998: 85). The application of electricity to urban transport required a series of trials during the 1880s, until the version based on overhead contact wires triumphed. As hoped, the pioneers and leaders in the electrification of trams were Germany and especially the United States, powers which also led the Second Technical Revolution, of which electricity was one of its main components 4. The legislative impulse to the electrification of trams in Spain was set by the Law of 14/8/1895, which authorised the substitution of the traction system. It can be said that there was a symbiotic relationship between public policies, (particularly at local level) and tramway development 5. The historical financial weakness of the Spanish state meant there was a preference for legislative means (which were far cheaper) over investment in promoting economic development. This also happened in public services like trams. Central government influenced the evolution of this sector, establishing the general regulatory frame in which the business activity had to be developed. In a broader sense, other aspects of its policies, such as commercial aspects (taxes on set input), monetary (type of exchange), fiscal (taxes on companies), social (labour costs), energy (availability and costs of electricity) or external (attitude towards foreign investment) have conditioned tramway firms, especially in certain situations. On the other hand, as this is an urban activity, the role played by local administration was by no means insignificant, due to the detailed regulation of the service established in the concession, including tariffs and administrative authorisation for its expansion 6. Nevertheless, tram companies have not been passive but rather have tried (and succeeded on many occasions) to influence government decisions which affected them. For this, they used newspapers, contracted prestigious lawyers, accessed diplomatic representatives (in the case of foreign companies) and, above all, integrated prominent politicians to their Boards of Directors, both locally and nationally 7. By the end of the 19 th century, more than 80 European cities (some of which were in more delayed places than Spain such as Eastern Europe) had already electrified their urban transport (Alayo and Manubens, 2007: 348). In the case of Spain, the first city to electrify its tram was Bilbao, in 1896, the work of a Belgian- German company. At that time, Spanish delay was relatively important as compared to the most of 2 A historical review on electricity in Spain in Cayón (2001). 3 See Tarr and Mcshane (2008) for information on the horse as urban technology. 4 Until 1882, Germany had the advantage (Siemens) (McKay, 1988: 10). 5 About the complex relationships among engineers, managers and politicians, see Hannah (1982). 6 Due to the chronic budget deficit of local public funds in Spain, no direct or indirect financial backing of loans was given to tramway companies like in the US. 7 For example Santiago Alba, a former President of the Spanish government. 2 Western European countries (Table 1) and much more so with relation to the United States where the electrification of trams was far faster than in Europe 8. The Spanish tram network was still very small, eminently urban and basically used animals. The electrification of lines was almost non-existent, both as regards absolute values and the percentage in the network. On the other hand, other countries of a size similar to Spain, including some far smaller countries like Belgium, enjoyed a far more extensive tram network. In some cases like Italy, Belgium, Switzerland or France, suburban trams which used steam predominated 9. The leading country of electrification of lines, both as regards kilometres and total percentage was Germany. Surprisingly, Britain used more animal traction than even Spain. Table 1. Length, in kms, of tramlines, according to the type of traction in Europe in 1895 10 Animal Animal traction Steam Electric Total traction Steam Electric Country Kms Kms Kms Kms % % % Italy 248 2,478 40 2,766 9.0 89.6 1.5 Germany 927 233 491 1,651 56.1 14.1 29.7 France 566 798 130 1,495 37.9 53.4 8.7 Great Britain 935 11 200 68 1,202 77.8 16.6 5.6 Belgium 119 1,056 26 1,200 9.9 87.9 2.1 Spain 200 47 14 261 76.5 17.9 5.6 Switzerland 26 224 32 282 9.1 79.4 11.4 Source: Gerard, 1897: 297-299. There are significant differences in the diffusion of tramway technologies in Spain. In the case of animal traction, the Spanish chronological lag was notable, almost four decades. Its technological matrix was Anglo-Saxon, with an American patent and English and Belgian implementation. British companies took centre stage as regards business and financing and implanted the first lines at the start of 1870 in large cities like Madrid and Barcelona. The electrification of networks presented a minor temporal lag, (15 years), a usual phenomenon in the Second Industrial Revolution and which is linked to the acceleration of technological change and its diffusion which accompanied this first globalisation of economies 12 . In this case, the technology came from the United States and, especially Germany. The latter also developed the traction motors and associated electrical equipment, whilst its Belgian associates dealt with the chassis and rails. Companies which carried out the electrification of networks were usually Belgians, but with a strong presence of electro-technical German capital (AEG and Siemens). The origin of the material is motivated by the comparative advantages of the 8 In 1893, 60% of the 12,000 miles of the tram network were electrified; ten years later, 98% of its 30,000 miles (McKay, 1988: 11). 9 For financial and technical reasons, French industrialists and technicians took some time to opt for electricity as compared to the traditional system of steam (Larroque, 1994: 1136). 10 A year of variation of statistics depending on countries. It distinguishes between the length of lines and tracks, the latter being larger. The first is adopted. The source seems to underestimate the length of the electric tramway network, at least in some countries such as Belgium, Italy or Great Britain. For instance, the Revista de Obras Públicas , 1900, I: 218, offers data for 1894-1899 which differs partially, also including electric railways.

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