Naturopa N° 73-1993 * * *

Editorial J. Gyurkö 3

• * The new science of synthesis V. Heywood 4 The Council of Europe and biodiversity J. van der Macsen 6

Natural selection T. McNeilly * * * 7 Saving habitats first? N. M. Collins, R. Luxmoore 8

The law M. Chauvet 10

Useful wild plants G. Kleijer 11

Know-how L. A. Withers 12

The carob. An exemplary plant F. Catarino 14

Wild relatives T. Hodgkin 18

In Central Europe H. Wittmann 19

Botanic gardens F. Catarino 20

In Turkey T. Ekim 21 Naturopa is published in English. French, German, Italian, Spanish and In Spain Ii. Vahles 22 Portuguese by the Centre Naturopa of the Council of Europe, In Greece G. Kamari 23 F-67075 Strasbourg Cede.v. The background to some plants R. Lumaret 24 Editor responsible: Ing. Hayo H. Hoekstra A Board for development R. Raymond 25

Conception and editing: Christian Meyer The Twelve and the genetic resources I). Dessylas 26

Special adviser for this issue: Norwegian salmon B. Pettersen 27 Prof. V. H. Heywood Botanic Gardens Conservation Animals too J. Hodges 28 International At the Council of Europe Descanso House 30 199 Kew Road GB-Richmond TW9 3BW

Production: Artegraftca Silva s.r.l. Parma, Italy The incredible variety of life Articles may be freely reprinted but it would be appreciated if reference is made to the source and copy sent to the t is certain that we shall never know the ronment, that basic and essential "tool" Centre. The copyright of all photographs true extension of the incredible amount which attempts to restore respect and un- is reserved. Iand variety of life on this earth. Too derstanding of our natural environment, as many species have already disappeared well as the notion that one need not be a and many others are following suit. The opinions expressed in this publica- botanist to love a flower. Perhaps this is part of the natural course of tion are those of the authors and do not events, debatable though this may be. necessarily reflect the views of the Naturopa's second 1994 issue, No. 75, Council of Europe. will be in support of the Fourth Pan- For various reasons, however, man is now European Colloquy on Tourism and becoming aware of the irretrievable loss Environment, to be hosted in Poland, with of species and is trying to maintain and forests as main theme. even to recapture this great "biodiversity". This issue of Naturopa reports on some On the very eve of European Nature outstanding aspects of this relatively new Conservation Year 1995, Naturopa 76 Pages 16-17: discipline - where the Council of Europe will prepare a European-wide apprecia- 1. S. Cordier; 2. G. Baumgart; has also taken up the challenge. tion of this major Council of Europe cam- 3.,5., 8. r. Noto-Campanella; paign. • 4. F. Roubert; 6. W. Zapinski; In 1994, Naturopa will devote its first is- 7. Di Dominico/Panda/Bios; sue to education in the field of the envi- H.H.H. 9. A. Balestreri; 10. W. Lipiec J. Vassilev Editorial

urope is the continent where natural here that I am delighted to know that at the the ones of primary importance, for example features have arguably changed to the time of the change of the regime my country the laws on privatisation, on local govern- Ehighest degree in the course of history. was the first to be a party of the Convention ments including restrictions to protect natur- But life has its strengths. Considering Europe in 1990 and since then Bulgaria and Estonia al resources, have been accepted by the as a whole, life forms have sitn'ivecl all these have also followed. I do trust that with a Hungarian Parliament among the first laws. changes but most natural ecosystems which complete future participation of this region, were earlier widespread have become con- an institution of genuine pan-European co- And we have received so much help through fined to "islands". Many species living in operation can be realised in the field of the publications or the colloquium series of isolated residual populations were threat- wildlife conservation. I am glad to see that the Centre Naturopa. but also in the frame of ened by extinction, with some indeed becom- our experts are actively participating in the the PHARE programme or through interna- ing extinct. Certain species which were con- work of teams and the Council of Europe is tional organisations and in bilateral co-op- sidered as man's direct rivals (such as the turning with an increasing attention to our eration with certain countries. larger predators) or which yielded good problems. Hungary has taken the initiative, profits from the sale of their furs, were com- for instance, for the preparation of an agree- In the frame of the follow-up of the Rio pletely eradicated in many countries. ment for the protection of the Danube Basin. Conference at the Lucerne Conference a central role was given to Central and However, the first good results of nature con- In this part of Europe, in many respects, bet- Eastern Europe within the Environmental servation are connected with this same peri- ter biodiversity has been maintained than in Action Programme for Europe (EAP). od, for example, the saving of the European Europe's western states. It is confirmed by Priority, however, was given to reducing and beaver as early as the last century or the re- the workshop organised by the Council of elimination of pollution directly harmful to sults of bird protection in the first half of this human health. Thus, sustaining of biodiversi- century. The loss of biological diversity and ty stayed in the background. That explains that of natural habitats (ecological diversity) why we have such high expectations con- which bring about population decreases in cerning the declaration and the acceptance species will result in significant losses in ge- of proposals of the Maastricht Conference, netic diversity. Biology and ecology struggle which has supplemented the conference held with a great number of uncertainties, but ex- in Lucerne, and the implementation of its aminations Iwve shown that at the current recommendations will make up an appropri- speed of biodiversity loss those natural ate programme tailored for Europe to imple- processes which sustain and ensure the life- ment the Convention on Biological Diversity. supporting cycles on Earth will not survive. The European Biological Strategy and a This is one of the reasons for the UNCED European Ecological Network, our most im- Convention on Biodiversity, which is the re- portant tasks as stated by the Conference, sult of the common efforts of various world can supply a fundamental basis for main- organisations and participating countries. taining the continent's biodiversity in the The work of individuals and nations and in- course of this decade. ternational efforts are justified by the correct and fair ethical reasoning lying behind them. / find it very significant that the Conference It is not only that every living organism has has adopted specific motions. It is to be con- the right to live on tlie Earth, it is not only firmed that the areas of the European that wildlife communities should be saved for Ecological Network should be given priority our grandchildren, it is also in our direct in- with regards to the wildlife protection, land terest. use and other activities. It is also significant that problems of Central Eastern Europe Europe has set an example by the initiatives Europe in Budapest this year and also by the and their solutions are given priority in the and measures taken by the valuable activities symposium on biodiversity of the Central Eu ropean co-operation. of the European Parliament and the Council East European region held by the Finnish of Europe in the 1950s and 1960s. When tlie and the Hungarian Academies of Sciences. At All these present a task of great importance for first campaign was held in 1970 by the both meetings there was a complete partici- the co-ordinating organisations, the Council of Centre Naturopa, many countries responded pation on behalf of the respective countries. Europe, the European Communities and the with new statutes or other national measures. European Environmental Agency, also requir- It also motivated the Jirst modern legislation Maintaining these values is of interest to all ing good co-operation on behalf of the respec- on nature conservation in Hungary in 1971- Europe. At the same time in these new tive states. The Hungarian government is will- 74 when Hungary was still at a distance from democracies, the indispensable economic ing to promote all this and Hungary, including European co- operation. transformation and the free exercise of prop- our prospering NGOs, wants to take an active erty rights present a challenge from the point part in this process. • The Bern Convention, which was accepted in of view of sustaining natural resources and 1979, was an important step forward as it in- their sustainable use. In this process we Dr Janos Gyurko cluded elements of biodiversity protection, should avoid the mistakes that western Minister for the Environment and Regional Policy i.e. the maintenance of wildlife habitats with Europe has committed and recognised but for Hungary consideration to the impacts of human activi- the time being we need guidance in this re- ties and monitoring of its provisions and rec- spect. Of course we need good laws. ommendations supervised by the Standing Preparation of laws of great significance Committee of the Convention on a yearly ba- from this point of view, compiling with the sis. hl tlie communist era several countries of new situation such as the law on land, on the Central and Eastern Europe were precluded environment protection or on nature conser- from joining for almost a decade. Let me note vation have reached tlieir last stage, whereas

3 A global approach enables the environment to be apprehended equally well from the standpoint of landscapes or of the latest technics of in vitro culture The new science of synthesis

Vernon Heywood nent although various aspects have been ad- steppes to lush meadows and rich wetlands. dressed by a range of European institutions But nearly all of them have been drastically he term biodiversity has only been in such as the Council of Europe which has modified by human action over thousands of use for a few years yet it has now al- played a pioneering role in conservation in years through transhumance, grazing, defor- Tmost reached cult status. Even more developing instruments such as the Bern estation, agriculture, terracing, road building, important, following the signature by many Convention and the European Community urban and industrial development and pollu- governments of the Convention on Biological which has agreed the Habitats Directive. It tion. In fact much of what are regarded as Diversity at the UNCED in Rio de Janeiro is perhaps strange that there has been no typical of parts of Europe are in fact cultural last year, it is now widely recognised and pan-European initiative in biodiversity so landscapes - the result of human alteration of used by governments. Its interpretation, how- far despite the close involvement 011 many the already modified natural landscapes and ever, is open to much debate and it is viewed individual scientists and institutions in the their ecosystems. Examples are many of the quite differently by different interest groups fields concerned, although various environ- characteristic grasslands of Europe such as such as protected area managers, plant breed- mental actions have been proposed, includ- the chalk downs of southern Britain which ers, conservation biologists, sociologists, ing European Nature Conservation Year are dependent on human intervention for ethnobiologists, taxonomists and so on. The which the Council of Europe is organising their maintenance. The abandonment or re- public perception of biodiversity is coloured for 1995 and the pan-European conference duction of grazing has led to their recolonisa- very much by the literature of conservation "An Environment for Europe" in which the tion by scrub or forest, thus putting at risk the NGOs and natural history films which give Council of Europe, the European habitats of orchids and other species that oc- the impression that it concerns tropical Community and the United Nations cur there. The typical Mediterranean scrub forests full of exotic birds, myriad insects and Economic Commission for Europe are co- communities such as maquis, matorral, gar- bizarre animals and plants containing poten- operating. Perhaps Europe can show a lead rigue and phrygana which to many people tial new wonder drugs! In fact the very diffi- ¡11 the implementation of the Convention on characterise the region are in fact also succes- culty of defining biodiversity in a way that is Biological Diversity once it is ratified. sional communities which will in many cases measurable and operational and applicable to Europe, especially in the south, is surpris- revert to oak/pine forests if left undisturbed the real everyday world has caused consider- ingly rich in biodiversity if measured in by humans. able confusion and there is already a tenden- terms of organisms although it has to be said cy to dismiss it as little more than a current that we do not have accurate overall figures bandwagon. for most groups: there are 12,500 species of Agriculture has had the most profound effect flowering plants, 2.100 species of 011 European landscapes. Examples of this go bryophytes and 250 freshwater fishes, and back to prehistoric times such as the terracing On the other hand, what is distinctive about the numbers of mammals, birds, reptiles and of hillsides for soil stabilisation which is the concept of biodiversity is its all-enibrac- amphibians are known for each country, but widespread in many parts of southern ing nature: it is much wider than systematics we do not have adequate information on the Europe. Such terraces make an almost indeli- or conservation or natural history and has so- numbers of many classes of invertebrates or ble mark on whole landscapes and because of cial and economic as well as scientific di- microorganisms. So even ¡11 the most basic their size and scale and the human labour in- mensions. It deals with the total range of terms we do not have a full picture of how volved represent almost heroic achievements. variation in and variability among systems many species constitute the biodiversity of Today, such labour-intensive methods of cul- and organisms from the bioregional and land- our European continent, except for flower- tivation are being gradually abandoned and scape level, through the various taxonomic ing plants and vertebrates. What we do with them the social and cultural traditions of levels to the populations and genes and cov- know, however, that for some groups of or- such systems. As well as arable agriculture ers the complex sets of relationships within ganisms, the Mediterranean parts of south of which is responsible for many of the cultural and between these levels. Such a complex Europe are very rich ¡11 species diversity landscapes of Europe, vast areas of the natur- idea defies a simple definition but in simple with considerable numbers of endemics and al vegetation of Europe have been cleared for lay terms it can be described as the whole va- while not quite comparable with the tropics, plantation agriculture in the form of olive riety of life in all its manifestations and rela- do contribute substantially to global biodi- groves, vineyards, citrus orchards, fruit crops tionships. versity. such as apples, almonds, peaches and so on. Some of these such as olive groves which date back to Roman times are so ancient that Different scales it is difficult to imagine what the countryside Drastic changes looked like before they were planted al- Biodiversity can also be considered at a though we know, of course, from ecological global, regional, national and local scale. In Europe has an enormous diversity of land- studies that most of the area today occupied Europe, little effort has been made so far to scapes, ranging from coastal dunes and salt by olive cultivation was covered by oak and pine forests. consider biodiversity throughout the conti- flats to alpine peaks, from near-deserts and

4 Man-made Causes internationally peer-reviewed scientific analysis of the current issues, theories and The systems of hedgerows and other enclo- One of the major factors leading to the loss of views regarding the origins, dynamics, as- sure systems which today provide habitats for biodiversity in Europe, and elsewhere, is pol- sessment, measuring, monitoring, economic many species are human constructs although lution. The effects of industrial pollution 011 valuation, conservation and sustainable use again so ingrained into our concept of how biodiversity are manifest and were a recur- of biodiversity globally. Many European sci- the landscape should be that it is difficult rent theme at the conference organised by the entists, sociologists and economists will con- now to remember they are not "natural". Council of Europe and the Fondazione tribute to this Assessment. Many people protest at the loss of hedgerows Cariplo in Milan in 1991 on "The state of the and similar features through the development environment in Europe: scientists take Europe does not, of course, exist in isolation of large-scale agriculture and there are in fact stock", especially with regard to the situation and both affects and is affected by action 011 good reasons for lamenting their loss as they in East European countries uncovered after biodiversity in other parts of the world. There are habitats rich in biodiversity. There is an the recent political changes there. But even in are too numerous historical links with many additional case today for their retention, to- countries like Iceland where pollution does countries of the tropics and subtropics. In not cause any major problems, there is a risk gether with other linear features - as genetic- Europe we use a disproportionate amount of of increased radioactivity in the sea around reservoirs of diversity to combat the effects resources when viewed on a global scale and the country from the dumping of radioactive of global warming. contribute massively to global pollution. Any industrial waste by other countries. The ef- substantial change in such patterns of con- fects of pollution are limited, as we know, to Changes in the landscape level of biodiversi- sumption is unlikely and would have major the countries which produce it. In Norway, ty often have serious socio-economic and political, financial and social consequences. there has been extensive damage to fresh- cultural effects. It is not only farming com- It is therefore salutary to remind ourselves water fauna and to terrestrial ecosystems by munities that are affected by changes in land that while we probably have the capacity, and long-range air pollution and large areas of use patterns. The replacement of natural or even the will, to solve some of our own bio- east Finnmark (north-eastern Norway) are af- semi-natural forests for plantations of exotics diversity problems, we are likely to continue fected by pollution from the heavily industri- such as eucalypts may well be justified in for the foreseeable future to exacerbate those alised Kola peninsula just across the Russian purely economic terms but can have serious of other parts of our global community. We border. Europe is playing its part ¡11 interna- consequences for livelihood and life style of must not, therefore, forget the global dimen- tional agreements to phase out the use of the communities that live in the areas con- sions of biodiversity as part of our overall ozone-depleting chemicals and reduce the cerned. Rural people are all too often those output of greenhouse gases. Much remains to planning. • who suffer mist from changes in land use and be done and extensive monitoring is needed. the exploitation of the landscape for the bene- Prof. V. H. Hey wood fit of urban populations and the "national in- Botanic Gardens Conservation International terest". A consequence too is often the loss of Descanso House local knowledge and traditions which form as What should be done? 199 Kew Road much part of biodiversity as the local races of GB-Richmond TW9 3BW plants and animals that are also replaced by Planning of conservation activities in Europe such development. will need much greater co-ordination than hitherto, both at a national and regional level. Biodiversity in terms of species, popula- We need to co-ordinate our research activi- tions and genes, occurs in the wild in a very ties and adopt as far as is practicable com- wide range of habitats ranging from those mon policies. Several European countries that are more or less natural or semi-natural have produced or are producing biodiversity through those that are human modified to action plans or country studies and an the totally artificial. It follows that our con- overview of these will provide a valuable as- servation policies, in line with the latest sessment of the challenges facing us. thinking, has to be flexible and we can no Although Europe, as we have seen, has a longer rely on the creation and maintenance great diversity of human and institutional re- of national parks and other protected areas sources concerned with the different aspects as the major approach to conservation of of biodiversity, many of the basic questions biodiversity. Most biodiversity will always remain unanswered and we still need to carry occur outside protected areas and we will out research into the size and scope of biodi- have to plan to save it wherever it is found. versity in each European state, into funda- As the Global Biodiversity Strategy makes mental issues regarding ecosystem function clear, the concept of the "fortress park" of biodiversity, the nature and function of from which the local community is exclud- keystone species, sustainable use. integrated ed or has restricted access has to be modi- conservation strategies, environmental moni- fied and mich more emphasis placed on toring. biodiversity indicators, and so on. conservation in areas that benefit the local community - that are subjected to human The implementation of the provisions of the activities such as exploitation and harvest- Convention on Biological Diversity will ing of plant and animal resources - provided bring many of these issues to the fore. As a that this is done in a way which does not contribution to the process, UNEP has put in further degrade the conservation value of motion a Global Biodiversity Assessment the area. which will provide an independent, critical.

5 Tlie fruits of the strawberry tree (Arbutus unedo) are edible The Council of Europe and biodiversity

Jos van der Maesen Some crops, sometimes important only local- vitations, and aware of the undeniable impor- ly or in a distant past, also deserve attention tance of the need to conserve biodiversity, n 1989 the Council of Europe established as their use may gain importance. the speakers have attended and arranged their a Group of Experts on Biodiversity and Conservation involves not just maintaining own travel funds. This makes the final re- IBiosubsistence, whose tasks were to re- species, but maintaining a reasonable number ports even more thorough, and provide back- view the current conservation status of rela- of genotypes, accessions with differing ge- ing with a more varied reference list. tives of crop plants. Conservation action is netic make-up. Particularly of minor crops needed with priority, as resources to manage germplasm collections are not large. Wild all threatened plants cannot be made avail- beets (Beta vulgaris subsp. maritima) and Measures to be taken able. There are 2,200 or more species in wild cabbage (Brassica oleracea) occur Europe either with an endangered, vulnera- along the coasts and some populations are The scientists' contribution is to back up ble, rare or undetermined status. "Only" 27 threatened or have disappeared. Crocus rela- politicians with firm data. The Council of species are recorded as extinct by the World tives from Greece. Italy, Hungary and Balkan Europe, with the Group's reports in hand, Conservation Union (IUCN). countries are part of the ancestry of various will decide what priorities can be taken so to cultivated Crocus. have the respective governments move for practical implementation. Plants for the future Integrated strategies The Group wishes to arrive at management Even as Europe has probably the most man- and protection plans both in situ as well as ex made environment of all continents, and Two workshops have been planned to sub- situ. Long-term research and critical mass of some of its agriculture only survives with stantiate the "Conservation of the wild rela- research bodies is required to continue to pro- subsidies, crop cultivars (varieties) need to be tives of European cultivated plants: develop- vide a sound basis for correct conservation of constantly monitored and usually improve- ing integrated strategies". The first workshop target species of crop relatives. The classical ment is needed. This implies replacement of was organised at Faro (Portugal) on 8-11 discipline of plant systematics or taxonomy is old landraees or cultivars: genetic erosion. November 1992, very aptly held in the Ria the most basic one in biology. With genetics, Despite the successes of genetical engineer- Formosa Nature Reserve, and addressed the plant breeding, advanced techniques and ing, the engineering parts should remain following themes: mathematics, our knowledge of the relation- available. For crop species these parts are the ships between plants continues to grow, and obsolete cultivars as well as wild relatives; - Ecogeographical surveys: in which climate some more knowledge of their evolutionary wild subspecies or varieties, or other species and geographical zones do the plants occur; history can benefit use as well as conserva- in the same genus. For European crops geno- - Demography: what populations are like, sta- tion. However, insufficient means are provid- types from Europe already have a degree of tistics of size, density and distribution; ed and consequently the knowledge on wild adaptation, so have less unadapted genes, and relatives of cultivated plants is uneven and as part of Europe's natural heritage, the coun- - Reproductive biology: particularly small often inadequate. Timely action is required, tries in Europe should protect this populations that do not reproduce rapidly are not necessarily timeless. And co-ordination germplasm. A list of the main cultivated under threat, and human and animal interfer- for an interdisciplinary approach can help plants, agricultural, horticultural as well as ence need to be checked. economise manpower and resources, not to silvicultural, with their wild relatives, was be translated in involving more bureaucrats. drawn up for the Council of Europe by the The second workshop was held in Neuchatel, The existing infrastructure (university depart- Botanic Gardens Conservation Service in Switzerland, on 14-18 October 1993. The ments, research institutes, botanic gardens Kew (England), and the expertise of the themes considered were: etc) can deliver the goods, but staffing needs Group's members added considerably to the to be guaranteed and increased in various - Interactions among organisms and ecosys- number of species and the accuracy of the places. Awareness is raised, and technical de- contents. This list is due to be published this tems; tails will be presented in the Group's reports. year, 1993. - Geneflow in wide-ranging species and spa- tial problems;

- Environmental stress and survival strate- How to conserve ? Some examples gies; We know two ways to conserve crop rela- Our agriculture depends heavily on - Synthesis: managing the populations. tives: in situ and ex situ. In situ usually germplasm from other continents. Potato, means in a conserved habitat - we are talking tomato, fodder and seed maize are of Apart from the Group's experts several spe- of wild species - without or with certain de- American origin, large numbers of ornamen- cialist scientists are invited to contribute. grees of management. There are legal and so- tals came from China and Japan. However, Oddly no funds were available to attract cio-economic aspects as well. Where rare an- quite a few crops originated in our continent. those scientists, but personal contacts and in- imals are protected plants also fare well.

6 Disused mines prove to be open-air laboratories

sharp boundaries are maintained between Natural selection populations. Weak selection and high or low gene flow results in blurred bound- aries between populations. Tom McNeilly Only a small number of species grow on volution conjures up a vision of toxic metal mine wastes. Why? Of 15 prolonged, slow, small, steady, grass species growing along the edge of a Weedy species might prefer a man-disturbed Eadaptive changes over long time pe- large copper mine in North Wales, only habitat, some plants have to grow in such ar- riods. Studies in the Poaceae have altered five grew on the mine waste itself. eas. Nature cannot always be depended upon that view dramatically. Normal popula- Artificial selection showed that the re- for keeping genotypes, natural selection con- tions of Agrostic canina and A. capillaris maining ten could not evolve copper tol- tinues. Nature reserves and protected zones grew over a site proposed for a zinc/cad- erance, necessary for them to grow on the harbour many of the crop relatives, so good mium smelter in northern Germany. mine waste. Many species do not appear inventories and monitoring tell us what is Smelting began in 1969, emission of zinc to have the necessary genetic variability available. This knowledge is unevenly dis- making the immediately surrounding soils within them to allow survival at toxic tributed. A major task: for instance the phytotoxic. After one year natural selec- metal levels. This may have wide implica- Netherlands alone have some 3.000 protected tion caused a fourfold increase in the zinc tions for understanding the ecology of areas, some smaller than one hectare! tolerance of those populations. Similar species, rapid changes have been found in grazed More accessible and convenient to use are ex pastures. Plots sown with equal quantities A very large proportion of the fundamen- situ collections of germplasm, the seed or of ryegrasses bred for grazing (S23), hay tal studies of natural selection both within "gene" banks, provided the seeds can be kept production (S24), or early establishment and outside the Poaceae have been carried long and funds are available for upkeep of (S22), underwent rapid changes in com- out on abandoned heavy metal mine sites the stores. Carefully dried and refrigerated ponent frequencies due to natural selec- in Europe. Yet these sites are rapidly dis- seeds of many crop species (cereals, legumes, tion. Nine months after sowing, S22 made appearing because of reclamation. The oilseeds) will keep at least 25 to 100 years. up 80% of the swards, S24 13% and S23 plant populations which each site supports Of the wild relatives seed storage particulars 7%. Twelve months later S22 had de- are just as unique as those of any endan- are often unknown, but they will probably re- creased to 4%, whilst S24 and S23 in- gered species. They can never evolve semble their economic siblings in this re- creased to 36% and 60% respectively. again once the sites on which they have spect. A good knowledge of reproduction and Change due to natural selection can thus evolved are "reclaimed to support a fur- longevity of seeds indicates what policy to be very rapid. ther - ecological and academic - desert of follow. Usually only a minority of samples in amenity grasses, or treated as, or levelled gene banks is of wild origin. A good way to Heavy metal toxicity exerts very high se- to become, another rubbish tip. We should surely take rapid steps to preserve at least conserve crop relatives is by nature itself, lection pressures. Boundaries between tox- some of these uniquely informative habi- provided we give it its chances, without let- ic and normal soils can be very sharp. tats before all have disappeared. • ting it run amok, and are careful to monitor Distinct metal tolerant and normal popula- and manage the various habitats. • tions have been found one metre apart in Agrostis capillaris and in Anthoxanthum T. McNeilly Prof. Dr. L. J. G. van der Maesen odoratum. A. odoratum populations grow- Department of Environmental and Evolutionary Head of Department of Plant Taxonomy ing 10 cm apart on adjacent grass plots Biology Agricultural University limed or unlimed since 1903 differ University of Liverpool PO Box 8010 markedly in plant height. Scales of popu- PO Box 147 NL-6700 ED Wageningen lation differentiation reflect the strength of GB-Liverpool L69 3BX natural selection and the scale of environ- mental change.

The Poaceae examined in these studies are self compatible and anemophilous. Distinct populations, as we have seen, may occur adjacent to each other. Because pollen dispersal and pollination can be considerable and effective over 5 m, such populations may exchange genes (gene flow) coding for their contrasting adaptive features. This may affect the im- pact of natural selection on population di- vergence patterns. Studies within the Poaceae have shown that with high or low gene flow, and high selection pressures,

7 Kefalonia

Mark Collins global asset, but the British Isles actually Malaysia). CI has established an integrated Richard Luxmoore hold 18% of all the world's blanket bogs. programme of action on the ground and infor- This type of information may seem simple mation management in many of these areas. iological diversity, or biodiversity for enough but it is the result of careful study of This approach is useful in the early stages of short, is a measure of the variability of the distribution and conservation status of building a conservation areas network, but Bnature at the genetic, species and key habitats. In practice, much depends on comprehensive coverage requires a far more ecosystem levels. To conserve biodiversity the spatial distribution and size of protected sophisticated approach. For instance, in a at all three levels is a very complex chal- areas, and on the way in which the lands in country such as Bolivia, the greatest biodiver- lenge for conservation practitioners. To illus- between are managed. sity can be found in the lowland rain forest, trate the problem, take the Large Blue butter- but once representative areas of this habitat fly (Maculinea arion), one of Europe's type have been protected it may be preferable species in need of conservation action. The Measures of success to devote further resources to ensuring protec- species as a whole flies widely from Europe tion of other habitat types, such as the across Asia to Japan; so protecting it should In order to allow planners to answer such Altiplano which supports a different assem- be easy. But different subspecies inhabit the questions as "what is the total area of tropi- blage of species. This type of approach is be- high Alps (M.a. obscura) and the maritime cal forest remaining in Venezuela?" or "what ing used to great effect in Sri Lanka using the Alps (M.a. ligurica). Even individual popu- percentage of the peat bogs in Europe are GIS at WCMC (see Box). lations of the principal subspecies (M.a. ari- protected within national parks?", large on) are so genetically dissimilar that experts quantities of mapped information must be Where field data on species distribution are can easily distinguish them. Clearly the ge- manipulated in different combinations. For incomplete, it is possible to infer these from a netic biodiversity in this one species is of in- this reasons, computerised Geographic knowledge of the habitat requirements. James terest to the conservationist. Moreover, the Information Systems (GIS) are an extremely Scott's work on the efficiency of protected ecological, or habitat, requirements are very useful analytical tool provided they can be areas in Hawaii has become a text-book study special, consisting of well-grazed grassland supported with sufficient data. of conservation analysis. Scott studied the is- on limestone, with wild thyme and a particu- land of Mauna Loa in Hawaii, drawing maps lar species of ant that tends and protects the The basic mapped data or, in GIS terminolo- of vegetation cover and protected areas for caterpillars in return for a sugary secretion. gy, "layers" needed for this type of conser- the whole island. When he overlaid expected Preparing a conservation strategy for the vation planning include: Large Blue alone is a highly complex busi- ness! - maps of present vegetation cover; - estimates of original or "potential" vegeta- Geographic Information System If a single species of butterfly can present tion cover; such difficulties, imagine trying to produce strategies for all 20,000 species of butterflies - protected areas maps; or, worse still, all one million described - political and topographic maps. species of insects! Even if such a task were possible, it would not account for the mil- For several years now, the World lions of other insects still awaiting discovery. Conservation Monitoring Centre (WCMC) has been maintaining a Geographic Distribution of Species Whilst acknowledging that recovery plans Information System and collecting environ- for individual species are an important part mental data of this type. The data have of every national conservation action plan, it grown to such proportions that they have

is clearly vital to ensure that representative now been organised within a purpose-built Topography habitats are adequately protected. The theory "Biodiversity Map Library". This allows dif- behind this approach is that if a sufficient ferent data layers to be retrieved and dis- proportion of each habitat and ecosystem can played in various combinations depending

be protected, a large proportion of the vast on the question which must be addressed. Hydrology number of species will automatically be pre- served. A number of different international Knowledge about the distribution of species initiatives recognise this linkage (see Box). can also be used to further refine techniques of conservation planning based on habitats Human-built structures It is impossible to protect all natural ecosys- alone. In order to preserve the maximum tems and so, in practice, decision have to be number of species it is necessary to preserve made and priorities set. To do this requires the habitats which have the greatest biodiver- not only careful national planning but also an sity. For example, when it comes to action to international overview. A habitat type that is conserve tropical forest biodiversity, common in one country may be extremely Conservation International (CI) calls for a fo- rare on a worldwide basis. The inhabitants of cused approach, concentrating on the western Ireland could be forgiven for failing "megadiversity" countries (Brazil, Colombia, to appreciate that the peat bogs which seep Mexico, Indonesia, Zaire, Madagascar. daily over the top of their rubber boots are a Australia, China. Peru, Ecuador. India and

8 distribution data for rare species, he found major gaps in the protected areas system. The US Fish and Wildlife Service was able to re- cast its plans to ensure better coverage of the island's biodiversity. This use of different da- ta sources to identify gaps in the system is 1: 400000 called "Gap Analysis".

Q forest network for endemic woody pltint species Purest network fur endemic aninwl species Meeting the information needs

In most parts of the tropics, gap analysis re- mains a hope for the future because the un- teria. such as protection of all endemic derlying information is not yet available. A Conserving Sri ¡Miika's biodiversity: an species and/or representation of each number of activities are directed towards col- optimum approach within at least two forests. For example, lecting the data required for planning habitat the map below shows the minimum net- conservation. Sri Lanka is a small country but rich in biological diversity, much of which is work of forests required for all endemic woody plant and animal species to be Basic maps showing actual vegetation cover concentrated in the moist forests of the conserved. The importance of this ap- are the subject of national inventories and in- south- west. As part of a national conser- proach for land-use planning is the fact ternational remote-sensing studies. The vation review, species surveys are being that if one of the minimum number of world's most diverse terrestrial ecosystem, carried out in remaining fragments of for- sites identified is not included in the pro- tropical rain forest, is still not properly est in this region. The resulting data can tected areas network then a quantifiable mapped, and it is impossible to judge how se- be analysed on computer in various ways amount of biodiversity will be lost. riously the rate of deforestation is depleting to identify an optimum network of forests biodiversity. WCMC, working with IUCN, needed to meet selected conservation cri- has almost completed mapping tropical forests and protected areas for its three-volume "Conservation Atlas of Tropical Forests". This information has recently been trans- of approximation is to aim to conserve the ferred to G1S at the World Conservation widest possible range of habitats. In the same Monitoring Centre where it provides another way as species conservation may not con- layer available in the Biodiversity Map serve all individual variation (within species), Library. so habitat conservation may not succeed in The CORINE Programme conserving all species. However, it provides a pragmatic and achievable goal which does In Europe the CORINE (CoORdination Global protected areas network not require endless research to quantify the of INformation on the Environment) number of species present before conserva- Programme has taken this approach. The At the Third National Parks Congress in Bali. tion plans can be put into action. principal objectives of the Programme, Indonesia, 1982. targets were set to protect Furthermore, habitats contain complex as- adopted in 1985, are to systematically 10% of all ecosystems and countries. Every semblages of species which have evolved to- identify and list key threatened species few years the World Conservation gether. It would be impossible to recreate and biotope types of the region to ensure Monitoring Centre, in collaboration with them simply by re-introducing the correct their future conservation. This, in turn, IUCN's Commission on National Parks and combination of species. There are. therefore, assists the development of an integrated Protected Areas, has prepared the United inherent functions of ecosystems or habitats conservation strategy for the region and Nations List of National Parks and Protected which cannot be saved by species conserva- provides the basis for a co-ordinated Areas in order to track progress towards the tion alone and which further justify their cen- framework for species and ecosystem target. Recently, the data have been trans- tral position in conservation planning. • conservation. The data collected are ferred to GIS, allowing a much more flexible stored in a standard format in a regional tool for analysis. N. M. Collins database. R. Luxmoore World Conservation Monitoring Centre Conclusion 219 Huntingdon Road GB-Cambridge CB3 ODL The fundamental aim of saving biodiversity is to maximise the diversity of genetic mater- ial preserved. One approximation of this is to focus on species conservation; a further level Wetlands

The term "wetland" is difficult to define and encompasses a wide range of habitat types Habitats Directive of a given list of threatened species and of from ponds to saltmarshes; however, its per- threatened habitat types. The latter aspect, sistent recurrence in the jargon of conserva- The general philosophy of CORINE is re- listing literally hundreds of vegetation tion planning reflects its ecological impor- inforced by the EC Habitats Directive types from the CORINE systems of vege- tance as a focus for biodiversity. A number of which was adopted in June 1992. This tation classification, is unique in interna- different initiatives are attempting to invento- Directive builds on the Birds Directive by tional law. The countries of the ry wetlands on a national or regional scale. making provisions for the conservation of Community now have to implement this Within Europe, the MedWet project is devel- habitats and species (other than birds). In Directive by 1995; this can be expected to oping a standard methodology for harmonis- particular, member states are now re- lead to more protected areas being set up, ing the various national wetland surveys quired to create special areas for conser- especially for rare and declining habitat around the Mediterranean Basin. IUCN - the vation (SACs, analogous to SPAs under types, and the standards of protection in World Conservation Union - has begun the the Birds Directive) to conserve the sites existing protected areas strengthened. process of documenting the world's most im- portant wetland sites in a series of directories.

9 The law

Michel Chauvet

s biodiversity is a new, general con- cept, it is not easy today to see clearly Ahow it will fit into the law. The best approach is therefore to determine the areas likely to be concerned and the types of mea- sures envisaged. The future will reveal what is in store for this new miracle word. Can legislation maintain the diversity of extensive meadows?

To appreciate the novelty of the concept, re- member that it was not current in international Seen in this light, existing legislation and Codes of conduct are at present being prepared circles until around 1985. The World protective measures appear as discrete ele- at FAO. UNEP and elsewhere. Such codes Conservation Union then proposed an outline ments which need to be reassessed in this might one day become protocols to the convention on biodiversity with the intention more comprehensive context. This is not Convention and be transposed into national of bringing into a coherent conceptual frame- easy, as is shown by the delays and unwieldi- legislation. At the same time, agreements are work all the sectoral conventions dealing with ness in implementing instruments such as the being signed to clarify the status of the collec- nature conservation. Some of those conven- Bern Convention (1979) or the EEC Habitats tions held by gene banks and other repositories. tions were focused on certain species or par- Directive (1992). ticular types of habitat or had either regional or international scope; having been negotiated Effective conservation means devising effi- Concern lor diversity at different periods, moreover, they bore the cient tools for measuring the components of stamp of the ideas current at the time they biodiversity and amassing enormous quanti- were drawn tip. The IUCN proposal was tak- Lastly, the diversity of domestic species, an ties of information. In France, for example, en up in 1988 by the United Nations integral part of biodiversity, is endangered by an inventory of natural areas of ecological, Environment Programme (UNEP), which the globalisation of markets and the spread of faunistic and floristic interest, known as the convened committees of experts and later a high-performance varieties and cultivais over ZNIEFF, took about ten years to complete negotiating committee. We all know the out- vast areas. We are now aware of the risks of and occupied numerous groups of scientists, come: the Convention on Biological Diversity planting monoclonal forests or of using hy- amateurs and managers. was signed at the Earth Summit in Rio de brids that all have the same parents. The con- Janeiro in June 1992 by more than 150 coun- cern for diversity should be duly recognised tries. It had already achieved 23 ratifications in the organisation of seed production (official by June 1993 and will probably come into Long-term consequences catalogues of varieties, etc.) and in agricultur- force in 1994 with the 30th ratification. al policies (planting subsidies, product stan- The approach in terms of biodiversity has im- dardisation etc.). The EEC has taken a first plications which are still far from apparent to step in this direction by publishing two direc- everybody. It implies that all living taxa have tives on the protection of local produce. A new concept a priori the same importance: it is no longer enough to say that protecting the habitat of Biodiversity clearly represents an innovative The first thing to notice, therefore, is that bio- bears or certain birds also protects the plants approach, the effects of which will only be diversity was understood as referring to the to- and insects to be found there. Moreover, in felt progressively. It presents a challenge to tality of species and natural habitats. In other addition to priorities based on how endan- conservationists, who must contribute to the words, all the legislation on nature conversa- gered or rare a taxon is, care must be taken to debate on the rights of intellectual property tion was unwittingly dealing with biodiversity. protect representative samples of habitats and on biotechnology. Conservation has be- The cantankerous claimed that the word was which are relatively common but in the come a serious matter, but vigilance is neces- utterly pointless as it contributed nothing new. process of losing their specific character. The sary to ensure that the attention paid to the This is not so. It seems clear that the scientific whole corpus of legislation and regulations use of biodiversity is not detrimental to spe- origin of the concept of biodiversity is genetic relating to land management is concerned, a cific conservation projects. diversity, which is now established as being point already grasped by foresters. the condition for the adaptation of species to M. Chauvet changes in the environment and as playing a That is not all. Progress in biotechnology and functional role in evolution. This theoretical Genetic Resources Office the debate on the patentability of living forms model has been extended by ecologists to the 57, rue Cuvier have profoundly influenced the negotiation of two other classical levels of biodiversity, F 7523 ' Paris Cedex 05 the Convention on biodiversity. To the aston- namely, species diversity and ecological diver- ishment of numerous nature conservationists, sity (ie diversity of ecosystems). In other that Convention attaches considerable impor- words, instead of aiming to safeguard beauti- tance to the use of living species for the dis- ful landscapes (for aesthetic reasons) or popu- covery of new medicines and to genetic re- lations of spectacular animals (for ethical or sources of interest to agriculture and industry. even sentimental reasons), nature conservation The debate has often boiled down to a con- initially shifted towards a sense of heritage (in frontation between the "gene-rich" countries which the number of species became a major of the South and the "technology-rich" coun- criterion), and then, in a second stage, towards tries of the North. a view of nature as a system of interrelations at all levels. The point is that although everybody agrees about the great value of biodiversity, no one The fundamental objective of conservation knows how to measure it, how to regulate ex- thus became the safeguarding or re-establish- changes of living material and how to ensure ment of the optimal operation of these mech- that the expected profits and benefits help to anisms in the long term. strengthen the work of conservation.

10 o Sj

Useful wild plants

Gert Kleijer members of the Council of Europe Group of the realisation is fortunately spreading to the Specialists "Biodiversity and Bio- world of politics, where a number of mea- ll cultivated species derive originally Subsistence" shows that almost 300 wild an- sures have been taken. The protection of from wild species. Domestication cestors of cultivated plants used in food, ani- species in danger of extinction and of Asometimes sets up barriers prevent- mal fodder, medicine and flavourings are species-rich grasslands is closely linked to ing the recombination of cultivated plants economically important in Europe. A com- the continuation of traditional farming. With with their wild forebears. In other cases, re- parison of these species with the "red list" of the intensification of agriculture this type of combination allows genetic features from endangered plants in Switzerland shows that grassland has become rare. In the current wild plants to be introduced into domestic 30 of the 300 species are endangered to vari- economic conditions, farming cannot be con- plants. Wild species are often used success- ous degrees in Switzerland: seven in the cat- tent with the low yield and limited nutrition- fully to improve cultivated ones. egory of food plants, three in that of forage al value of these grasslands. The revised plants, three in the medical and flavouring Federal Law on the Protection of Nature and category and 14 in the category of ornamen- the Countryside (1987) provides a legal basis Gene transfer tal plants. Of these 30 species, ten are neo- for closer collaboration between farmers and phytes, ie they were introduced to environmental protection bodies. It is staled Wild species are used above all for their re- Switzerland after 1500. that the protection and conservation of sistance to diseases but also to transfer partic- biotopes must whenever possible be ensured ular characteristics or male sterility. Breeders It is important for each country to draw up by agreements between landowners and have made abundant use of wheat's wild an- this type of inventory, so as to recognise the farmers. The latter are entitled to fair remu- cestors, and there have been many successful endangered species which are the forebears neration if they give up intensive farming or transfers. One of the most interesting is the of economically important plants. More at- carry out additional work which brings no fi- transfer of a gene giving resistance to cereal tention can then be paid to these plants, nancial return. eyespot. This gene was discovered in the which can be included as priority species in wild species Aqgilops ventricosa. Because it conservation co-ordination work. Through a system of annual compensation, was impossible to crossbreed wheat directly the Confederation supports farming appro- with this variety of Aegilops, the latter was priate to species-rich grasslands. Encouraged first crossbred with another wild wheat. Swiss example by the Confederation, the cantons are also Triticutn persicum: the hybrid was then taking similar action. Currently, ten or so crossbred with the wheat. French researchers Switzerland is a country that can be divided cantons have concluded voluntary agree- thus produced varieties of wheat with good into four equally important areas of land use. ments with the farmers and landowners of resistance to cereal eyespot. Wild emmer (T. A quarter of the land is unproductive (rocks, species- rich grasslands. Various model dicoccoides) has also been successfully used buildings, etc.), a quarter is forested, a quar- agreements tailored to regional needs have to transfer a gene imparting resistance to yel- ter agricultural, including 300,000 hectares been developed. They specify, for example, low rust and a gene responsible for its high of open ground and 650.000 hectares of both the date on which tlie grass may first be cut, protein content. Other wild species even fur- rich and poor grassland, and the last quarter depending on altitude. All these measures ther removed from common wheat than is taken up by the pastures of the Alps and have provided good results without imposing Aegilops or T. dicoccoides can be used to in- the Jura. A substantial amount of pasture and legal constraints. Nevertheless, it will be troduce beneficial properties into wheat; an meadow very rich in plant life, particularly necessary to ensure, on the basis of a volun- forage plants, is present. In certain types of example is Agropyron, which carries genes tary system, that traditional farming contin- natural meadow such as rich grassland, eco- giving resistance to cold, salinity, drought ues over a sufficiently large area to enable types can be found which are populations re- and disease. endangered species to be protected and eco- sulting from selection in ecological condi- types evolving under quite specific condi- tions specific to a particular area. The struc- Common wheat is by no means the only tions to be maintained. ture of the genotypes is influenced not only species able to benefit from the qualities of by climate and soil, but also by the tradition- wild ancestors. The tomato can be crossed The wild ancestors of cultivated plants are al land use pattern. The meadow fescue and with many wild tomatoes which have agro- therefore a very important and valuable re- tall fescue ecotypes have been collected and nomic advantages. Sugar beet can make use source for improving currently cultivated agronomically assessed. The best are used in of the advantageous genes of Betu marítima, species. It is vital to conserve them and to a breeding programme. All new varieties of maintain viable populations able to evolve a wild species indigenous to Europe; the male these two types of fescue produced in our re- sterility found in a population of B. marítima under natural conditions; these will be useful search establishment are based on the eco- not only to the today's plant breeders but al- has been successfully transferred to sugar types possessing advantageous agronomic so to future generations. beet. There are currently several varieties of features. Indeed, breeders from all over apple on the market with a gene from the Europe converge on the rich grasslands of G. Kleijer wild species Mains floribunda, imparting re- central Switzerland to collect ecotypes to Changins Federal Agronomic Research Station (RACl sistance to apple scab. There are many other create productive, hardy varieties. A project Route de Duillier such examples. is currently under way in our research estab- lishment to determine whether certain minor CH-1260 Nyon All these examples show that wild species are species of forage plants, such as red fescue, often carriers of valuable genes which can be timothy and bird's-foot trefoil are worth an transferred to cultivated species, hence the attempt at selective breeding. If so. it would importance of protecting them. The region be possible to draw on the wealth of possessing the greatest genetic variability for Switzerland's flora to collect basic material a species is regarded as the centre of origin of for a breeding programme. that species. Throughout the world, there are eight centres of origin for cultivated species. Only the southern part of Europe is among These examples show that it is extremely im- these centres, yet Europe is rich in the wild portant for Switzerland to protect the rich- forebears of cultivated plants. A study carried ness of its plant life. Its value has long since out by P.W. Jackson and supplemented by been recognised by the world of science, and

11 process from collecting through to its dis- species including many of the problem Know-how tribution to users. crops identified above. However, cultures can be maintained under normal propaga- tion conditions without subculturing for Lvndsev Withers Collecting only days or weeks. For effective storage, it is necessary to extend the subculturing For the problem crops, described above, interval by slowing down the rate of the material collected in the field (seeds, growth or suspend it by cryopreservation shoots, suckers) is often bulky and heavy. in liquid nitrogen.

It may carry diseases in attached soil. For Slow growth can be achieved by reducing example, if suckers are collected as in the the culture temperature or adding osmoti- case of banana, this may spread soil- cally active solutes such as mannitol to the borne pathogens including nematodes, or culture medium. Slow growth is being used x situ conservation in seed insects. Collected material may also lose routinely in a number of genebanks for genebanks and field genebanks is viability or even decompose before reach- shoot cultures of crops including potato, E complementary to in situ conserva- ing the genebank. These impediments to cassava, banana and plantain. These can be tion of plant genetic resources using re- successful collecting can be overcome by maintained for periods of between six serves and on-farm approaches. adapting in vitro propagating techniques months and two years without subcultur- Biotechnology, in particular tissue cul- to field conditions. For example, cacao ing. However, it is necessary to experiment ture (in vitro culture), is providing new shoots, which have a life span of only a to find suitable slow growth conditions for ways of conserving material ex situ. The few weeks, can simply be sterilised using each species and sometimes each variety. benefits of these new approaches are es- drinking water purifying tablets and then pecially obvious when resolving serious put into bottles of culture medium con- The most promising method for the secure, problems in the conservation of certain taining fungicides. Several weeks later, long-term storage of cultures lies in cryop- crops. the cultured shoots can be transferred to reservation. At the temperature of liquid ni- an in vitro genebank or grafted onto trogen (-196 °C), no metabolic reactions Most agricultural crop and temperate seedlings. take place, therefore, time effectively ceases. forestry species produce "orthodox" The first successes with plant cell cultures seeds which can be stored dry and at low In the case of coconut, the seeds are re- were achieved in the early 1970s. Survival temperature. calcitrant as well as very bulky. was achieved by treating the cells with cry- Fortunately, most of the nut itself is su- oprotectant chemicals and cooling them However, the seeds of cacao (Theobroma perfluous; only the embryos need be col- slowly to allow extracellular freezing to de- cacao), coconut (Cocos nuciferci), mango lected. They can be extracted in the field hydrate the cells. However, cell cultures are (Mangifera indica), and many tropical and either transported in a bag of coconut not generally the material of choice for ge- fruits and forest trees, cannot tolerate milk back to the tissue culture laboratory netic conservation because they may be desiccation and die when exposed to low or put into culture in the field using very prone to genetic instability ("somaclonal temperatures. They are called "recalci- basic equipment. variation" - see Monitoring below). trant". Seed storage is not considered suitable for clonally propagated crops be- Cell cultures can be induced to form cause they are highly heterozygous or be- Storage structures that resemble seed embryos but cause they are infertile. Examples of that are all of the same genotype. These clonal crops include many important sta- In vitro propagation techniques have been are termed "somatic embryos". These ples such as potato (Solatium spp.), cas- used for many years to clonally multiply cultures have some potential applications sava (Manihot esculenta), sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas), yam (Dioscorea spp.), and bananas and plantains (Musa In situ plantation of cacao-tre spp.).

The conventional solution to all these problems is to use the field genebank, which has many drawbacks including risks of disease and weather damage (Withers and Engels, 1990). In the face of these problems, in vitro culture (tissue culture) has been explored as an alterna- tive.

In vitro conservation

The main focus of conservation work is storage itself, but in vitro culture and as- sociated techniques can resolve problems and improve efficiency and security at other stages of the overall conservation

12 Isozyme analysis and molecular tech- the case of cryopreservation. Also, prob- niques such as RFLP (restriction frag- lems of genetic instability need to be ment length polymorphism) and RAPD clarified and resolved. Two other (random amplified polymorphic DNA) methodologies deserve mention in the can provide new ways of identifying context of developing a conservation genotypes and assessing genetic stability. strategy. The potential benefits of applying mole- cular techniques are illustrated by the Pollen storage has considerable under- case of banana and plantain. Some vari- utilised potential but it only conserves eties have inherently unstable genomes, the paternal genotype, not maternal (in- leading to high levels of somaclonal cluding cytoplasmic) genes. DNA stor- variation in vitro. This is often only evi- age is simple to carry out and should be dent once the plant reaches the flower- widely applicable. However, strategies ing or fruiting stage in the field and pro- and procedures for the utilisation of duces a poor yield. Rather than lose the stored DNA need to be devised. It has Different storage methods can he brought together advantages that rapid in vitro multipli- yet to find a clear niche in the genetic in a complementary w«y to conserve a genepool. cation can bring to conservation and conservation of any one crop, although Clockwise from bottom left: pollen storage, use, scientists are looking for ways of as biotechnology breaks down the barri- storage of in vitro cultures, the field genebank. detecting instability as early as possible. ers between genepools. DNA storage seed storage, in situ conservation, DNA storage An RAPD marker for one undesirable may assume wide application for gene if variant has now been identified. This not genome conservation. opens up the possibility of detecting some somaclonal variants using an The combination and balance of tech- in conservation, as in the case of banana overnight procedure at the culture stage. niques used for the conservation of a and plantain but attention has generally genepool will be arrived at by assessing a focused on shoot-meristems and shoot- number of factors. These include the re- tips which are thought to be inherently productive biology of the genus/species, Germplasm distribution more stable. the breeding strategy employed, the need for storage of genes or genotypes, the However, when treated similarly to cell Germplasm movement entails the risk of available storage technologies and the in- cultures, the latter cultures often suffer spreading pests and pathogens. To re- frastructure and economic environment serious structural damage, as recalcitrant duce the risk, indexing and treatment in which conservation is to be carried seeds and their embryos. Fortunately, procedures are available, and quarantine out. some new cryopreservation techniques procedures must be observed. In vitro have emerged relatively recently that procedures such as meristem-tip culture For material that is traditionally clonally seem to reduce cryodamage dramatically. in combination with thermotherapy can propagated but for which many geno- be used to eradicate pathogens, particu- types are in fact fertile, for example pota- In one of the new methods, vitrification, larly viruses. Pathogen-tested cultures to, it may be possible to conserve genes the specimen is frozen very rapidly and can be exchanged without the risk of re- in the long-term through pollen or seed the cellular water forms a non-crystalline infection or contamination. There are storage. Only those clonal genotypes for solid (a "glass"). A quite different tech- now many examples of the successful which access is essential in the short to nique has been used for recalcitrant seed distribution of material from genebanks medium term need be maintained as embryos which can be cryopreserved af- as plantlets or even mini-tubers such as clones in the field genebank or in vitro. ter careful air drying. Successes have in potato. Conversely, in the case of seed-propagat- been reported for several species includ- ed species such as cereals, some geno- ing coconut. types which are being improved through Integrating new techniques genetic manipulation might well be The new development that is perhaps the into conservation strategies stored in vitro. most promising and intriguing involves artificial seed technology. Shoot-tips or A range of conservation techniques are Thus there are few rules to designing a somatic embryos are encapsulated in algi- available but no one of these is satisfacto- complementary conservation strategy ex- nate gel and then dehydrated before cool- ry on its own. In situ conservation is par- cept that it should be need-driven rather ing rapidly (Dereuddre et al., 1991). This ticularly appropriate for wild relatives of than technology-driven, focusing on the seems to be very widely applicable, giv- crops and has obvious applications in genepool as the target. ing much higher survival levels and less forestry. The genetic resources are open structural damage than other approaches to evolutionary forces hut are not very ac- The most effective and appropriate to cryopreservation. cessible. Field genebanks are relatively combination of conservation methods accessible but can entail risks as illustrat- both in situ and ex situ should be used ed earlier, and are extremely costly to to meet the aims of security, efficiency, Monitoring maintain. Seed storage is efficient and accessibility and sustainability, balanc- relatively secure. However, it cannot be ing the advantages of one method Plants lose many of their distinguishing used for recalcitrant seeds or clones. against the disadvantages of others. • physical characteristics once they have been transferred to in vitro culture. This, The benefits of in vitro conservation for L.A. Withers and the risk of somaclonal variation un- some problem crops are evident, but International Board for Plant Genetic Resources (IBPGR) derline the necessity to incorporate stabil- methodologies need to be worked out for Via dellc Sette Chiese 142 ity monitoring into in vitro conservation. more genotypes and species, especially in 1-00145 Rome

13 tlowers. Nearly all the cultivated varieties are The carob tree dioecious, with male and female flowers car- ried on separate trees. The male inflorescence of various colours may have long and slender An exemplary plant or short and thick styles. In both cases each male flower possesses a vestigial pistil which will abort. Fernando Catarina The female flowers also possess non-func- he carob tree (Ceratonia siliqua L.) and tional embryonic stamens surrounded by the its domestication over a period of some carpel. More rarely, there are plants with both Tfour millennia offer an excellent illus- male and female flowers on the same stalk tration of the way in which, from the very and even flowers which are completely her- birth of agriculture, man carefully learnt how maphrodite. it?"»itf^jjgSá^L__ ... to use nature's living resources.

Certain varieties which have been known for " -- - -.'¿V.- ; Thus, he invented new forms of cultivation. a long time are the subject of great interest New products were consumed either directly since they only have hermaphrodite flowers. or after processing. Social contacts between These trees are also very interesting on ac- geographically dispersed groups led to a count of the quantity and properties of their Exteňsive culture of hermaphrodite caroh-trees in the Algarve gradual accumulation of experience and was fruit and seeds. They are all the more appre- accompanied by the transfer of plant genetic ciated for not requiring pollinating trees resources beyond their natural frontiers. In so when they are in plantations. This makes In conditions of extreme drought, the trees doing, man forced nature to accelerate its their cultivation more profitable since all the can shed a large part of their foliage. They evolution, thus diversifying the natural her- space is occupied by fruit producing trees. can survive for long periods without leaves, itage. There are fewer problems arising from sterili- drawing on reserves of water stored in the ty and the aborting of embryos as a result of a trunk until a period of rain permits the rapid shortage of pollinating insects or poor climat- replacement of the foliage. Botanic history ic conditions at flowering time, factors which can cause a substantial drop in production in It should be stressed that in more thermophile dioecious varieties. Ceratonia siliqua is the botanical name of this Mediterranean conditions, in the absence of remarkable plant, which is found throughout an excessive water shortage, these plants - the Mediterranean basin and of which there unlike genuine xerophiles - can maintain are now numerous varieties. The name which A significant potential their exchange activities throughout the year: Linnaeus gave to this bush was suggested to a further indication of the species' "tropical him by the shape of the fruit which, in certain It is interesting to note that although the memory". Other features, such as the varieties, resembles a goat's dropping. carob is generally thought of as an example longevity of the leaves which is practically of perfect morphophysiological adaptation to double that of the majority of the most com- However, the extreme hardness of the seeds typical Mediterranean conditions, it in fact mon Mediterranean species, tend to confirm may explain the adoption of the Greek and retains the memory of its tropical origins. the plant's tropical origins. Arab roots in the scientific and popular This is evident in numerous physiological names. and biological features while the species' That being so, the Mediterranean carob is ca- sensitivity to low temperatures places strict pable of strong growth and can be used in a Since the carob is the only species in the limits on its area of distribution. It also wide variety of climatic environments. Leguminosae-Cesalpinoideae group, there achieves high levels of photosynthesis at sig- Attempts have been made to cultivate it in was some surprise when the botanical world nificantly greater temperatures than other many different climatic regions. It has been learnt, in 1980. of the discovery of Ceratonia typically Mediterranean plants and can main- shown to be a valuable species as a source of oreothauma in Arabia and the Republic of tain such high rates when there is a signifi- human and animal food and even of fuel in Somalia. This now offers a new basis for an cant water shortage, thanks in part to its root projects to prevent desertification, particular- understanding of the carob's origins. system which is capable of searching out wa- ly in sub-tropical regions where the tempera- Extremely hardy carobs which are considered ter at great depths. tures recorded are not too low. to be wild are found throughout the Mediterranean basin: in the same way as In adapting to a Mediterranean climate, the olives, they differ from their domesticated plant appears to adopt a strategy of avoiding Pure and applied research equivalents which are propagated artificially, hydric stress. The seeds normally take root in sometimes through grafting. These so-called autumn and spring or where the climatic condi- 20 years ago, at a meeting of specialists in wild plants are probably simply spontaneous- tions are more favourable, for example rela- plant physiology in Izmir, Turkey, 1 had the ly wild forms dispersed naturally by animals. tively close to the sea, where the climatic ex- tremes are less pronounced. The xerophilous Nowadays, these plants must be genetically leaves, protected by cuticular coatings and pro- Pod and seeds very different from the carob's original stock, tective tissues against extremes of heat and with the new species discovered in Arabia brightness, cope well with the light intensity appearing to be the ancestor of the group. and high temperatures characteristic of a Mediterranean summer. The carob also has an Carobs also display enormous variations of effective foliar system formed from composite biological form and floral type. The shrub- leaves equipped with a mechanism for adapt- like forms with multiple stems are confined ing the lamina to optimise the angle of inci- to certain very unfavourable habitats. In other dence of radiation so as to increase its exposure cases they are trees which in ideal climatic to light during the ideal growing periods. conditions may rise to a height of up to 20 metres. At other times, and particularly in summer, the carob can arrange its leaves in such a way There are characteristic differences in terms as to expose only a minimum surface area to of reproduction and the morphology of the the sun's rays.

14 However, the carob fruit contains an exces- The carob tree and its environment sive quantity of tannin which protects it against herbivores attracted by such an ap- The carob also plays an important part in the petising carbohydrate concentration. These protection of natural and aesthetic resources phenolic compounds, which can represent be- in numerous regions of the globe. tween 16 and 20% of the fruit's dry weight, restrict the use of carob flour because of their Its adaptability and the ease with which it can inhibiting effect on protein assimilation. be grown makes it an urban plant of great Nowadays, the principal benefit from its cul- aesthetic value. tivation lies in its seeds, which make up bare- ly 10% of the dry weight of the pods. The The soil beneath carob plantations benefits seeds' value is in large part attributable to from the constant protection of these trees, their endosperm constituents, accounting for with their remarkable life span. Such soil is 30 to 40% of their weight. These are the rich in organic matter and has a balanced polysaccharides known as galactomananes structure. The plant cover offers natural pro- forming the well-known carob or locust bean tection against the erosion which is of great gum, E4I0 in the list of food additives. It is concern in Mediterranean regions. used for manufacturing the finest ice-creams. Carob bean gum is also used as a stabilising The carob tree, cultivated for thousands of (Portugal) agent, thickening and additive in the food years and well adapted to the European processing, pharmaceutical, textile, paper Mediterranean region, continues to play a key and, more recently, petroleum industries. role in the social and economic environment opportunity to join a small group charged and can help to make the protection of natur- with carrying out pure and applied research Global production of dry pods, some 400.000 al resources more effective. into the physiology of Mediterranean plants. tonnes per year, is mainly concentrated in This group of academics and researchers, Spain. Italy and Portugal. The cultivation of These resources can be as important as the largely drawn from the countries of southern carob trees and the commercial exploitation serene, harmonious and beautiful landscapes Europe, very soon identified a need to ex- of their products has developed significantly which were the cradle of our civilisation and pand our basic knowledge of the physiologi- in a number of North African countries, such which accommodate a wealth of animal and cal reaction of Mediterranean plants. as Morocco. The endosperm, which repre- plant life, as well as forms of cultural expres- Environmentally related constraints with a sents barely 4% of the fruits' weight, fetches sion rich in social and human value. H substantial impact on biological productivity up to six dollars a kilo on the international are frequently observed in regions with a market. Prof. Dr F. Catarino Mediterranean climate. Moreover, these re- Director of the Botanic Garden of the University of I .isbon gions generally suffer more than most from Rua Eseola Politecnica the effects of man's destructive activities on The future: pods or seeds? P-1294 Lisbon Cedex their productive potential. The development of biotechnology opens up Those of us involved in the exercise sought a good prospects for food processing and other better understanding of the physiological industries based on carob cultivation. bases and adaptive techniques of Mediterranean xerophilous plants faced with Although direct use of the sugars is con- a hostile climate. strained by their high tannin content, enzymat- ic processes capable of extracting and separat- The ultimate objective was to use the knowl- ing the tannins and which also have potential edge gleaned from this research to assist the industrial applications are currently being de- development of plants and forms of agio- in- veloped. Another well- developed technique dustrial activity which would be of economic uses certain micro-organisms (xanthomonas) benefit to the southern regions of Europe. which are capable of producing xanthene ex- tracelluarly from carob sugars as a unique source of energy and carbon. The principal in- Ceratonia siliqita was the species chosen. It dustrial use of xanthenes. whose properties re- is interesting to recall that the high sugar con- semble those of galactomananes, appears to be centration of the carob's fruit, despite a high in petroleum extraction since their injection in- tannin content, has formed the basis for ani- to oil wells helps to improve the extractive mal feedstuffs in the region for thousands of yield, particularly before the wells run dry. years. In time of war, the carob came to be considered a strategic material. Its owners and those who controlled the trade in the Carob cultivation, which has experienced sig- product enjoyed a clear advantage on account nificant fluctuations over recent decades, can of the "concentrated force" contained in the therefore probably remain viable. It is an in- fruit, which can accumulate up to 50% of its creasingly important activity from both an weight in sugar. economic and a social point of view. Research on the subject needs to be stepped Moreover, the fruit is particularly suitable for up and methods of cultivating and managing storage and conservation. Animals are very plantations introduced to improve their com- partial to this food, which gives them the petitiveness and productivity. strength for both combat and work. Recently conducted experiments in pilot re- Man thus selected a plant with a high sugar con- gions in southern Spain and Portugal have centration. After grinding, the pods provided a yielded encouraging results regarding the po- flour which when mixed with cereals or other tential contribution of irrigation, mechanical carbohydrate rich products served as human picking, the destruction of parasitic insects foodstuff in times of shortage. Partial roasting and the improvement of products for industri- produces an aroma similar to that of cocoa. al use to the development of carob cultivation.

15 r /3

I

May none of these forms

7 and colours be lost forever

/j f Wild relatives

Toby Hodgkin

any of the species from which cul- tivated plants were selected contin- Mue to survive in the wild, even to the present day. So also do many closely re- lated species. Together these wild relatives of present day crops constitute a rich source of variation of immense value. They have continued to evolve under natural selection and to adapt to meet the demands of the nat- ural ecosystems in which they occur. They may possess characteristics such as resis- tance to floods, to drought and to extremes some of which, such as crab apple, wild cher- fying the species involved and their distribu- of heat and cold. Often they have been ry and rughetta (Diplotaxis erucoides), are tion. This will result in a valuable source of shown to possess new and valuable resis- still being collected and used in their own information on the species of concern. The tances to pests and diseases that are severely right. Important industrial crops such as flax Council of Europe has also brought together damaging existing crop varieties. and sugar beet also have wild relatives which specialists with a wide range of expertise to have been used in plant breeding pro- focus on conserving Europe's wild relatives In some cases, wild species may themselves grammes. (see report in Naturopa No. 71-1993). be developed as new crops as in the case of Conserving these species raises specific prob- jojoba (Simmondsia cliinensis) which pro- The way in which wild relatives can be used lems which have often been somewhat over- vides a substitute for sperm whale oil or oil in providing new sources of variation for im- looked and the multidisciplinary approach producing Limnanthes species. They may al- portant characteristics depends on the rela- adopted by the Council of Europe should pro- so have significant medicinal properties as in tionships between the crops and their wild vide a sound basis for future action. the case of the European Digitalis spp. and relatives. In some cases the species are fully species such as Chichorium intybus (chico- interfertile. Wild Brassica oleracea from the Conservation is a long-term process requiring ry). The wild relatives of crops have also Atlantic coast of Europe can be crossed di- an integrated strategy in which different proved useful in developing new plant breed- rectly with cabbage, cauliflower and other B. methods complement each other effectively. ing methods. A barley relative. Hordeum bul- oleracea vegetables to give fertile offspring. For most wild species, and many wild rela- bosum, has been used to obtain fully ho- In other cases the species can only be crossed tives of crops, in situ conservation will prob- mozygous barley lines for development as with extreme difficulty. Artificial culture in ably be the method of choice supported by new cultivars. vitro of the hybrid embryo and a complex effective ex situ conservation to safeguard the and lengthy period of backcrossing may be diversity and ensure that it is available for fu- necessary to obtain fertile progeny with the ture users. Recently, wild beet collected in New characters desired character from the wild species. Europe in the mid-1930s has been used by However, recent developments in genetic en- American plant breeders because of its high By far the most common use of the wild rela- gineering and in tissue culture have greatly resistance to certain important pests and dis- tives of crops has been as a source of new extended the opportunities for using the ge- eases. This material had been conserved for characters required for modern agriculture. A netic diversity of wild relatives and increased over 50 years before it was used; it is impor- well-known example is that of Oiysa nivara, their value to us. tant that we make effective plans to ensure a relative of rice, some plants of which were that future workers can carry out similar ac- found to possess resistance to a viral disease tivities whenever it becomes necessary. • called grassy stunt which is spread by the Long-term and important task brown planthopper. The gene responsible for Dr T. Hodgkin this resistance was bred into new rice vari- The importance of conserving wild relatives International Board for Plant Genetic Resources t IBPGR) eties at the International Rice Research of crop species has been recognised by a Via delle Sette Chiese 142 Institute in the Philippines. There are many number of national and international agencies 1-00145 Rome other examples and European species have concerned with conservation. Organisations also played a significant part in the process. such as the International Board for Plant For example, Tritlcum turgidum var dicoc- Genetic Resources (IBPGR). the World coides from the Eastern Mediterranean has Conservation Union (IUCN) and the World been used to increase protein content of bread Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) have collabo- and durum wheat and resistance to fungal rated with national research and conservation diseases has been obtained from the wild rel- bodies in a number of initiatives concerned atives of cabbage and lettuce. with collecting and conserving wild relatives of crop plants. The Council of Europe's ini- Europe possesses a considerable number of tiative in this area is. however, unique in a species that are related to our major crops number of important respects. Firstly, it is a and which need to be conserved. All the ma- specifically European initiative focusing on jor European grain crops (wheat, barley, oats wild relatives which occur in Europe and and rye) have European wild relatives as do which are important constituents of the total many important legume species (both grain genepools of European crops. Secondly, it legumes and forages). A wide range of fruit has involved the collation of information on and vegetable crops also have wild relatives European wild relatives of crop plants, identi-

18 nature conservation acts) might be highlighted as one of the most recent and in this respect In Central Europe most comprehensive pieces of legislation pro- tecting. throughout the whole province: all peatbogs, marshes, water meadows, fen woodlands, forests and other woods bordering streams, rivers, lakes and the like: all stretches of running water above ground including dams with their 30-year flood catchment area: Helmut Wittmann that are present in Central Europe but located all stretches of natural surface waters covering on the edge of their range and as a result of a minimum of 20 nr and a maximum of 2 000 entral Europe has been transformed by the associated "peripheral phenomena" most- nv including their banks and shores: sedge ar- human land settlement and anthro- ly have greater genetic variability. eas and reedbed areas: barren Alpine land in- Cpogenic activities to an extent unparal- Furthermore, there is also a number of cluding glaciers and adjacent areas; ad lastly - leled almost anywhere on earth. Large areas species, characteristic of specific phytosocio- once the biotope mapping is complete - all of land were urbanised and the region has a logical units, which only occur in this form in dry and sparse grasslands. Thanks to this leg- population of almost 200 million people. An Central Europe. The disappearance of these islation. protection is available for those habi- extremely dense road and rail network and plants from the central area of the European tats or biotopes whose widespread disappear- other infrastructure typical of "highly devel- continent would also mean the extinction of ance from Central Europe has decisively con- oped" countries went hand in hand with this an entire plant community, although the tributed to the depletion of specics. process. Massive inroads were made in the species itself may be frequent elsewhere. Central European landscape for extracting Lastly, it should not be forgotten that many b. Introduction of comprehensive compulsory Central European species fulfil specific roles raw materials, producing energy and devel- authorisation oping industrial production. Even agriculture in the ecosystem, which are of vital signifi- cance for the other indigenous flora or fauna. has moved away from its function as caretak- Many European states have brought their na- All nature conservation strategies should er of the landscape, particularly in the last 50 ture conservation legislation into line with therefore aim to maintain or rather re-estab- years, and gone over to intensive methods, ecological requirements in this respect too. lish a Central European flora as rich in thereby depriving many animal and plant Thus more or less all activities that impair the species as possible and with the widest possi- species of their natural habitats by the use of natural environment, such as road building, ble biodiversity. fertilisers and pesticides together with the mining, power station construction, ski lift drainage of peatbogs and wetlands. Nor installation etc. have been made subject to should we overlook tourism in this respect, approval by nature conservation authorities which can pose dire threats to vulnerable The traditional concept of nature reserves through corresponding statutory regulations. ecosystems particularly in areas that are still close to their natural state. Although these The laws on nature conservation in most dangers are present in many places, they c. Amendment of species protection regula- Central European countries are or were de- rarely occur on such a cumulative and mas- tions signed to protect areas of varying size, in sive scale as in Central Europe. which the use of the countryside is regulated In this respect also, legislators in the various in favour of the endemic animal and plant countries are paying closer attention to the life. Various categories of protected areas are scientific findings of the last few years. Exceptional features of flora provided for in legislation, depending on the Whilst regulations to protect plant species stringency of the regulations concerned. This until recently merely prohibited flower pick- The flora of Central Europe is relatively poor principle has, however, proved to be of only ing. although this really only applied to at- in species as a result of the last glaciations very limited suitability and has been unable tractive flora and only to a limited extent to which only ended 12,000 years ago. to prevent increases in "red list" species. threatened species, legislative reforms are Nevertheless - or perhaps for this very reason Furthermore, the conservation provisions en- now tending to take account of the respective - this region deserves the particular attention shrined in the regulations were often not very "endangered" lists and to incorporate the pro- of nature conservation. For one thing, there is effective as they generally ignored distinctly tection of the relevant species' habitat. Thus, a whole range of species the core of whose negative factors such as farming. The most when a plant is designated as a protected area of distribution lies in Central Europe or problematic aspect of the entire protected species, not only the plant but also its habitat which are endemic to the region. Examples area concept was, however, that the network enjoy legal protection. of these are Dianthus lumnitzeri, Doronicum of small and very small biotopes. which is at least as important for natural diversity as cataractarum, Draba ladina, Myosotis d. Creation of a legal supervisory body rehsteineri or Orobanche lucorum. A few larger, coherent classifications, was not in- tribes have not yet become morphologically cluded at all. Legislation is only effective if it is actually im- differentiated to the same extent as, for ex- plemented - this is particularly true of nature ample, endemic tribes in south-eastern conservation laws. Many decisions are taken Europe, as a result of the relatively short nat- New strategies on political grounds are legally incorrect or at ural history of Central European flora. For least questionable. Legislators in many this very reason, some plants, such as Legal measures Austrian federal provinces have taken account Cocldearia bavarica, have only recently been of this situation by setting up a provincial su- recognised as full, independent species. a. Protected habitats pervisory body: the environmental law bar as- sociation. They have - sometimes very com- What is more, there is a whole range of A few Central European states (Switzerland, prehensive powers to control proceedings - the species that have isolated populations in Germany, Austria) have reformed their laws opportunity to push through the interests of Central Europe which lie far away from their on nature conservation to statutorily protect their client - nature - in nature conservation north, east or south European or Asian distri- various types of habitat over the whole coun- proceedings. As a rule, this type of body en- bution area. In the case of these tribes, it may try. Thus activities that would have negative joys a politically independent status and can- be assumed that they have gained a degree of effects on these habitats are either permitted not therefore be manipulated through political independence through their geographical sep- only subject to authorisation under nature interference. The creation of a provincial asso- aration and this is why they are to be regard- conservation law, or totally prohibited. The ciation of environmental lawyers in some ed as well worth protecting in terms of main- Salzburg nature reserve act (in Austria, nature Austrian provinces has proved to be a mile- taining as large a "biodiversity" as possible. conservation is the responsibility of the feder- stone in the effective implementation of nature A similar claim can be advanced for species al provinces and there are thus nine different conservation legislation.

19 Botanic gardens

Fernando Catarino

otanic gardens play a key role in genome conservation. A strategy Bbased on the protection principle has recently been developed to provide guidance for their activities and objectives. The ap- proach makes use of the accumulated knowl- edge and experience of botanic gardens and similar institutions.

It has been the practice - in some cases for Síilix mxrtilloides LycopodieUa inundata centuries - for each garden to publish what is called an "index Seminum". These indexes, whose main purpose is to encourage ex- changes of seeds for botanical experiments and studies, have from their inception consti- tuted remarkable instruments of communica- tion between the different botanic gardens and institutes, making it possible to secure, Biotope mapping through one of the many European nature free of charge, the genes of indigenous and conservation movements or in their behav- cultivated plants from across the globe. We can only protect what we know exists. iour as tourists or consumers - is of no mean This is particularly relevant for the conserva- significance for the protection of species and In a world where natural ecosystems free of tion of species and biotopes. Many European habitats. human influence have practically disap- countries have therefore begun biotope map- peared. the genetic resources of our wild flo- ping, which has indeed already been complet- ra have a significant contribution to make ed in some regions. Such maps are essential Concluding remarks alongside "domestic" and cultivated plants in not only for the implementation of legal pro- the development of agriculture, plant life and visions but also as a basis for spatial planning As these comments show we are - at least in bio-industries. and development, systems of conservation in- many areas of Central Europe - on the right centives. species promotion programmes and track towards acting on scientific findings re- Moreover, the speed with which the habitats special biotope management strategies. lating to the depletion of species and biotopes of wild species are altering and shrinking has Although the quality of the biotope mapping by applying counteractive measures. In view led to an increase in the number of species is extremely variable from one region to an- of the fact that a third of all plant species threatened with extinction as traditional other in many countries it is done so meticu- throughout Europe are to some extent endan- forms of land use change. It is therefore pos- lously that its findings can be implemented gered great urgency is called for in enforcing sible that the future preservation of these with no legal objections. these strategies. plants will be largely dependent on the devel- opment of strategies for their cultivation and Perhaps this will still allow the estimated dis- conservation ex situ in botanic gardens, ar- Creation of agricultural assistance appearance of 850 species of Central boretums and other settings designed to pro- programmes European flora this century (Engelhardt tect biological diversity. 1983) to be revised downwards by a few On the one hand, no one denies that farming species. • Global responsibility for preserving wild in Central Europe has a certain role in main- species and their genetic diversity devolves taining the rural ecosystem, but on the other, H. Wittmann on the entire scientific community, since an restrictive statutory measures with no offer of Ecology Institute ever wider range of plant resources is re- financial compensation are very difficult to Haus tier Natur quired to counter soil erosion, combat deser- sell politically. For this reason, various Arenbergstrasse 10 tification and restore the damaged plant covet- European states (eg Switzerland. Germany, A-5020 Salzburg in many regions. Austria) have begun to offer farmers finan- cial incentives to encourage the maintenance Strategies are also needed to guarantee the of the countryside. This additional income for present and future supply of foodstuffs, fibres the crisis-ridden farming sector makes the and other plant products with an actual or po- legislative measures considerably more ac- tential use. This means placing the free trade ceptable and at the same time promotes the in genomes through the index Seminum on a continuation of traditional forms of farming. permanent, rational and viable basis, as well as increasing the stability and protection of plant populations in their natural habitats. • Public relations Prof. Dr F. Catarino All of the strategies and activities described Laboratorv Museum and Botanic Garden above are integrated with an overall public University of Lisbon relations programme in the individual states. Rua Escola Politecnica This is absolutely essential, since the best and P-1 294 Lisbon Cedex most binding legal instruments can only be enacted and implemented if the country's population fully supports the objectives be- hind the law. It should also be stressed that the commitment of individual citizens - either

20 In Turkey

Tima Ekim

I is common knowledge that Turkey is an Pamukkale extremely rich country floristically. Out of Iabout 9,000 vascular plant species, 3,000 are endemic, comparing with a total of about 12,000 in whole Europe. Geographically dis- tinct regions also give rise to a great variety in the vegetation. Mostly East Mediterranean el- ements are encountered in the lowlands of Mediterranean. Aegean and Marmara areas and some parts of south-east Anatolia. Some Mediterranean mountain species will occur in of 23 more areas as nature preserves between Although Turkey has not joined the Ramsar the higher ranges of the Taurus Mountains 1987 and 1991. Their scales vary between 86 Convention, an effort to protect wetlands is mixed with Irano-Turanian elements. Mainly hectares (the Haci Osman Forest near undertaken by the government and NGOs Irano-Turanian species grow in central and Samsun) and 17,200 hectares (the Sultan with Ihe participation of interested scientists. eastern Anatolia, and species belonging to Sazligi near Kayseri. which is the other im- As a result, total drying and conversion of Euro-Siberian vegetation occur in the Black portant and first-class wetland). Most of these wetlands into agricultural land has been Sea region. In Anatolia proper a series of en- nature preserves are, if smaller, part of the stopped. An effort to stop pollution and de- claves are found along most of the Black Sea. national parks, thus warranting for their en- generation of such areas is also under way. the Mediterranean and the Aegean coasts. The closure and set-up of more efficient protec- fact that three main phytogeographic regions tion. Turkey has applied for membership to CITES meet in Anatolia is one of the main reasons at the end of 1991 as well as to Ramsar. In for its floristic richness. In addition. Turkey is By means of legislation adopted in 1990. the order to join CITES. Turkey has imposed re- recognised as a primary or secondary genetic Turkish government has taken 12 areas under strictions to the collecting of geophytes from centre for some plant taxa. protection and granted these the status of their habitats, thus reducing their trade. For Special Environmental Protection Areas. instance, the export of Galantlms elwesii Turkey is a very large country. Anatolia, its These areas have been selected not only ac- which suffered from heavy trading has come Asiatic part, covers about 290.000 and cording to biological criteria, but also in or- down from 40 to 12 million bulbs within the Thrace, its European part, 9.250 square miles, der to prevent tourism and construction. The last two years. or a total of 779.000 km2, an area which is Dalyan area near Koycegis-Mugla has been about a third larger than France or the Iberian taken under protection because it is the habi- Restrictions have also been imposed on the Peninsula. This huge size raises some difficul- tat of loggerhead turtle (Caretla caretta) export of the snake Vipera kaznakowii and ties from the conservation point of view. which has recently become the focus of several species of predatory birds. world public attention. Pamukkale, another one, is protected because of its world-famous I have tried, in short, to describe the mea- National parks and protected areas calcareous sediments. The Ihlara valley has sures, mostly official, taken in order to pre- come under protection for being one of the serve the biological diversity and the natural In order to protect biological richness, at- earliest settlements of Christianity and the sites of Turkey. Despite all of these efforts, it tempts are being made to expand zones of na- numerous churches and temples containing would be preposterous to assume that every- ture preservation. The first national park was precious paintings and frescos. thing runs smoothly in the country. Our aim established in 1958 at Yozgat, in central is to preserve the country's riches. This is Anatolia, in order to preserve a Pinus nigra In addition to the various areas of environ- not easy, considering for instance the coun- ssp. pallasiana relict in a steppe area. Later, as mental protection already mentioned, zones try's size. We are all happy to see that peo- many as 23 national parks were established in of minor size were also put under preserva- ple at large, starting with pupils of all educa- different regions of the country. Their surfaces tion. These regions are mainly meant to pro- tive levels, spontaneously grow more and vary from 64 hectares for the Bird Paradise to tect animal species as fallow deer, roe deer, more conscious of environmental needs and 69,800 for the Olympos Bey Mountains, bald ibis, pheasant, frankolin. partridge, wild problems and this looks very encouraging to reaching a total of about 500,000 hectares. goat and waterfowl which are either rare or all of us. • under danger of extinction in Turkey as in the Among the national parks, the famous Bird world. A small area was also established in Prof. Dr T. Ekim Paradise National Park established in 1959 is 1987 for a Genliana lutea relict which has Department of Biology particularly characterised by a significant been highly damaged by export activities. Gazi University ecological structure. Situated in the south of TR-06500 Ankara the Marmara region, this is one of the first- class wetlands of the country. Because of the Other official measures effective conservation and administration of this area, which is small but has a great or- Turkey has accepted to join the Paris Agreement nithological significance, it was awarded a (on protection of birds), the Bern Convention "Class A European Diploma" by the Council and the Barcelona Convention on controlling the of Europe in 1976. This award was renewed pollution of the Mediterranean Sea. in 1981. 1986 and 1991. Two gene banks have bee established at Izmir in the 1960s and Ankara (in 1991). The Nature conservation areas more important of the two is settled at Izmir- Menemen and preserves the seed or repro- The growing consciousness that Turkey en- ductive parts of cultivated plants. Later the joys a special status from the point of view of collecting of seed of wild plants, particularly biological diversity has led to the designation of endemics, was started.

21 Montfragiie Natural Park

Poblet monastery, the Pedraforca massif and flora. It lists seven protected species, includ- the Odiel salt marshes. ing Artemisia granatensis Boiss. and Atropa In Spain bactica Willk. The list was extended under a Nature parks 1984 ministerial order, and subsequently the different autonomous communities issued a Benito Valdes These are areas of great value, to naturalists, whole series of orders and decrees to protect where human presence is encouraged with various plant species. Spain was quick to apply the international an eye to conservation. Examples are the policy of protecting natural areas and estab- Antequera caves (Málaga), which are among lished several national parks, which were cre- the oldest such parks, and the Cazorla y Protection of habitats ated primarily on the basis of landscaping Segura mountains park. and zoological criteria. The Covadonga park If habitats are to be effectively protected, it in Oviedo province, which is the oldest Hunting reserves and other protected areas is vital to establish scientific criteria for Spanish reserve, dates from 22 July 1916. include biological reserves, natural monu- defining which areas are important for flora when a ministerial law set side an area of ments and parks on the outskirts of towns. and plant life. In 1988. therefore, the 16,925 ha in the heart of the Picos de Europa National Institute for Nature ("Instituto mountain range as a National Park. Among Nacional de la Naturaleza") held a meeting the next parks to be set up were the Ordesa y Management of 25 experts from all over Spain in order to Monte Perdido National Park in the Pyrenees establish these criteria. Twenty-four criteria (c. 16,000 ha) in 1918, the El Teide and National Parks are governed by national reg- were defined, some of them relating to diver- Caldera de Taburiente (Canary Islands) parks ulations, and the Nature Conservation sity of ecosystems and others to diversity of (13,571 and 4.690 ha respectively) in 1954, Institute (ICONA), which comes under the species. the Aigues Tortes y Lago San Mauricio park Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food, (9.851 ha), also in the Pyrenees, in 1955, and is responsible for their management and con- These criteria have enabled the authorities to the Donana park (50.720 ha) in 1969. These servation. However, responsibility for virtu- identify 179 biologically important sites re- national parks, with a total protected area of ally all the natural areas has been devolved quiring priority protection, 45 of which are 122,689 ha, form the initial nucleus of a com- to the different autonomous communities already included in protected nature areas. It plex which is to include many other areas making up the political map of Spain. is to be hoped that this protection policy will with varying levels of protection. The total be pursued by Spanish authorities in the fu- area of these nature reserves represents only One of the autonomous communities which ture. 0.24% of the total area of the country is most active in this field is Andalusia. In (505.200 km2). which is far below the 1983 the Environment Office (AMA - European average. However, the percentage "Agenda de Medio Ambiente") of the Habitat rehabilitation plans varies greatly from one Spanish region to the Andalusian Regional Council ("Junta") was next. set up. Since then this body has pursued a Legislation on habitat rehabilitation plans, broad environment protection policy, thanks which involve in situ and ex situ techniques, to which protected natural parks now cover is very recent. In 1989 a law was published Natural areas 17% of the area of Andalusia. on the conservation of natural areas and for- est flora and fauna, setting out plans for the The Spanish law on protected natural areas rehabilitation, conservation and management defines five categories in order of impor- Conservation of plant species of habitats. The precursor of these was the tance, each with a different administrative plan to reintroduce plant species launched by structure and type of management. One fundamental aim of nature conservation the ICONA in 1981 in the Garjonay (La is to preserve genetic diversity. Losing plant Gomera) and El Teide (Tenerife) national Fully protected reserves species means losing their potential future parks, which successfully rehabilitated a va- use for agricultural, medicinal and ornamen- riety of phanerogams threatened with extinc- These areas are small in size but are of ex- tal purposes. Since plant species are compo- tion. These plans, however, call for substan- ceptional scientific importance. They are set nents of established communities, their dis- tial prior investment in the biological study up for the purpose of protecting and conserv- appearance is also a threat to the stability of of the species to be reintroduced. This is cur- ing all the ecosystems and the species con- ecosystems, although in most cases it is a di- rently proceeding in a number of Spanish re- tained in them. They include the Doñana bio- rect result, rather than a cause, of damage to gions. • logical reserve (Huelva), the Tablas de the latter. Daimiel (Ciudad Real) waterfowl reserve and Prof. B. Valdes the Fuente de Piedra lagoon (Málaga). Plant species can only be effectively con- University of Seville served in situ if the communities to which Department of Plant Biology National parks they belong are protected. Nonetheless, the Apartado do Correos 1095 first step towards their conservation is to en- E-41080 Seville These are very extensive areas largely unaf- act strict laws for the protection of each indi- fected by human activities; examples are the vidual species. Covadonga. Ordesa y Monte Perdido, El Teide and Caldera de Taburiente parks men- The first recommendations for the protection tioned earlier. of Spanish species derive from the Bern Convention on the Conservation of European Nature areas Wildlife and Natural Habitats, which came into force in 1982. These are particularly important areas which serve to protect a specific natural feature or Also in 1982. a Royal Decree was issued on landscape. Examples are the valley of the the protection of threatened species of forest

22 obviously contribute greatly to this aim. Greece, holds of the endangered monk seal (Monachus participating in most of these conventions, has monachus). The park includes five small, but In Greece undertaken special international commitments very important for their flora and fauna, islands. for the protection and conservation of its natural heritage. Special reference must be made to the Concerning the list of the rare and endan- Georgia Kamari Ramsar Convention, in which I 1 Greek areas gered species of the Greek fauna and flora, have been included among the internationally significant progress has already been made. he geographical position of Greece, its most important wetlands. The "Man and dissected topography as well as its Biosphere" Programme and the World Cultural The Red Data Book of threatened vertebrates complicated geological history and T and Natural Heritage Convention are also two of Greece was published in 1992 jointly by the multitude of rock substrates have created a of the most important international conventions, Hellenic Zoological Society and the Hellenic great variety of habitat conditions, which in which Greece participates. In the latter con- Ornithological Society, and it was financially have contributed essentially to the creation of vention. many well-known monuments of our supported by the WWF anil Hewlet Packard. an amazing diversity of flora and fauna. country (Akropolis. Delphi, etc) have been Furthermore, the preparation of a Red Data characterised as International Cultural Goods, Book on Greek Plants, financed by WWF, is According to a rather conservative estimate, while Meteora and Agion Oron are declared as currently in progress under the supervision of there are c. 4.900 species of vascular plants Natural and Cultural Goods. an editorial committee consisting of D. Phitos. in Greece, one of the highest figures for any A. Strid. W. Greuter and S. Snogerup. This comparative territory in the Mediterranean Greece, being a member of the European book is expected to appear by the end of 1994. area and much higher than the figures for Community, implements all the relevant EEC These two major works will certainly consti- countries in Central and Northern Europe. directives. For example, according to Article tute an important contribution to the conserva- With respect to endemic species, Greece 4 of the EEC Directive 79/409, 26 areas of tion of the Greek Ilora and fauna. heads the European and Mediterranean list our country, comprising the National Parks, with c. 730 (followed by mainland Spain the internationally important wetlands, etc, After having read the above, one could hope with c. 500). No less than 500 of the endemic have been included in the Special Protection that the numerous existing laws, international species should be classified as rare or threat- Zones. conventions, etc. would be a real shield for ened. The Greek fauna is equally rich. the protection of the Greek natural heritage. Unfortunately, this still remains a mere ex- The need for protection of this valuable ge- Turtles and seals pectation. In fact, many of the above commit- netic material becomes imperative not only ments are not being implemented. The search for aesthetic reasons and the general equilib- Greece is also making endeavours for the suc- for the reasons causing the inefficiency of the rium of the natural ecosystems, but also for cessful application of the recent EEC Directive above laws, conventions etc has to be a main practical and utilisation reasons. 92/43, concerning the conservation of the habi- care for the authorities. On the other hand, it tats as well as of the wild fauna and flora. For is evident that without arousing common that reason, two very important wildlife awareness on conservation matters through Legislation and other measures biotopes were recently added to the protected proper education, the imposition of the laws ones. The first biotope is the sea turtle nesting alone would always be an ineffectual way for Below, we shall try to present in brief the area in Zakinthos (a strictly protected zone, the protection of nature. legislation and other measures taken for the covering an aggregate area of approximately conservation of the natural heritage of our 400 ha), where the loggerhead turtle is breed- Prof. G. Kamari country. ing. The second is the Marine Park of Northern Botanical Institute Sporades Islands (aggregate area: approximate- University of Patras 1937 can be considered as the starting point of ly 100,000 ha), which is one of the few strong- GR-26500 Patras the Greek State for seriously encountering mat- ters concerning natural protection. That year the Law 856 was enacted, recommending the estab- lishment of up to five national parks all over the Capra aegagusf. hirus, protected endemic wild goat of the island of Gioura (Sporades Marine Parkj country to protect the flora, fauna, forest, natural formations and also for scientific research to be carried out there. The first National Park, creat- ed in 1938. was on Mt Olympus.

In 1971 (Law 996), an amendment to the 1937 law, resulted in the established of ten national parks (aggregate area: 68,732 ha), 19 aesthetic forests (aggregate area: 33,109 ha) and 53 pro- tected natural monuments (aggregate area of the 18 non-isolated natural monuments: 1.585 ha). Details concerning the above sites are cit- ed in an article by K. Kassioumis (1990) pub- lished in the "International Handbook of National Parks and Nature Reserves".

The first decisive turn concerning natural con- servation matters in Greece was made in 1975, with the ratification of the Greek Constitution, which comprised a provision on the protection of the natural environment. Specifically, Article 24 imposes as a basic state commitment the pro- tection of the natural and cultural environment, of the forests and forestal areas of the country.

The numerous international conventions, which refer to matters of environmental protection.

23 Diversity of orchard grass /. Alpine orchard grass (70 cm, panicles of S an); 2. from The background to some plants the Gran Canada island (1.20 m, panicles of 25 cm); 3. on the island ofTenerife (woody, 2 m, panicles of 8 cm)

Roselyne Lumaret ploidisation of the diploids, followed by mul- The holm oak (Quercus ilex /..): tiple hybridisation of the resultant tetraploids. used quite differently from he activity of human beings, ever since The development of these tetraploids was one region to another they evolved, has had a highly varied greatly favoured by land clearance and culti- Timpact on wild species, depending on vation which, in contrast, contributed to the The holm oak is a tree with evergreen leaves, whether they were periodically by humans gradual regression of the diploids, and indeed characteristic of the sclerophyllous forests of themselves, eaten by game or domestic ani- to the virtual extinction of certain types the western half of the Mediterranean basin. mals, or else, from the time of the first agrari- through the destruction of their habitats. This Natural populations also grow along the en- an civilisations, constituted the fundamental decline has accelerated dramatically during basis of food. These species were then propa- recent decades because of overgrazing in countries with booming populations or more gated in the wake of human migration, while rapid urbanisation of tourist areas. For a long undergoing successive selection processes, time, tetraploid orchard grasses have been one firstly empirical, and later carried out in labo- of the many components of natural or semi- ratories. Three examples of species studied in natural grassland. Only those of the tetraploid our laboratory will illustrate this point. subspecies, from humid, temperate climates (subspecies glomerata), have been transferred (as hay or seeds) from western Europe to the Orchard grass (Dactylis glomerata L.)\ Americas, Australia and New Zealand in the a forage species which is course of their colonisation. Not until the be- still primarily wild ginning of our own century was any work done on selection and genetic improvement This perennial grass with Eurasian origins with, it must be added, quite serious problems dating back to the Tertiary period has, since arising from preferential cross-fertilisation then the Miocene era. undergone enormous and genetic inertia, linked to the tetrasomy of adaptive spread, resulting in the develop- the one tetraploid subspecies used ment of numerous types (subspecies), all (glomerata). Throughout its (very wide) nat- diploid, of which 16 still exist today. ural distribution, this subspecies accounts for Genetically they are all very different and approximately one third of the genetic vari- each one is able to colonise a specific envi- ability of the species. In all the improved vari- ronment. Certain large-leaved summer-grow- eties together, only about one-sixth of the lat- tire Atlantic coast of France as far north as ing types are confined to the damp, temper- ter's genetic diversity is to be found, but the Brittany, and up along the Rhone valley until ate, deciduous forests of north-eastern figure is even lower amongst American vari- just south of Lyons. In the eastern part of its Europe, northern Iran or China: other vari- eties. Genetic enrichment of the orchard grass range, from north-western Turkey to the Nice eties with narrow leaves, which grow in win- varieties is nevertheless possible, thanks to region as well as in the Atlantic part, the ter or spring, have colonised the drier, ever- the development of advanced technology us- holm oak is limited to coastlines where, in a green forests of the Mediterranean. Yet oth- ing controlled polyploidisation and a higher relatively mild and humid climate, it presents ers have spread across the Central Asian number of diploid subspecies, often with in- a variant form with long thin leaves, called steppes, dry mountain grasslands (the Alps teresting agronomic potential, especially for "ilex". or the Sierra Nevada in Spain) or wet moun- more extensive grazing in more varied envi- tain grasslands (the Himalayas), sometimes ronments. principally in southern Europe and In central Spain and the Maghreb, where cli- at altitudes of up to 3,000 or 4,000 metres, the Maghreb. The economic value of orchard mates are drier, it presents a variant with whereas others flourish in the rocky coastal grass, and consequently work to improve this small, thick leaves called "rotundifolia". The regions of the Mediterranean and the south- species, has decreased significantly in most holm oak is undemanding as regards the type ern Atlantic (as far as the Cape Verde western countries, even though the traditional of soil. It readily shoots from the base after Islands), being able to make direct use of commercial varieties continue to be used, es- felling or fire, and it burns well. The develop- moisture extracted from the air by the leaves. pecially in mountain regions where they ment of this species has been assisted by This same ability has enabled certain woody sometimes genetically pollute the local eco- mankind. Over most of its range, growing ei- orchard grasses, branching and sometimes types. Only Eastern Europe, New Zealand and ther as natural coppices or from locally pro- several metres long, despite the virtual ab- Japan are still pursuing research into orchard duced and planted acorns, it has mainly been sence of soil, to colonise crevices in volcanic grass and systematically gathering research used, directly for firewood or to make char- rocks in the Canary Islands, using moisture material from natural populations, particularly coal. However, in central Spain where the from the clouds which gather in the "wind- in Western Europe. So orchard grass is still a "rotundifolia" variety is found, plantations of ward" parts of the mountainous islands. mainly wild species of which the oldest widely spaced and evenly trained wineglass- (diploid) varieties, weakened by lengthy spe- shaped trees have been used for a very long cialisation and rapidly approaching extinction, time to produce acorns for pig fodder. This Since the end of the last Ice Age, orchard should be protected, for they represent the ge- type of use has been accompanied by a long grasses with a different genetic composition, netic base and the key to the extraordinary process of empirical selection focusing, for less specialised and better adapted to unsettled adaptation potential of this species. example, on the acorns' sweetness. In this al- environments with dense herbaceous vegeta- logamous species, with a longlil'e span and tion, have developed through sexed poly-

24 broad overall genetic diversity measured by trees remarkable for certain characteristics of trees' strength. In the case of grafting, the ef- means of several different types of marker, a their fruit (often the oil yielded). These indi- fect of inbreeding is compensated for by the considerable reduction in diversity has been vidual trees were increased in number by veg- vigour of the oleaster (stock), whose popula- observed among the cultivated populations of etative propagation using cuttings, or else tions, by contrast, show wide genetic diversi- central Spain, as compared with those in re- grafted on to indigenous oleasters. From all ty. the heterozygotes benefiting increasingly gions where the species is used mainly as a these propagated individuals have come the with the age of individual trees. The genetic fuel and has not been subject to the pressure different varieties of olive trees that have been diversity of oleasters can be enhanced still of artificial selection to the same degree. distributed by various human migrations, es- further by taking alleles from (introduced) va- pecially from east to west, among the coun- rieties of olive trees, as trees grown from tries round the Mediterranean. Recent work olive stones are almost always oleasters. Thus The olive tree and oleaster: using genetic markers shows that because of the oleaster is an important source of genetic two ¡«dissociable partners belonging the multiplicity and complexity of movement diversity, vital to the improvement, and in- to the same species (Olea europaea L.) between countries, it is probably impossible deed the very future of the olive tree. • to correlate the genetic variation of the olive The oleaster (wild olive) is indigenous to the tree with its geographical distribution. The R. Lumaret Middle East and the whole of the weak genetic diversity of each variety, char- Research Director at the CNRS (National Centre for Mediterranean basin. It is an essentially allog- acterised by a single genotype, or at most a Scientific Research) amous, and very long-lived, species. Its do- handful of genotypes, bears witness to the in- BP 5051 tensive selection (inbreeding) undergone, mestication probably began in prehistoric F-34033 Montpellier Cedex I times in the eastern part of the Mediterranean, originally to obtain particular characteristics through the empirical selection of individual in the olives, sometimes at the expense of the A Board for development

Ruth Raymond search, for technical publications, and for ministered as an FAO field project) late in scientific assistance to national plant genetic 1993. he International Board for Plant Genetic resources programmes. Resources (IBPGR) is an international A new strategic plan, "Diversity for develop- Tscientific institute whose mission is to Since 1974, IBPGR has funded the training ment", spells out four major objectives which strengthen the conservation and use of plant of about 1.600 scientists and technicians will form the basis of IPGRI's activities. First, genetic resources worldwide, with special em- throughout the world. The institute has been the institute will assist countries, particularly in phasis on the needs of developing countries. involved in the collecting of 206,000 sam- the developing world, to assess and meet their IBPGR was established in 1974 under the ples of crops in 129 countries. In the area of needs for the conservation of plant genetic re- aegis of the Consultative Group in research, understanding the genetic diversity sources and to strengthen links to users. International Agricultural Research (CGIAR). of genepools, the retention of diversity in Second, it will build international collaboration The institute has its headquarters in Rome; collections, conservation technology and in the conservation and use of plant genetic re- there are eight offices around the world. Its plant health have been major topics for sev- sources. mainly through the encouragement of professional staff collaborate with scientists in eral years. More recently, IBPGR has moved networks on both a crop and a geographical ba- genebanks, research centres, universities and into new areas such as indigenous knowl- sis. Third, it will work to develop and promote intergovernmental and non-governmental or- edge and forest genetic resources. improved strategies and technologies for the ganisations throughout the world. conservation of plant genetic resources; and fi- In the field of information technology, IBP- nally, the institute will provide an information Plant genetic resources contain the genetic GR has developed computerised databases service to inform the world's genetic resources material of plants which is of value as a re- covering a wide range of topics. These data- community of both practical and scientific de- sources for present and future generations bases include information on national genet- velopments in the field. • of people. The conservation and study of ic resources programmes, ex situ germplasm plant genetic resources has evolved rapidly collections worldwide, and germplasm col- R. D. Raymond over the last 20 years. In 1974, there were lecting carried out with IBPGR support. IBPGR fewer than ten countries holding collec- Via delle Sette Chiese 142 tions of plant genetic resources. Now, in In October 1992. representatives of the gov- 1-00145 Rome part due to the efforts of IBPGR. there are ernments of Kenya, China, Switzerland, over 120 and the number is growing every Denmark and Italy signed an agreement to year. establish an international institute for the conservation and utilisation of plant genetic In many countries, IBPGR has encouraged resources. Since that time, the agreement and supported the establishment of plant ge- has been signed by an additional 11 coun- netic resources programmes. It has raised tries. It is anticipated that the new institute, general awareness of the issues related to called the International Plant Genetic plant genetic resources, which in turn has Resource Institute (IPGRI) will take over stimulated the demand for training and re- the duties of IBPGR (which is currently ad-

25 The Twelve and genetic resources

Dionyssios Dessylas needed. Now we need a decreased reliance European Association for Animal Production; on chemical inputs and an increased quality the World Council for Nature and the he European Community's 10 million of the end product. There is every reason to Botanical Gardens Conservation Secretariat; fanners are among the most productive believe that we can breed for these characters the United Nations Environment Programme. Tin the world. Much of their success is too. But genetic change requires sources of The early workers would be amazed to see founded on the exploitation of genetic re* the appropriate genetic characters. how far their subject has advanced. Indeed sources in the past 20 years - cereal yields^ Collections of germplasm exist, but keepers genetic diversity, and genetic erosion, have for example, have doubled. About half of this of germplasm collections report that much of become important subjects of political debate; increase has been contributed by better meth- their stored material is under-characterised, see, for example, the Convention on ods of controlling diseases, pests and nutrient for lack of funds and personnel. Biological Diversity, signed by the deficiencies. And about half is due to new, Community and its member states on 9 June genetically more productive varieties, pro* 1992 at the United Nations Conference on duced by the controlled crossing of different Historical and international perspectives Environment and Development, in Rio de germplasms. Janeiro. The subject has been debated in The first action to conserve and utilise genet- European forums for longer; see the European Thus the exploitation of genetic resources has ic resources was by farmers and gardeners. In Parliament's Resolution oil the genetic diver* enabled Community agriculture to açhieve 19th-century France, at the "Epoque des ter- sity of cultivated plants, of 20 February 1986, substantial increases in agricultural produc- roirs", there was a vast genetic diversity in and the discussion in the Council of tivity. which itself was the first objective of gardens and on farms. For at least a century, Agricultural Ministers on the conservation Article 39 of the Treaty of Rome, signed in specialist associations of gardening enthusi- and utilisation of plant genetic resources, on March 1957. 30 years of work by farmers and asts in northern England have preserved par- 26-27 March 1990. scientists have achieved the given policy ob- ticular varieties of onion and gooseberry, jective. which give prize produce. More recently a number of regional and national associations Genetic resources in Europe After some years of discussion and debate the have been established, with the objective of Community now has a new agricultural poli- conserving collections of particular races of In 1992 the Commission made a report to the cy. The new policy continues to uphold the fruit trees, or poultry, or even bees. There is Council on the conservation and utilisation of basic principles of the Rome Treaty, of the also a substantial effort by various regional plant genetic resources (SEC (92) 874 final unity of the market. Community preference, and national associations in the conservation of 8 May 1992). The report lists a wide range and financial solidarity. It introduces impor- of wild habitats. of actions already taken by the Commission, tant changes in market mechanisms for indi- in various programmes of scientific research vidual products. And it establishes a series of Genetic resources are a truly international re- and technological development. It also lists flanking measures, aimed at encouraging source, extending from country to country various problems that had become apparent farmers to use less intensive methods and to across national borders. European collectors during these programmes. The report found take on a more explicit role in the conserva- have gone across the world in search of that there a certain overlapping of pro- tion and management of the countryside. germplasm for our farms and gardens. By the grammes between the member states, with a same token, collectors have come to Europe duplication of effort and of conserved materi- Take, for example, the particular case of ce- in search of germplasm; for example, an al. There was also a tendency to put material reals. The target and the intervention prices Australian collection mission has been estab- into store without information on the detailed for cereals will be reduced progressively over lished in France for many years, collecting characters that are of interest to potential the next three years. These reductions will be potential agents for biological control on users. Almost all collections report that theiy offset by compensatory payments - provided Australian farms. These efforts have given need more facilities and staff simply to finish that 15% of the farmed area is withdrawn rise to important national and international the job of characterising the material already from production (this applies to the larger collections of stored material. in store. producers). The aid scheme (Council Regulation No. 2078/92) establishes a series The first germplasm collections were set up There is thus a need for action. The principlciple of premiums for, for example, rearing endan- by scientists interested in the study of genetic of subsidiarity in the Maastricht Treaty lays gered breeds of livestock and for the cultiva- diversity. The collections soon took on a sec- down that responsibility for action at national tion and propagation of useful plants adapted ond role, of conserving material which is level lies primarily with national authoritiejfcj to local conditions and threatened by genetic threatened with extinction in its native habi- Much of the effort in germplasm resource», erosion. tat. The argument was that such germplasm is lies in this category. But here is also a need irreplaceable - at least in the form of an inte- for action at Community level, in order to cbf The reform of the Common Agricultural grated genome, and accompanying cyto- ordinate the existing efforts, to fill gaps, and Policy, with lower unit prices, with set-aside, plasm. It is a natural resource, and there is to improve the efficiency of the work. These quotas and other regulations, establishes new much evidence that the resource is disappear- are the objectives of our proposed new constraints and new incentives " for Regulation, currently being processed Within Community agriculture. We have seen that the Commission, and shortly, we hope, to be agriculture has proved itself very responsive Since the start of the first scientific research sent to the Council of Ministers for public to policy requirements, and that one of its on the origin and extent of genetic diversity, discussion. The Regulation would liiy the ba- principal means of response was provided by scientists have made informal working con- sis for a five-year programme, complemen- its suppliers, such as plant and animal breed- tacts across national borders. As the number tary to the work already being undertaken W ers. What are the implications of the reform of workers increased, various international the member states. The programmetwould be of the CAP, and of other policy develop- secretariats have been set up to establish stan- oriented exclusively towards practical,^] ments. such as the Treaty of Maastricht, for dards and to help co-ordination of effort in tions: scientific research and technological the future conservation, characterisation and germplasm collections. Important efforts in development are excluded (these are in prin- exploitation of genetic resources in Europe? these areas have been and are made by, for ciple already covered by the Commu|AJ example: the Food and Agriculture Framework Programmes). The prograipne would aim to help the routine tasks of ener- When policy called for higher levels of pro- Organisation, Rome; the International Board vation, characterisation and utilisation, pro- duction the breeders gave farmers what they of Plant Genetic Resources, Rome; the

26 M M i' ' \ A. Y fh vided that they be undertaken on a Community basis (the support of individual of the major objectives in the manage- collections is a matter for the individual ment of Norwegian salmon is therefore to Norwegian protect the genetic structure of the wild member states). The work programme has been written in such a way that each project salmon and its evolutionary potential will follow a logical pathway in six steps: salmon from this undesirable influence. 1. Establish a conservation and documenta- In immediate response to the danger of tion workplan genetic impact the government decided to establish a gene bank for Atlantic salmon. 2. Characterise the various collections which Brre Pettersen The gene bank was initiated in 1986 and make part of the project, and assemble the is based on deep freezing of salmon passport data ore than 500 rivers and streams in Norway support Atlantic sperm and living gene banks (hatchery- 3. Evaluate other characteristics, in particu- salmon (Salmo salar). 30 stocks maintained populations). The purpose of M the gene bank is to secure the genetic di- lar, run screening data have become extinct and an additional 64 versity of the Norwegian wild salmon in 4. Sort the collections, identify duplicates and stocks are severely threatened by human activity. The most serious problems are compliance with the precautionary princi- gaps acid rain, the parasitic fluke Gyrodactylus ple. The gene bank will also be used in the re-establishment and enhancement of 5. Harmonise and rationalise the collections salaris, river regulations, pollution and most recently the potential impact of a threatened stocks. The gene bank has until 6. Acquire and collect missing germplasm large number of salmon escaping from present collected sperm from 4,403 fish fish farms. from 161 different stocks. 25 severely At the same time, each project will include threatened stocks are now maintained in practical work on the evaluation and utilisa- captivity in especially designed fish sta- In 1992 141,000 tonnes of Atlantic tion of stored material. We hope that at the tions. end of five years, there will be concrete re- salmon were produced by the Norwegian sults in the form of a better knowledge of salmon farming industry. In comparison, Norwegian authorities have implemented what is available in the European collections, the nominal annual catch of wild salmop several steps to reduce the intermixing of and a better utilisation of that material, to the has been about 1,000 tonnes in recent escaped farmed fish with the natural benefits of European agriculture. • years. Salmon escape from the fish farms at all life stages. About 1.5-2 million fish stocks. There have been established geo- have escaped each of the last five years. graphical zones where no new farming li- D. Dessylas Investigations in rivers have revealed that cences are issued. Such protective zones Commission of the European Communities escaped farmed salmon comprises a sub- encircle the outlets of important salmon DG VI.F.11-3 stantial proportion of the mature salmon rivers. In most cases they cover an area 200 rue de la Loi present in the spawning grounds in au- within 20 km of the river outlet, and the B-I000 Brussels tumn. The average proportion of farmed largest zone covers a fjord-area of about salmon for all investigated spawning 120 km in length. Recent data suggest that stocks has varied between 24% and 38% rivers within the larger zones have lower during the period 1989-92. A potential for run of fish farm escapees. It is assumed large-scale genetic introgression thus ex- that the number of escapees can be greatly ists. There is increasing evidence that reduced by technical improvement of fish farmed salmon do interbreed with local farms. The environmental authorities con- stocks. tribute to this development by funding a research programme on new technology for coping with the environmental prob- lems in aquaculture. Efforts to reduce the Dangers of crossbreeding number of escapees by catching them in the sea and in the rivers have not proven Norwegian management of wild salmon is to be successful. based on the "stock concept". The funda- mental biological reasoning behind this concept is that the wild stocks of salmon Norwegian authorities participate in the are most typically independent reproduc- further development of an ecological sus- tion units with limited geneflow between tainable aquaculture industry. each other. A genetic structure of this na- Environmental aims for the industry have ture is known to be favourable for evolv- been determined, both in short and long ing genetic adaptations to local environ- term. These aims include topics like the mental conditions. Many genetic and bio- problem of fish escaping from farms and logical differences between salmon stocks the spread of infectious diseases together have been shown to exist. with problems concerning the release of organic matter, nutrients, antibiotics and chemicals into the natural environment. Farmed salmon is derived genetically Concerning escapes, the short-term goal is from several wild populations and is sub- to reduce the number of escapees by 75% ject to an intensive selective breeding pro- in the course of the next two years. The gramme. Crossbreeding between farmed long-term goal is to remove the problem. • and wild salmon in nature is expected to lead to the loss of genetically determined characteristics and adaptive traits in local B. Pettersen wild populations. The expected practical Deputy Ministe effect of this will be reduced production Ministry of Environment in the local stocks, and for the salmon as a PO Box 8013 species an evolutionary reversal of, at the N-0030 Oslo worst, several thousand generations. One

27 Animals too

John Hodges and the Camelus species (both C. bactrianus nomic pressure and naturally he chooses to and C. dromedarius). keep the most efficient breeds of animals e live in an era of extinction for within a species. If these are genetically de- some of the estimated total of 1.4 fined by cross-breeding, then he will keep Wmillion species. About 50,000 of Domestic animal breeds in Europe crossbred animals rather than the traditional these are vertebrate animals. Within this breeds. So, in travelling across Western group are the domestic mammals and birds, In terms of species survival, we may quickly Europe today, one sees few of the old local which numerically may appear to be insignif- and rightly conclude that none of the com- breeds. The livestock landscape is dominated icant, since those of consequence number 011- mon domestic animal species of Western by the few, highly productive, profitable iy about 15 species of the former and about Europe is endangered. However, it would be breeds and crosses. The traditional breeds six of the latter. This is in contrast to the larg- wrong to conclude that biological diversity in with their specific genetic traits such as har- er number of plant species which mankind domestic animals is not threatened. The issue diness, longevity, suitability to higher eleva- has domesticated. In the case of animals, is not loss of species, but the loss of breed di- tions. ability to produce slowly on poor quali- starting about 10.000 years ago, mankind versity within the species. Each of the few ty feed such as seaweed are rare today. chose these few species for domestication. domestic animal species has enormous genet- Since then, by close association with man, ic variation within it. For example, there are The final loss of these genetic traits, controlled they have had an enormous impact in a vari- throughout the world 800 breeds of cattle and by unique sequences of DNA, would be a terri- ety of ways on the development of human 900 breeds of sheep. These breeds, which are ble loss for mankind. They cannot be repro- civilisations. They have been very closely as- quite distinct within their species, have been duced at will. All the arguments about lost bio- sociated with mankind in his geographic mi- produced by mankind, often in unconscious logical diversity which are applied to wild grations and in his progression from primi- ways during human migrations over thou- species apply here, plus the strong economic tive lifestyles to those of today where one of sands of years from the centres of origin of and social rationale that our generation cannot the marks of high quality of life is a relatively domestic species. In the course of slow hu- possibly know what future generations may high proportion of animal products in the di- man travel, domestic animals became adapt- need either for survival or for revised quality of et. Although today animals may now be val- ed to the new environments. Natural selec- life considerations. In the midst of this techno- ued most in advanced societies for their con- tion, combined with human selection for pre- logical age, we have an obligation to conserve tribution to food, in more primitive commu- ferred types, gradually brought about distinct for our children the biological diversity which nities they still have other values. Even today breeds of cattle, of sheep, of goats and of in most developing countries these values in- pigs. While these breeds are still able to inter- clude wool, leather, tallow, bone, manure for breed within a species, their geographic isola- Worldwide numbers of breeds fuel and for increasing the fertility of crop tion over several thousand years ensured their of domestic animals land and. perhaps most important of all, genetic isolation. Breeds of the few common 800 draught animal power. Without domestic ani- species mentioned earlier are found through- Cattle 900 mals, the majority of mankind in the develop- out the world. For example, cattle and sheep Sheep 600 ing world would still be slaving to survive by are found in all climatic conditions from the Goats 400 hard physical labour. It has often been mused Arctic to the tropics. They are also adapted to Pigs 100 that mankind has risen from drudgery on the wide differences of vegetation for food, they Buffalo 400 back of the domestic cow who has also been have specific resistances to endemic diseases Horse 150 his foster-mother. She has also been man's and pests and they are adapted in many ways Ass security, his bank and his resource for times to the economic and social needs of the local Total 3 350 of leanness and poor crop harvests. human populations.

Of the 15 species of mammals chosen by mankind for domestication, even fewer are we have inherited from generations of our an- Loss of animal biodiversity dispersed widely and used by most of cestors. The threat to domestic animal biodiver- mankind. They are cattle (both Bos taunts sity results, along with other effects of unsus- The long and complex human history of and B. indicus), buffalo, sheep, goats, pigs, tainable development, from single-minded and Europe with its many ethnic and social divi- horses and donkeys. Others of the 15 mam- large-scale devotion to low cost and high profit. sions has produced an extraordinary large malian species are mainly used by minority If continued without restriction, without regula- number of breeds of these few species of do- human groups in specialised situations: they tion or without planned sustainability, such prac- mestic animals. Europe has 1,250 breeds of include species like the Asian elephant, the tices lead inevitably to the depletion and loss of common domestic animals. This amounts to various species of camelidae. including the the natural resource base needed for future pro- more than a third of all the breeds in the one and two humped camels, and the Andean duction. While the developing world is often ac- world. Why are they threatened today ? It is camelid species, the yak and the domestic ro- cused of unsustainable development, in fact this not by the common causes of habitat destruc- dents. The common domesticated poultry type of development is progressing at a far tion, by pollution or by changed natural envi- species are chickens, turkeys, guinea fowl, greater speed in Europe and other regions of the ronment. It is due, rather, to powerful eco- domestic ducks, Muscovy ducks and geese. developed world. The threat to animal breeds in nomic development, driven by the market Africa, Asia and Latin America is great, but one economy with its single-minded emphasis In Western Europe man is principally inter- may still find many local breeds in traditional lo- upon productivity and profit. Livestock are. ested in cattle of the Bos taunts type, pigs, cations. In Western Europe it is already too late after all, one of the major resources of the sheep and chickens. These animals are a ma- to find most local breeds in commercial produc- livestock producer. Most consumers in jor interest, shown by the fact that in the de- tion units. Western Europe today are no longer enchant- veloped world the livestock sector is respon- ed by the variety of breed sources from sible for over half of the output of agricul- ture. Moving farther east through Europe to which meat, milk and eggs come. The de- Asia, we find other species of importance for mand is for uniformity and relatively low Conservation programmes maintaining human lifestyles; these include price. Variations in flavour, product and de- goats, donkeys, buffalo, Bos indicus cattle. sign are made in the processing sector rather Fortunately domestic animal conservation of than on the farm. The farmer is under eco- threatened livestock breeds is already in

28 progress in Western Europe, although it was livestock breeds of Western Europe and of control, livestock populations have been mainly initiated by the activities of minority some Eastern European countries are main- greatly depleted and continue to diminish. In groups of concerned people, by NGOs and by tained and analysed. The scientific initiative the transition economies which are strug- professional groups of scientists. Two main for this came from the European Association gling to move into the free market, livestock techniques are used. Firstly there are farm for Animal Production, a professional body naturally have low priority. Livestock breeds parks and networks conservation plans which of scientists. in the CIS are now threatened. This threat harness the enthusiasm of many individuals comes from limited government resources to who are willing to keep a few animals of maintain the existing state animal reserves threatened breeds. The new non-governmental and from the disorganisation and distortions A new major problem organisation called Rare Breeds International is in the economy. Livestock farms lack feed the voluntary group which is now supporting for their animals; inflation and unemploy- local and national groups in their activities. In It may be thought from this description that ment reduce consumers purchasing power most European countries the local groups are the problems of conserving animal genetic and livestock products take second or third privately organised and are financed by public diversity are well under control in Europe. place. By the time the economies are sta- donation and by entry fees to view the animals. However, this is not so. A major new prob- bilised many breeds may be lost. An exam- In other countries, particularly the former cen- lem is now with us. It concerns the former ple is the world famous animal conservation trally planned countries of Central and Eastern centrally planned countries, especially those reserve at Askanyia Nova in the Ukraine, Europe, conservation activities have been or- new countries of the Commonwealth of which was established at the end of the 19th ganised by governments. A second and supple- Independent States (CIS). Some of these century and maintained by the Soviet mentary method of conservation is often used countries are European in culture and histo- Government. It is now the responsibility of for endangered breeds, namely the storage of ry; many of them have expectations of one the Ukrainian Academy of Agricultural semen and embryos at very low temperatures day joining the European Communities. Sciences, which is struggling to find its own in liquid nitrogen. The availability of this tech- Certainly, the future of Europe cannot be en- identity and budget within the new Republic nique varies from species to species, but with visaged without taking account of their of the Ukraine. The President of the most domestic species common in Europe it is needs and aspirations. They have much to Academy told me in Kiev in the summer of now possible: the advantage is the relatively contribute in the longer term to the wealth 1993 that he has no funds to maintain the low cost and the possibility of indefinite long- and development of Europe. In the realm of programme at Askanyia Nova and that soon domestic animal biodiversity they have lie will have to arrange to start killing ani- much to contribute. But, in fact, they are mals. He said he desperately wants technical now in deep trouble and in need of technical assistance and funding to get through this Numbers of domestic animal assistance and practical help. breeds in each region critical period of the next few years. Otherwise some unique animal genetic re- Europe 1 250 The former USSR has 350 breeds of cattle, sources may be lost from this famous animal Former URSS 350 sheep, goats, pigs, buffalo, horses and asses. conservation centre. Asia 900 This represents a unique genetic resource of Africa 475 great interest to the whole world. These do- mestic animal genetic resources were docu- The Republics of the CIS need help now for North and Central America 200 the conservation of their domestic animal ge- Latin America 100 mented and made available as public infor- mation for the first time on a comprehensive netic biodiversity. They are threatened, not Oceania 75 scale in the late 1980s as a co-operative pro- by the creeping threat to breeds which comes Total 3 350 ject between the Food and Agriculture with prosperity as in Western Europe, but Organisation (FAO), the United Nations they face the sudden and rapid threat which Environment Programme (UNEP) and the comes from the breakdown of the economy (then) USSR All-Union Academy of and of the infrastructures of society. In such term storage. Increasingly, another step is also Agricultural Sciences. Original studies of all situations, people can only think of today taken, by preserving DNA from the blood of the breeds of 17 major and minor species of and tomorrow. Conservation is always con- endangered breeds. This is a long-term insur- domestic mammals and birds were made by cerned with the long-term future and there- ance policy, which costs very little and which 25 Soviet scientists. 1 was privileged to be fore is low on their list of priorities. In the may, in decades to come, be useful when the the Editorial Co-ordinator for this task. The shrinking world of biodiversity and the en- genome maps of domestic livestock are com- results were published by FAO (1989) in a larging world of Europe, there is need for plete. At that time, with improved gene transfer publication entitled ''Animal Genetic Western Europe to invest in conserving the techniques, it may be possible to reintroduce Resources of the USSR". animal genetic resources of the former into existing breeds, the segments of DNA USSR quickly. • from extinct breeds which code for specific traits of value. Under the centrally planned economy of the former USSR the threat to these indigenous Prof. Dr J. Hodges breeds was not great for two reasons. Firstly, Lofererfeld 16 A-5730 Miltersill Another important aspect of conservation of the former Government of the USSR main- livestock breeds of Europe is the assembly in tained some conservation programmes, par- a systematic manner of census and genetic ticularly in state reserves. Secondly, the cen- characterisation information for all breeds. trally planned economy put no pressure on This data collection is vital to permit moni- state and collective farms to increase produc- toring of changes of population sizes, to iden- tivity nor to reduce costs nor to maximise tify the level of risk of individual breeds and profit. The pressures of the market economy to offer a service on genetic aspects of live- which lead to mono-breed production were stock. Fortunately, such a European animal absent; many families kept the traditional lo- genetic data bank has been established at the cal breeds on their household plots. Veterinary University of Hanover in Germany. There, in a computerised system, However, since ihe political breakup of the the population and genetic records of all the USSR and the end to central planning and At the Council of Europe

CY hopes to encourage a new concept of na- Each national committee will organise events ture - one in which man has his place, an ac- on the theme or themes adopted to reach a tive but respectful place. particular target group. Some committees will co-operate and mount bilateral projects.

The Council of Europe will be organising in- 1995: European Nature Conservation Year An appropriate set of themes ternational seminars and colloquies. he first Council of Europe campaign to From the Atlantic to the Urals, from Lapland Overall, there will be a very full programme: promote nature conservation was in to the Mediterranean islands, the threats to media related activities, including the nation- 1970. It led to a widespread increase in our environment vary greatly: the growth of T tourism, the problems of desertification, the al and international press, the publication of awareness in Europe, launched the idea that brochures and leaflets, special stamps, the or- our environment needs protection and created development of industry and of transport in- ganisation of photographic competitions, close links between the Council of Europe frastructure and so on. To enable the coun- seminars and conferences and so on. and the countries of central and eastern tries taking part in ENCY to adapt the overall Europe. It made the very notion of nature con- theme "nature conservation outside protected servation acceptable and gave protected status areas" to their problems a set of specific Who to contact? to the most outstanding natural areas, through themes has been drawn up. the creation of national parks and so on. ENCY activities and events might, for exam- National and international bodies have been set up to organise this pan-European campaign: 25 years later. Europe has evolved and trans- ple. focus on the following environments: formed. while our environment still faces in- - at the national level creasingly serious threats. Once more it is - water - forests - agriculture and the country- Organising committees have been estab- necessary to affirm the need to conserve na- side - the urban environment - tourism and lished. These bring together partners from the ture throughout Europe, and not just in pro- leisure - industry - transport infrastructure - public, private and voluntary sectors and are tected areas. This is why the Council of military and demilitarised areas. responsible for the implementation of ENCY Europe has decided to declare 1995 95 within each country. "European Nature Conservation Year" and to Target groups focus in particular on nature conservation - at the Council of Europe outside protected areas. ENCY will concentrate its efforts on four im- An International Organising Committee has portant groups: been created, with all the national organisa- tions represented. The committee's task is to A pan-European campaign - local, regional and national authorities from the Atlantic to the Urals take decisions and offer guidance on all the These are the levels at which key decisions campaign activities. All the countries of Europe are invited to take and steps affecting the environment are tak- part in European Nature Conservation Year en. They are the important decision makers. (ENCY) 1995 - the Council of Europe's 32 They should therefore be the priority audi- member States and other countries which co- ence for ENCY. operate with it: Andorra, Albania, Belarus. - the users of the environment Croatia, Latvia. Moldova. Monaco, Russia and Ukraine. Numerous individuals and groups "use" the environment as part of their work or leisure A total of more than 40 countries will be activities: farmers, foresters, fishermen, combining their efforts to make 1995 the hunters and so on. European Nature Conservation Year and to - major consumers of space ensure that the natural environment is taken into account in all man's activities. This covers such sectors as tourism, the building and other industries and civil engi- You can also take part in this campaign. neering. The Council of Europe lias allocated a special secretariat to the ENCY. The campaign's goal - young people

Nature conservation and management within Greater awareness and commitment among Please contact the following address for a context of sustainable development must ap- young people are critical for the environ- all information: ply throughout each country's territory and be ment's future. conceived from a global perspective, rather Council of Europe than simply involving the creation of protect- Each of the national contributions and activi- Centre Naturopa ENCY ed areas. European Nature Conservation Year ties can therefore be targeted on one or other F-67075 Strasbourg Cedex will focus its activities on all the areas which of these groups. have no legal protection in order to create the or your National Agency whose address best possible conditions for reconciling hu- is given opposite. man activities with nature and wildlife. A wealth of activities and events

Giving the most outstanding natural areas The campaign will comprise a wide range of protected status is no longer sufficient. EN- national and international events.

30 National Agencies of the Centre

AUSTRIA GREECE POLAND Dr Wölfgang TRAUSSNIG Mr Donald MATTHEWS Mr Martin HERBST Amt der Niederösterreichischen Landesregierung Hellenic Society for Nature Protection Krajowe Centrum Edukacii Ekologicznej Sehenkenstrasse 4 24 Nikis Street GR-105 57 ATHENS ul. Dubois 9 A-1014 WIEN PL-00 182 WARSAW HUNGARY Fax 48-2 635 00 20 BELGIUM Mrs Louise LAKOS M. Jean RENAULT Department for International Co-operation PORTUGAL Ministère de l'Agriculture Ministry for Environment and Regional Policy Prof. Jorge M. PALMEIRIM Administration de la Recherche Agronomique P O Box 351 Liga para a protecçâo da natureza Manhattan Center 7e Étage 11-1394 BUDAPEST Estrada do Calhariz de Benfiea, 187 Avenue du Boulevard 21 Fax 36-1 201 28 46 P-1500 LISBON B-1210 BRUXELLES Fax 351-1 778 32 08 Fax 32-2 211 75 53 ICELAND Mr Sigurdur Á. THRÁINSSON ROMANIA BULGARIA Ministry for the Environment Mrs Lucia CEUCA Mme Auréola IVANOVA Vonarstraeti 4 Directorate of International, Public and Press Relations Division des Relations Internationales ISL-150 REYKJAVIK Ministry of Waters. Forests and Environment Protection Ministère de l'Environnement Fax 354-1 62 45 66 Bd Libertalii 12. Sector 5 67 rue V Poptomov 70542 Bucuresti l(XK) SOFIA IRELAND Fax 40-1 312 04 03 Fax 359-2 52 16 34 Mr Michael CANNY National Parks and Wildlife Service Office of Public Works SAN MARINO CYPRUS 51 St Stephens Green Mme Antonietta BONELLI Mr Antonis L. ANTONIOU IRL-DUBLIN 2 Département des Affaires Etrangères Environmental Service Fax 353-1 66 20 283 Contrada Omefetli Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Resources Palazzo Begni C Y-NICOS IA ITALY Via Giacomini Fax 357-2 44 51 56 Dr.ssa Elena MAMMONE 47031-SAN MARINO Ministère de l'Agriculture et des Forêts CZECH REPUBLIC Bureau des Relations Internationales SLOVAKIA Dr Bohumil KUCERA 18 via XX Setiembre Mrs Jana ZACHAROVÁ Czech Institute for Nature Conservation 1-00187 ROME Department of Nature and Landscape Protection 9 Slezska Fax 39-6 48 84 394 Ministry of the Environment 120 20 PRAGUE 2 Hlboká 2 Fax 42-2 25 45 55 LIECHTENSTEIN 812 35 BRATISLAVA Mr Wilfried MARXER-SCHÄDLER Fax 42-7 3II 368 DENMARK Liechtensteinische Gesellschaft für Umweltschutz Ms Lotte BARFOD Heiligkreuz 52 SLOVENIA National Forest and Nature Agency FL-9490 VADUZ Dr Jorg HODALIČ Ministry of the Environment Fax 41-75 233 II 77 Environment Protection and Water Regime Agency Haraldsgade 53 Vojkona la DK-2I00 COPENHAGEN 0 LITHUANIA 61000-LJUBU ANA Fax 45-39 27 98 99 Dr Mindaugas LAPELE Fax 386-1 125 263 Lithuanian Environmental Protection Department ESTONIA A Juozapaviciaus 9 SPAIN Mr Kalju KUKK 232600 VILNIUS Mme Carmen CASAL FORNOS Head of General Department Fax 370-2 35 80 20 Dirección General de Política Ambiental Ministry of the Environment Ministerio de Obras Públicas y Transportes 42 Toompuiestee LUXEMBOURG Paseo de la Castellana 67 EE-0100 TALLINN M. Jean-Paul FELTGEN E-28071 MADRID Fax 372-2 45 33 10 Ministère de l'Environnement Fax 34-1 554 62 77 Montée de la Pétrusse FINLAND L-2918 LUXEMBOURG SWEDEN Ms Leena KARHUNEN Fax 352-40 04 10 Mr Ingvar BINGMAN Ministry of the Environment Swedish Environment Protection Agency Ratakatu 3 MALTA Smidesvägen 5 P O Box 399 Mr John GRECH PO Box 1302 S-171 85 SOLNA SF-00121 HELSINKI Head of Administration Fax 46-8 98 45 13 Fax 358-0 1991 499 Department of the Environment M-FLORIANA SWITZERLAND FRANCE Fax 356-24 13 78 M. JUrg KÄNZIG Mme Sylvie PAU Ligue suisse pour la protection de la nature Direction de la Nature et des Paysages NETHERLANDS Wartcnbergstrasse 22 Ministère de l'Environnement Drs Peter W. BOS CH-4052 BALE 14 boulevard du Général Leclerc Ministry of Agriculture. Nature Management and Fisheries Fax 41-61 312 74 47 F-92524 NEUILLY-SUR-SEINE CEDEX Department for Nature. Forests. Landscape and Wildlife Fax 33-1 40 81 99 53 PO Box 20401 TURKEY NL-2500 EK's GRAVENHAGE Mr Hasan ASMAZ GERMANY Fax 31-70 379 82 28 Turkish Association for the Conservation of Nature Mrs Helga INDEN-HEINRICH and Natural Resources Deutscher Naturschutzring eV NORWAY Menekse sokak 29/4 Am Miehaclshof 8-10 Ms Sylvi OFSTAD TR-06440 KIZILAY-ANKARA Postfach 20 04 25 Ministry of Environment Fax 90-4 417 95 52 D-53177 BONN Myntgaten 2 Fax 49-228 35 90 96 PÓ Box 8013 DEI' UNITED KINGDOM N-0030 OSLO MrM.W. HENCHMAN Fax 47-22 34 95 60 English Nature Northminster House GB-PETERBOROUGH PEI IUA Fax 44-733 68 834

31 Naturopa 73 £>1993