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VOL. 44, NO.3 • DECEMBER 2016 FREMONTIAFREMONTIA JOURNAL OF THE NATIVE SOCIETY

SPECIAL ISSUE: VOL. 44, NO. 3, DECEMBER 2016 FREMONTIA CALIFORNIACALIFORNIA GEOPHYTESGEOPHYTES

V44_3_cover.pmd 1 2/20/17, 5:26 AM CALIFORNIA NATIVE PLANT SOCIETY CNPS, 2707 Street, Suite 1; Sacramento, CA 95816-5130 FREMONTIA Phone: (916) 447-2677 Fax: (916) 447-2727 Web site: www.cnps.org Email: [email protected] VOL. 44, NO. 3, DECEMBER 2016 MEMBERSHIP Copyright © 2016 Members receive many benefits, including subscriptions to Fremontia and California Native Plant Society the CNPS Bulletin. Membership form is on inside back cover. Mariposa Lily ...... $1,500 or Group ...... $75 Benefactor ...... $600 International or Library ...... $75 . Kat Anderson, Guest Editor Patron ...... $300 Individual ...... $45 Michael Kauffmann, Editor Plant Lover ...... $100 Student/Retired/Limited Income . $25 CORPORATE/ORGANIZATIONAL Beth Hansen-Winter, 10+ Employees ...... $2,500 4-6 Employees ...... $500 7-10 Employees ...... $1,000 1-3 Employees ...... $150

california Native STAFF & CONTRACTORS Plant Society Dan Gluesenkamp: Executive Director Marin: Charlotte Torgovitsky Chris Brown: Admin Assistant Milo Baker: Leia Giambastiani, Sarah Protecting California’ Native Flora Jennifer Buck-Diaz: Vegetation Ecologist Gordon Since 1965 Catherine Curley: Assistant Botanist : Timothy Thomas Joslyn Curtis, Assistant Veg. Ecologist Monterey Bay: Christopher Hauser The views expressed by authors do not Julie Evens: Vegetation Program Dir. Mount Lassen: Woody Elliot necessarily reflect established policy or Stacey Flowerdew: Membership & Napa Valley: Henni Cohen procedure of CNPS. Development North Coast: Carol Ralph Shanna Goebel: Administrative Assistant North San Joaquin: Jim Brugger Vern Goehring: Legislative Analyst Orange County: Dan Songster Kaitlyn Green: Assistant Rare Plant Redbud: Denise Della Santina Botanist Riverside/San Bernardino: Katie Barrows Laureen Jenson: Accounting & HR Sacramento Valley: John Hunter North Coast Shasta Statewide Chapters Michael Kauffmann: Fremontia Editor San Diego: Bobbie Stephenson David Magney: Rare Plant Program Mgr. San Gabriel Mtns.: Orchid Black San Luis Obispo: Bill Waycott Bryophyte Chapter Mark Naftzger: Webmaster Sanhedrin: Jennifer Riddell Mt. Lassen Liv ’Keeffe: Marketing and Comms. Dir. Jaime Ratchford: Assoc. Veg. Ecologist Santa Clara Valley: Stephen Rosenthall Tahoe Becky Reilly: Events Coordinator Santa Cruz County: Deanna Giuliano Sanhedrin Redbud Sacramento Kendra Sikes: Vegetation Ecologist Sequoia: Vacant Dorothy Milo Dorado King Young Napa Aaron Sims: Rare Plant Botanist Shasta: Ken Kilborn Baker Valley Willis Linn Greg Suba: Conservation Program Dir. Sierra Foothills: Bob Dean Jepson Sierra Foothills Karen Whitestone: Conservation Analyst South Coast: David Berman Marin East Bay North San Joaquin Brock Wimberley: Ops & Finance Dir. Tahoe: Brett Hall Yerba Buena Santa Clara Willis . Jepson: Stephen Goetz Valley CHAPTER COUNCIL—CHAPTERS Yerba Buena: Ellen Edelson Santa Cruz County Sequoia Bristlecone & DELEGATES Monterey Bay Alta Peak Marty Foltyn: Chair 2017 BOARD OF DIRECTORS Larry Levine: Vice Chair Steve Hartman: President Bill Waycott: Vice President San Luis Judy Fenerty: Secretary Obispo Kern Mojave Alta Peak: Melanie Keeley Gabi McLean: Treasurer Baja: César GarcÌa Valderrama Carolyn Longstreth: Secretary Channel Islands San Gabriel Bristlecone: Katie Quinlan Julie Clark DeBlasio: Director Mtns.

Riverside – Bryophyte: Paul Wilson Brett Hall: Director San Bernardino Los Angeles – Orange Channel Islands: Andrea Adams-Morden David Pryor: Chapter Council Rep. County Santa Monica Mtns. Dorothy King Young: Nancy Morin Gordon Leppig: Director San Diego East Bay: Barbara Leitner Cari Porter: Director South Coast El Dorado: Alice Cantelow Jean Robertson: Director Kern County: Rich Spjut Cris Sarabia: Director /Santa Monica Mtns.: Snowdy Dodson Vince Scheidt: Director MATERIALS FOR PUBLICATION CNPS members and others are welcome to contribute materials for publication in Fremontia. See the inside back cover for submission instructions.

Staff and board listings are as of January 2017. Printed by Modern Litho: www.modernlitho.com

FREMONTIA VOL. 44, NO. 3, DECEMBER 2016

V44_3_cover.pmd 2 2/20/17, 5:26 AM CONTENTS

LETTER FROM THE GUEST EDITOR by M. Kat Anderson ...... 3 WHAT IS A GEOPHYTE? by Philip . Rundel and M. Kat Anderson ...... 5

MAKING SENSE OF GEOPHYTE DIVERSITY by Philip W. Rundel...... 7 California and each of the other four regions of the world with a Mediterranean- climate offer a marvelous selection of geophytes that can brighten any .

OUT OF THE WILD AND INTO THE GARDEN: GEOPHYTES IN THE LIFE AND WORK OF CARL PURDY by Brovarney...... 16 Botanist, horticulturalist, and nurseryman Carl Purdy (1861–1945) marketed both wild-collected and nursery-grown California native to . How did Purdy’s collecting practices affect wildflower populations and what environmental changes in the region’s post-settlement period contributed to their loss?

RARITY, THREATS, AND THE CONSERVATION STATUS OF CALIFORNIA GEOPHYTES by Dieter Wilken ...... 20 California’s endangered geophytes mirror the State’s floristic diversity, patterns of and rarity, and exemplify the continuing need for conservation.

DECLINING DIVERSITY ON THE NORTH COAST: THE ROLE OF DISTURBANCE by David Imper ...... 27 Research indicates many rare species and early successional plant communities are in steep decline on and near the coast of and southern . Major changes in disturbance patterns over the past five decades or more appear to be responsible.

10,000 YEARS OF GEOPHYTE USE AMONG THE ISLAND CHUMASH OF THE NORTHERN CHANNEL ISLANDS by Kristina M. Gill ...... 34 In the Santa Barbara Channel region, archaeobotanical research shows that geophytes, likely capitatum, were a staple source of the Island Chumash for ~10,000 years. The Islanders harvested these geophytes in multiple seasons, roasted them in large earth ovens, and employed various land management strategies that promoted geophyte yields for millennia.

GEOPHYTES AND HUMAN EVOLUTION by M. Kat Anderson ...... 39 Geophytes, along with diverse marine resources, may have helped our species survive a population bottleneck during extreme climate change in Africa. This story may hold some important lessons for us as we enter another period of rapid climate change—this time of our own making.

VOL. 44, NO. 3, DECEMBER 2016 FREMONTIA 1

V44_3_book.pmd 1 2/20/17, 5:13 AM THE CALIFORNIA ARCHAEOLOGICAL RECORD AND COMPLEX CONSERVATION by Eric Wohlgemuth...... 42 Archaeological finds of charred geophytes can reveal patterns of Native American harvest strategies, and may have implications for modern restoration use and manage- ment practices.

BEAUTY, BOUNTY, AND : THE STORY OF CALIFORNIA INDIANS’ RELATIONSHIP WITH EDIBLE NATIVE GEOPHYTES by M. Kat Anderson and Frank K. Lake...... 44 A diversity of geophyte species formed a staple food source for California Indian tribes and Indians skillfully managed geophytes at the organism, population, and scales, playing a major role in their conservation.

MENDING THE WILD AT THE OCCIDENTAL ARTS AND ECOLOGY CENTER by Brock Dolman ...... 52 After two decades of ecological stewardship efforts on their 70 acre Wildlands Preserve, the Occidental Arts and Ecology Center continues to strive towards becom- ing agents of regenerative disturbance rather than degenerative disturbance, with a special mention on successful practices aimed at expanding a geophyte population of yellow mariposa lily ( luteus).

CALIFORNIA BULBS’ LOVE AFFAIR WITH NATIVE by Nancy Gilbert ...... 57 California’s native bulbs, which are all-too-often overlooked in restoration projects and , are magnets for a wide array of pollinators. The complex and fascinating pollinator partnerships of California’s numerous species are tuned to their co-evolution in our diversity of climates and .

LEMON LILY FESTIVAL OF IDYLLWILD: HOW A LOCAL LILY BECAME A CAUSE TO CELEBRATE by Kathryn A. Kramer ...... 60 The community of Idyllwild in Riverside County has united around the lemon lily and holds a July festival in its honor.

TIPS ON GROWING GEOPHYTES IN THE GARDEN by Judith Larner Lowry...... 65 Native geophytes could be more frequently seen in California’s native plant gardens. Ways to grow your own stock, to include them in your garden , and even to eat them can help overcome the ’s fear of growing California’s geophytes.

THE COVER: washingtonianum subsp. washingtonianum (Sierra form). Photograph taken in County by Nancy Gilbert with art rendering in Photoshop by Ames Gilbert. Now that he is retired, Ames finally has the time to paint his favorite scenes from nature. “I use photographs as models for all my art. With my Intuos 4 tablet and pen, I can easily experiment with different layouts and then paint using virtual oils, watercolors, or other media; and blend layers with different effects—do things impossible in conventional art.”

2 FREMONTIA VOL. 44, NO. 3, DECEMBER 2016

V44_3_book.pmd 2 2/20/17, 5:13 AM FROM THE GUEST EDITOR by M. Kat Anderson

his double issue of Fremontia businesses (see Dot Brovarney’s ar- geophytes capitalized on herbivory is devoted to the rich subject ticle). by evolving palatable and segmented of California’s native geo- Population growth and land storage organs that increased the phytes and their , ecol- development after the Gold Rush, chances of dispersal. A mature bulb Togy, conservation, , res- however, took its toll on California’s might be dug up and eaten by a toration, and history of use. geophytes, as it did for much of the ground sloth or flat-faced bear (in Bursting into bloom in the spring state’s biodiversity. Due to habitat early California prehistory) or a and then dying back to their under- destruction, competition from ex- black bear, deer, ground squirrel, or ground storage organs during the otic , agricultural plowing, (in more recent times), but drought of summer, our native geo- overgrazing by livestock, overhar- some of its scales would be shed in phytes exhibit a distinctive strategy vest of bulbs and for the the process, each growing into a new of adaptation to California’s Medi- horticultural trade, and fire suppres- individual. terranean climate. Where similar cli- sion, geophyte populations all over Another disturbance of potential matic regimes exist—such as south- the state have diminished. Today, benefit to geophytes is fire. Most ern Africa’s Cape Region, and the many geophyte species are classi- geophytes require at least modest Mediterranean region itself—geo- fied as endangered, threatened, or levels of sunlight and are suppressed phytes are both diverse and abun- rare (see Dieter Wilken’s article). by dense understory vegetation. dant (see Philip Rundel’s article). If we are to conserve the geo- Regular fires help keep habitats open With their typically showy flow- phyte populations that remain—and and amenable to geophyte growth; ers, geophytes are part of the sea- begin to restore populations and they may also enhance nutrient cy- sonal wildflower displays that no former ranges—we must consider cling and help retain moisture. doubt delight all members of CNPS. an important element of the repro- Geophytes often respond favorably As abundant as species such as ductive biology of many geophytes: to , controlled burns, and Dichelostemma capitatum and Calo- they can benefit from disturbance. mechanical clearing (see the photo chortus albus can be in certain lo- Geophytes evolved in the context of spread by Michael Kauffmann in cales today, their populations and predatory pressures from herbivo- the middle of this issue). those of other geophytes were far rous . Rather than defend In his article, David Imper re- larger and more widespread in the against herbivory by developing tox- minds us that because many of past. In the 1890s, botanist Carroll ins in their storage organs, many California’s geophytes have evolved Dewilton Scott reported with disturbance in the “tens of thousands of laven- Bowltube or ground () with visiting male form of herbivory and fire, der mariposa lilies, often long-horned (Eucera sp.). All digital paintings in this article simple black-and-white two dozen blooming on one are by Ames Gilbert based on photographs by Nancy Gilbert. management solutions— square ” on the mesas such as the setting aside surrounding San Diego. As of wildlands and hands- late as 1921, lil- off protection of existing ies (Lilium washingtoni- populations—may not be anum) were so abundant in enough. To incorporate open both herbivory and fire into understories that Willis conservation strategies for Linn Jepson remarked that geophytes, it may be neces- the plant “fills the Yellow sary to actively involve hu- Pine forest with a delightful mans. fragrance.” Taking advan- Management and con- tage of this abundance, hor- servation of geophytes ticulturists started harvest- through direct human in- ing and marketing some of teraction with the plants these bulbs and as begins with the recognition early as 1879, turning this that California Indians have endeavor into successful played a long and impor-

VOL. 44, NO. 3, DECEMBER 2016 FREMONTIA 3

V44_3_book.pmd 3 2/20/17, 5:13 AM tant role as consumers and St. Helena fawn lily ( stewards of native geophytes. helenae). Archeological research tells us that bulb use by humans and universities, tribes such goes back at least 10,000 as the Amah Mutsun, Big Pine years and coincides with the Paiute, , Mountain earliest human arrival in Maidu, and North Fork Mono what is now California (see are bringing back steward- the articles by Kristina Gill ship practices in their tradi- and Eric Wohlgemuth). As tional homelands, both to described in the article by provide and medicines myself and Frank Lake, In- for their people and to dem- dian harvest and manage- onstrate the important ben- ment practices, which in- eficial role of humans in long- cluded both consumption of term geophyte restoration. large quantities of bulbs and While the traditional eco- corms and regular burning logical knowledge of Califor- of geophyte habitats, allowed nia Indians is an important geophyte populations to ingredient for building a geo- thrive and left an enormous phyte conservation and res- bulb bank that remained well toration agenda for the 21st after White settlement put century, there is also a great an end to those practices. need for more scientific re- Gathering and harvesting search on geophyte repro- of geophytes—along with ductive biology and habitat other human-mediated dis- requirements. For most geo- turbances like grazing and phyte species, we know very burning—must be carefully little about the recruitment calibrated to avoid causing of seedlings, plant longevity, more harm than good. Ar- flowering and fruiting phe- riving at the appropriate bal- nology, and production. ance point becomes easier if We are only beginning to un- we try to extricate ourselves derstand geophytes’ impor- from the polarized thinking tance to our native pollina- that allows for only the two tors (see Nancy Gilbert’s ar- extremes of over-use and no ticle), their role as food for use at all. In this, the Native wildlife, and the part they Californian belief that hu- play in providing other eco- mans are an integral part of system services. At larger nature provides helpful guid- scales, we need studies that ance, as does Indians’ suc- help us understand the cess in harvesting and re- modes of ecophysiological planting of cormlets and scat- adaptation of geophytes to tering (see the articles specific habitats and the re- by Kristina Gill and Brock lationship of population Dolman). structure and size to differ- Native management prac- ent kinds of disturbance. tices are not just echoes of With such knowledge, we the past. In partnership with can more finely tune man- NGOs, public lands agencies, agement to the ecological requirements of the species. Because so much wild Brownbells ( micran- tha) and an early spring polli- land and suitable geophyte nator, striped mining bee (Adrena habitat is in private hands, sp.). geophyte conservation de-

4 FREMONTIA VOL. 44, NO. 3, DECEMBER 2016

V44_3_book.pmd 4 2/20/17, 5:13 AM pends on the public recog- for which California has be- nizing the value and signifi- come known. Reminding us cance of these plants. that our cultivated fields are Kathryn Kramer’s article part of a much greater en- shows us that building a con- dowment of biodiversity that stituency on behalf of one of includes our native geophytes, the rare geophytes—Lilium the words Floral Wealth are parryi, in her example—is one carved below her throne. Let effective way of gaining citi- this special issue be an invita- zen allies. And in offering sug- tion to you, the reader, to get gestions for the propagation out this and every spring and and culture of drought-toler- summer to the hills, , ant geophytes in the backyard botanic gardens, and back- garden, Judith Lowry presents country to witness and cel- another strategy for raising the ebrate our great floral wealth, profile of California’s geo- especially as it is expressed phytes. in our native geophytes. Be Across from the State Capi- part of a new era of garden- tol in Sacramento, at the en- ers, conservationists, artists, trance to the Stanley Mosk researchers, gatherers, and Library and Courts Building, restorationists to grow, pro- sits an enormous statue in tect, paint, study, dig, and the image of Pomona—the restore native geophytes. No Roman goddess of , other plant group, in my gardens, and . The mind, better encourages us cornucopia she carries sym- Henderson’s fawn lily () growing in to restore our direct relation- bolizes food and abundance— Siskiyou County, CA. ship with the earth.

WHAT IS A GEOPHYTE? by Philip W. Rundel and M. Kat Anderson

the course of evolution, plant plish the ecological role of survival The global sweet-spot for geo- species have developed a myriad over unfavorable seasons. phytes lies in the world’s Mediterra- of adaptive morphologies that If we think about global ecosys- nean-type climate regions, where help them survive environmental tems that experience seasonal there is a predictable summer Istress. One such adaptation that has stresses where the geophyte growth drought period when water is limit- evolved multiple times in diverse form may be successful, three biomes ing for growth. Under these condi- lineages is the geophyte growth form come to mind where these plants tions, and with fire as a frequent where an underground storage or- are conspicuous components of the component of the disturbance re- gan allows the plant to die back to flora. The first of these are arctic or gime, the geophytic form of growth the ground and go dormant during alpine tundra with long cold win- provides a highly successful plant unfavorable seasons for growth. Re- ters. Underground storage organs strategy of survival. Mediterranean- newal buds associated with the stor- allow plants to quickly develop veg- type climate regions arguably rep- age organs allow a new cycle of - etative tissues and in the short resent the highest diversity of geo- ing and blooming when favorable growing season. A second example phytes of any of the world’s biomes. conditions return. Gardeners tend can be seen in temperate True bulbs are technically stem to lump most geophytes as “bulb” where the understory is tissue with succulent or leaf plants, but a broad definition of geo- heavily shaded for the summer grow- bases serving as the . In phytes would include a morphologi- ing season. In these habitats, geo- function they have an upper and cally diverse group of herbaceous phytes can resprout and flower in lower orientation, with a flat basal species that have adapted differing the late winter or early spring before plate on the bottom that forms forms of storage organs to accom- regrowth of the canopy above. tissues and a meristem at the top that

VOL. 44, NO. 3, DECEMBER 2016 FREMONTIA 5

V44_3_book.pmd 5 2/20/17, 5:13 AM plants in the world with true bulbs and corms are monocots, many gar- den books restrict the term to the monocots, and more often the peta- loid monocots as the geophyte group most commonly considered in horti- culture. However, this definition ex- cludes a group of familiar garden plants with fleshy . Many other questions arise at a of the different types of underground storage organs that are characteristic of practical . Terrestrial orchids, geophytes. Drawing by Claudia Graham. Illustration from Tending the Wild, 2005. Courtesy being petaloid monocots, are some- of the University of California Press, Berkeley, CA. times included as geophytes but typically utilize rhizomes or above- produces new stem tissue. Meristems cluded as geophytes. Rhizomes are ground pseudo-bulbs as storage or- on true bulbs also produce small bulb- underground stems that grow hori- gans. Are these geophytes? Can a lets which develop into new plants. A zontally just beneath the sur- geophyte be evergreen? An evergreen common example of a true bulb is an face and sprout stems and leaves geophyte would seem contrary to , and familiar garden examples upward, and downward along the fundamental botanical definition include , , , daf- their length. Unlike bulbs and corms, of using an underground storage or- fodils, , and . which are self-contained units, rhi- gan to survive unfavorable seasons, Corms are similar in appearance zomes have many growing points yet several South African and South- to bulbs but are the basal tissue of and can be propagated by cutting western Australian groups of geo- the stem itself. As stems, corms have them into sections. Examples of geo- phytes include evergreen species. A solid tissues in their internal struc- phytes with fleshy rhizomes include familiar garden example with world- ture, which distinguishes them from calla lilies, cannas, and bearded iris. wide distribution is Crinum with a bulbs with their layered fleshy leaf Two final groups of plants are bulb, but the includes both bases. When a is cut in half, it technically geophytes but commonly evergreen and seasonal species. Ex- shows solid tissue, while a true bulb excluded in a practical sense. Tubers amples of true bulbs are very few is made up of layers. Typically the are specialized underground storage within the dicots, but one such case tissue of the corm is metabolized for organs that may originate from ei- can be seen in the independent evo- aboveground growth and then re- ther stem tissues (.., tuberous be- lution of bulbs within Oxalis and the formed each year. Small cormlets or gonias, cyclamen, yams, and pota- globular root tubers in many species cormels produced around the cen- toes) or root tissues (sweet potatoes, of sundews (). tral corm form a vegetative means of dahlia, anemone, and ). In the end, technical botanical propagating the plants. Examples of Taproots are characteristic features definitions aside, geophytes can be geophytes with corms include many of dicots, and in many species this defined in a number of practical man- of our familiar Mediterranean gar- taproot forms a fleshy storage organ, ners so long as the intent is clearly den geophytes such as brodiaea, as in carrots, beets, and turnips. stated. While underground storage gladiolus, and crocus. All of this sounds easy, but as organs have evolved independently There are other kinds of storage with many things the devil is in the in a number of morphological forms, organs that can be found in herba- details as to how to define geophytes the ecological function and adaptive ceous plants, and are variably in- in a practical sense. Since most of the strategy is much the same.

LEFT TO RIGHT: Calochortus tolmei, . tiburonensis, and C. luteus—all with bulbs. Photographs by Morgan Stickrod.

6 FREMONTIA VOL. 44, NO. 3, DECEMBER 2016

V44_3_book.pmd 6 2/20/17, 5:13 AM MAKING SENSE OF GEOPHYTE DIVERSITY by Philip W. Rundel

ur California gardens splendidly display flow- ering “bulbs” from around the world, but Omost of us have little knowledge of the home regions for these bulbs. Certainly California natives are among our choices but many of our bulbs come from other Medi- terranean climate regions of the world. The five Mediterranean cli- mate regions, characterized as glo- bal hotspots of biodiversity for their diverse floras, display a richness of geophyte species unparalleled in any other global biome. More than ten percent of all of the species in these regions can be classified as a being geophytes. However, the diversity and family representation of geo- phytes varies greatly between re- gions. as the petaloid monocot geophytes My primary objective in this ar- or “bulb” plants that most of us ticle is to provide an overview of the visualize with the term geophyte. diversity of geophytes native to Although our California orchids California, and in particular to the are could be classified as geophytes, classic Mediterranean climate eco- they are excluded from consider- systems of our woodlands and - ation here. lands. Native California geophytes A second goal of this article is to can form a wonderful and low main- provide a brief description of the tenance addition to any native plant diversity of geophytes in the other garden and deserve much wider use. four Mediterranean climate regions In their book California Plants for of the world. Increasing our collec- the Garden the authors write, “If an- tive understanding of the rich Medi- TOP: (Themidaceae). nuals are the ‘laughter’ of a garden, terranean climate floras helps greatly ABOVE: (). then bulbs are its ‘magic and prom- in understanding this remarkable Photographs by Eric in S.. ise.’” This is an apt description of diversity as well as conservation of our bulbs that sleep underground our own species. contained in just two families that for half or more of the year and then have their greatest importance in magically appear with rains. THE DIVERSITY OF our woodlands and grasslands. The As described in a box earlier in CALIFORNIA GEOPHYTES lily family includes 97 species, with this special issue, the term geophyte almost half of these in Calochortus, is used in multiple senses. A broad The California flora includes a or mariposa lily, a large genus with botanical definition would include rich diversity of geophytes extend- a distribution across the western herbaceous species with an under- ing throughout the state. Overall, and . The mari- ground storage organ that die back petaloid monocot geophytes as de- posa lilies, sometimes placed into to ground level every year during fined here total nearly 240 species their own family, come in a variety the unfavorable season for growth. or about five percent of the total of colors with wonderful patterns However, I am confining my discus- native species in our state. More of spots and glands. The name sion to what could be characterized than 80 percent of this diversity is Calochortus is derived from Greek

VOL. 44, NO. 3, DECEMBER 2016 FREMONTIA 7

V44_3_book.pmd 7 2/20/17, 5:13 AM and means “beautiful grass.” These The family in addition to MEDITERRANEAN BASIN other large genera of the lily family, including and is home more characteristic of wetter or to five genera of geophytes, includ- The Mediterranean Basin, by far cooler areas of California, include ing two that are common in semi- the largest of the world’s Medi- Fritillaria (19 species), Erythronium arid and arid regions of our state. terranean climate regions, is home (16 species), and Lilium (12 spe- species (soap root) are to a rich assemblage of geophyte cies). These latter genera have dis- widespread in openings of chapar- species with no clear total number tributions that range far outside of ral shrublands. The large toxic bulbs calculated. Species richness of geo- California to the , of these plants contain saponins and phytes increases from west to east, East Coast, and Europe. were used by Native Americans to peaking in the uplands of Greece Next to the mariposa lilies, the stun fish. undulata or and Turkey. Many of the genera most familiar geophytes of our open desert lily grows in large numbers and species from this region are woodlands and grasslands are mem- on sandy plains and dry washes in familiar in our California gardens bers of six genera that form the our desert areas, and produced ed- today after a long history of intro- Themidaceae, a group with a distri- ible bulbs for Native Americans. ductions. Good examples include bution centered in California, and One of the oddest groups repre- lily family members (200 sometimes placed as a subfamily sented in our native flora is a single species), Tulipa (120 species), and within the . The larg- species of a serpentine grassland geo- Fritillaria (130 species), all large est genera of these are Brodiaea (18 phyte in the family Tecophilaeaceae, and widespread Northern Hemi- species), (15 species), and Odontostomum hartwegii. This small sphere groups extending in range Dichelostemma (five species). As with family of nine genera and 27 species well beyond the Mediterranean Ba- the mariposa lilies, native species in is otherwise only known from sin itself. (Alliaceae) is well these genera adapt well to life in and South and West Africa. represented with many species all native plant gardens and can be eas- across the region. ily propagated. In the , daffodils The second largest genus in Cali- (Narcissus) have their center of di- fornia is Allium in the Alliaceae with versity in the Iberian Peninsula and 48 species, a group sometimes placed occur across the Mediterranean Ba- in a separate subfamily of the Ama- sin with more than 100 species. The ryllidaceae. Allium forms a huge commercial popularity of daffodils genus with hundreds of species ex- as cut flowers has led to the devel- tending across the Northern Hemi- opment of literally thousands of dif- sphere. The group includes the ferent . Also from daffodils cultivated onion, , , there are several other smaller gen- , and , as well as . era of amaryllid geophytes that grow The iris family in California con- well in California gardens, includ- sists of two important genera, Iris ing Leucojum, Galanthus, and Stern- (14 species) and Sisyrinchium bergia. (blue-eyed and yellow-eyed The iris family in the Medi- grass, eight species). Most of terranean Basin is best known our native iris can be found for irises (Iris) and crocuses along our Pacific Coast, where (Crocus), both genera with more they are sometimes called grass than 100 species. The former iris because of their narrow has a center of diversity in the leaves. Wild species and culti- basin but a broader Eurasian vars of pacific iris come in a distribution. Three other gen- remarkable diversity of colors. era in this family (Gladiolus, These plants were well known Romulea, and Moraea) show in- to Native Americans who used teresting examples of bimodal the strong leaf fibers for fish distribution between the Medi- nets and rope. Our flora also terranean Basin and the Cape includes Olsynium douglasii, the Region, but with a South Afri- TOP: (). Photo- only North American member of a can center of diversity. graph by Penganum. BOTTOM: Hesperocallis genus otherwise with a center of undulata (Asparagaceae). Photograph by Another group of familiar geo- distribution in Chile. Jim Morefield. phytes widely distributed in the

8 FREMONTIA VOL. 44, NO. 3, DECEMBER 2016

V44_3_book.pmd 8 2/20/17, 5:13 AM mon in California gardens. The cen- ter of diversity for these species lies in the matorral shrublands and ad- jacent aridlands of central Chile. This region is famous for its mag- nificent desierto florido in infrequent years with good rainfall, where geo- phytes form some of the most spec- tacular wildflower shows. Rhodo- phiala (Amaryllidaceae, 30 species) resembles an amaryllis in appear- ance. Chilean species range in color from brick red to orange to yellow and can occur in remarkable densi- ties. Much more delicate in appear- ance but often with mass flowering are species of (Ama-

BELOW: Crocus albiflorus (Iridaceae). Pho- tograph by N. Barbieri. • BOTTOM: Hyacin- Two geophyte groups present in thus orientalis (Asparagaceae). Photograph by L. Kaffer. the Mediterranean Basin are in fami- lies with centers of distribution in Southern Africa and . These are Cochicum and Androcymbium in the Colchicaceae and Asphodelus in the .

CENTRAL CHILE Petaloid monocot geophytes are well represented in Chile, including approximately 200 species, with many of these now becoming com-

TOP: Narcissus poeticus (Amaryllidaceae). Photograph by . Hulhoven. • BOTTOM: Gagea lutea (Liliaceae). Photograph by . Werther.

Mediterranean Basin and extending into temperate can be seen in the genera (scilla), (grape hyacinth), Hyacinthus (hya- cinth), and (star-of- Bethlehem). These were once placed in the Hyacinthaceae, but are now considered to form a subfamily of Asparagaceae. The group among other traits is often characterized by fleshy leaves. This is an important group in the flora of the Cape Re- gion.

VOL. 44, NO. 3, DECEMBER 2016 FREMONTIA 9

V44_3_book.pmd 9 2/20/17, 5:13 AM times called Peruvian lilies, the Chil- eans take offense at this since the center of distribution is in central Chile. Alstroemeria (36 species) lack bulbs or corms, and reproduce from root tubers. This morphology helps make them aggressive colonizers that may form dense stands along open roadsides. The iris family is presented in Chile with the widespread genus Sisyrinchium along with a group of closely related but less well-known small genera. As described above, Chile has two genera and about nine species of the disjunct family Tecophilaeaceae. It is home to a single species of Asphodelaceae, the monotypic Pasithea caerulea. The lily family, a Northern Hemisphere group, is absent from Chile.

CAPE REGION OF While the geophyte flora of the eastern Mediterranean Basin is re- markable in its diversity, the mother TOP LEFT: Rhodophiala phycelloides (Amaryllidaceae). Photograph by G. Hüdepohl. • TOP lode of global geophytes can be RIGHT: Leucocoryne vittata (Amaryllidaceae). Photograph by P. Novoa. • ABOVE: Rhodophiala found in the Cape Region of South bagnoldii (Amaryllidaceae). Photograph by G. Hüdepohl. • FACING PAGE, TOP: Leucocoryne coquimbensis (Amaryllidaceae) with Cistanthe longiscapa (). Photograph by G. Africa and adjacent desert areas of Hüdepohl. the winter rainfall Succulent Karoo. The flora of the Cape ryllidaceae, 49 species) with blue, ther in the Alliaceae or in the allium Region is the richest of all five re- white or lilac flowers held in um- subfamily of Amaryllidaceae. gions at any unit of spatial scale, bels. The foliage is long and slender It is impossible to talk about with a flora of about 9,000 species and with a scent of onions. Leuco- Chilean “bulbs” without including in an area half of the size of Califor- coryne and a number of less well- Alstroemeria, which forms the larg- nia. The flora of geophytes totals known Chilean genera are allied with est genus in the alstroemeria family more than 1,500 species, or about Allium and would be classified ei- (). Although some- one in six species. On a relative ba-

10 FREMONTIA VOL. 44, NO. 3, DECEMBER 2016

V44_3_book.pmd 10 2/20/17, 5:13 AM sis for the entire flora, this propor- The iris family forms the domi- gion is home to one-third of all the tion of geophytes is three times the nant Cape family with 27 genera iris family species in the world. No- abundance of geophytes in either and more than 700 species. Remark- table genera, many of which are fa- California or Chile. ably, the small area of the Cape Re- miliar in California gardens, include Babiana (49 species), (83 BOTTOM LEFT: Alstroemeria magnifica (Alstroemeriaceae). Photograph by P. Novoa. • BOTTOM species), Gladiolus (110 species), Ixia RIGHT: Pasithea caerulea (Asphodelaceae). Photograph by P. Pelser. (50 species), Moraea (123 species), Romulea (64 species), Sparaxis (15 species), and Watsonia (33 species). All of these genera exhibit species with a marvelous diversity of growth form and flower color. The second largest family of geo-

VOL. 44, NO. 3, DECEMBER 2016 FREMONTIA 11

V44_3_book.pmd 11 2/20/17, 5:14 AM TOP ROW, LEFT TO RIGHT: Babiana sambucina (Iridaceae). Photograph by S. Shebs. • Ornithagalum dubium (Asparagaceae). Photograph from Wikipedia Commons. • SECOND ROW, LEFT TO RIGHT: (Iridaceae). Photograph by A. Massyn. • Moraea papilionacea (Iridaceae). Photograph by A. Massyn. • BELOW: Brunsvigia bosmaniae (Amaryllidaceae). Photograph by . van Zijl.

12 FREMONTIA VOL. 44, NO. 3, DECEMBER 2016

V44_3_book.pmd 12 2/20/17, 5:14 AM phytes in the Cape Region is the geophytes are members of the Asparagaceae with 17 genera and Asparagaceae, all with root tubers. more than 250 species. The majority One of the most beautiful of these is of these were once placed in the Hya- the fringe lily (), with 45 cynthaceae, including (80 species in Southwest Australia. The species), Ornithogalum (43 species), iris family is represented by just two (28 species), (four genera, Patersonia (14 species) and species), and the familiar Clivia that Orthrosanthus (four species), both is so common in our shade gardens. largely evergreen and rhizomatous, capensis is often grown in and relatively primitive lineages in Southern California gardens. their family. The Colchicaceae is rep- The amaryllis family also forms a resented by three genera, with rich group of Cape Region geo- Wurmbea and Burchardia the most phytes with 19 genera and 111 spe- widespread and notable. Outside of cies. The family includes many un- the kangaroo paws, none of these usual geophytes such as Haemanthus species are common in cultivation. (11 species), Cyrtanthus (22 species), There are no native species of the Brunsvigia (nine species), and Boo- lily or amaryllid families present. phane (two species). Some of these The almost total absence of geo- taxa that flower in the late summer phytes with bulbs or corms in South- or fall when the plants are leafless, western Australia represents an evo- as famously seen in Brunsvigia bos- lutionary mystery. There appears to maniae. , widely planted be an open niche for such species in California, is now placed in the as South African geophytes have Amaryllidaceae, although formerly become seriously invasive. Of par- put into its own family. ticular concern is the rapid spread Two other largely Southern of many Iridaceae, including spe- Hemisphere families, the Haema- cies of Babiana, Chasmanthe, Free- doraceae (two genera and eight sia, Gladiolus, Romulea, Sparaxis, and TOP: (Asparagaceae). species) and Colchicaceae (six gen- Watsonia. It has been suggested that Photograph by A. Chapman. BOTTOM: Bur- era and 38 species) are less impor- in the other Mediterranean climate chardia multiflora (Colchicaceae). Photo- tant. The lily family is absent. regions there has been a diversifica- graph by N. Tapson. tion of geophytes with bulbs or SOUTHWESTERN corms in a co-evolutionary relation- Gerritson, M.E. and R. Parsons. 2007. AUSTRALIA ship with pocket mice, mole rats, or Calochortus: Mariposa Lilies and their . Australia lacks a marsupial Relatives. Timber Press, Portland, OR. The geophyte flora of Southwest- equivalent of this type of mamma- Goldgar, A. 2008. Tulipmania: Money, ern Australia is the most unusual of lian life history, leaving this unfilled Honor, and Knowledge in the Dutch Golden Age. University of Chicago any of the five Mediterranean cli- niche for colonization. Press, Chicago, IL. mate regions. While species with un- Kingsbury, N. 2013. Daffodil: The Re- derground root tubers or stem tu- REFERENCES markable Story of the World’s Most bers are common, both in monocots Popular Spring Flower. Timber Press, and herbaceous dicots, true bulbs Bornstein, C., . Fross, and . O’Brien. Portland, OR. and corms are extremely rare. More- 2005. California Native Plants for the Manning, J., P. Goldblatt, and D. over, most of the petaloid monocots Garden. Cachuma Press, Los Olivos, Snijman. 2002. The Color Encyclo- CA. pedia of Cape Bulbs. Timber Press, are evergreen, retaining their leaves Bryan, J.E. 2005. Pocket Guide to Bulbs. through the dry summer season. The Portland, OR. Timber Press, Portland, OR. Rix, M. 1983. Growing Bulbs. Timber most familiar petaloid monocots Fiedler, P.L. 1996. Rare Lilies of Cali- Press, Portland, OR. from Australia to us in California fornia. California Native Plant Soci- Rukans, J. 2007. Buried Treasures: Find- ety, Sacramento, CA. are the kangaroo paws (Anigozan- ing and Growing the World’s Choicest Goldblatt, P. and J.C. Manning. 2008. thos), members of the Haemodora- Bulbs. Timber Press, Portland, OR. The Iris Family: Natural History and ceae. However, these are technically Classification. Timber Press, Port- not true geophytes as they are ever- land, OR. Philip W. Rundel, Department of Ecology green and lack a fleshy storage organ. McGary, J. 2001. Bulbs of North and Evolutionary Biology, UCLA, Los An- The largest diversity of monocot America. Timber Press, Portland, OR. geles, CA 90095; [email protected]. edu

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V44_3_book.pmd 13 2/20/17, 5:14 AM TAXONOMIC CLASSIFICATION OF PETALOID MONOCOTS IN THE NATIVE CALIFORNIA FLORA, EXCLUDING

he petaloid monocots of Cali- ceae in the earlier floras to recogni- REFERENCES fornia are placed into genera tion of more families in TJM 2 and Angiosperm Phylogeny Group. with minimal controversy, but the APG IV system. Here, I am fol- 2016. An update of the Angio- systematic botanists have held lowing TJM 2 as the standard field sperm Phylogeny Group classifi- diverse opinions on the most guide to the California flora. It dif- cation for the orders and families appropriate distribution of the fers from the APG IV classification of flowering plants: APG IV. Bo- genera into families. This appen- in several respects. It recognizes the tanical Journal of the Linnean dix provides a comparison of the Agavaceae, Ruscaceae, and Themi- Society 181:1–20. family treatments for these gen- daceae as separate families rather Baldwin, B.G., D.H. Goldman, D.J. era in the Munz and Keck Manual than merging these into a broad con- Keil, R. Patterson, and D.H. of 1959, The Jepson Manual of cept of the Asparagaceae. It also rec- Wilken (eds.). 2012. The Jepson 1993 (TJM 1), the new Jepson ognizes the Alliaceae as a family Manual: Vascular Plants of Cali- Manual of 2012 (TJM 2), and fi- rather than including this in the fornia. 2nd Edition. University of nally the APG IV (2016) system Amaryllidaceae as in the APG IV California Press, Berkeley, CA. of classification. The latter is a system. The Hyacinthaceae, not na- Hickman, J.C. (ed.). 1993. The consensus arrangement of plant tive to California but common in Jepson Manual. University of Cali- families and genera determined our gardens, have been moved into fornia Press, Berkeley, CA. by an international group of ex- the Asparagaceae in the APG IV Munz, P.A. and D.D. Keck. 1959. A perts. You will see a trend from system. Brackets indicate woody California Flora. University of a very broad concept of the Lilia- genera. California Press, Berkeley, CA.

MUNZ & KECK 1959 TJM 1 – 1993 TJM 2 – 2012 APG IV – 2016

LILIALES Agavaceae Iridaceae Agavaceae Amaryllidaceae [Agave] Iris [Agave] Allium [] Sisyrinchium Asparagaceae – [] Liliaceae Chlorogalum [Agave] Amaryllidaceae [Agave] Camassia Allium Allium Hesperocallis Chlorogalum Androstephium [] Hastingsia Bloomeria Hesperocallis Brodiaea Brodiaea [Yucca] [Hesperoyucca] Calochortus Alliaceae Leucocrinum Iridaceae Camassia Allium [Yucca] Iris Chlorogalum Iridaceae Asparagaceae – Brodiaeaoideae Sisyrinchium Iris Androstephium Liliaceae Dichelostemma Olsynium Bloomeria Calochortus Disporum Sisyrinchium Brodiaea

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V44_3_book.pmd 14 2/20/17, 5:14 AM MUNZ & KECK 1959 TJM 1 – 1993 TJM 2 – 2012 APG IV – 2016

Camassia Erythronium Liliaceae Dichelostemma Chlorogalum Fritillaria Calochortus Muilla Clintonia Hastingia Clintonia Triteleia Disporum Hesperocallis Erythronium Asparagagaceae – Erythronium Leucocrinum Fritillaria Fritillaria Lilium Lilium [Nolina] Hesperocallis Maianthemum Iridaceae Leucocrinum Muilla Iris Lilium Narthecium Olsynium Maianthemum [Nolina] Sisyrinchium Narthecium Odontostomum Pseudotrillium Liliaceae Odontostomum Schoenolirion Stenanthium Calochortus Schoenolirion Scoliopus Toxicoscordium Clintonia Scoliopus Smilacina Trillium Erythronium Smilacina Stenanthium Fritillaria Stenanthium Streptopus Xerophyllum Lilium Streptopus Tofieldia Ruscaceae Prosartes Tofieldia Trillium Maianthemum Scoliopus Trillium Triteleia [Nolina] Streptotus Veratrum Veratrum Tecophilaeaceae Melanthiaceae Xerophyllum Xerophyllum Odontostomum Pseudotrillium Zigadenus [Yucca] Themidaceae Stenanthium Zigadenus Androstephium Toxicoscordium Bloomeria Trillium Brodiaea Veratrum Dichelostemma Xerophyllum Muilla Tecophilaeaceae Triteleia Odontostomum

DIOSCORIALES DIOSCORIALES

Nartheciaceae Nartheciaceae Narthecium Narthecium

ALISMATALES ALISMATALES

Tofieldiaceae Tofieldiaceae Triantha Triantha

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V44_3_book.pmd 15 2/20/17, 5:14 AM OUT OF THE WILD AND INTO THE GARDEN: GEOPHYTES IN THE LIFE AND WORK OF CARL PURDY by Dot Brovarney

He is a man of great nobility, a man of strong character and high purpose . . . a man clear-minded, far-seeing and gifted with a rare sagacity. —Willis Jepson on Carl Purdy, 1935

It is somewhat common knowledge amongst California Native Plant So- ciety members that Carl Purdy was a bit of a raper-plunderer. —Phil Van Soelen, 2011

he disparity between these views of bulb collector and Willis Jepson remained a lifelong Purdy friend and correspondent, as did Cal Academy nurseryman Carl Purdy calls Curator Alice Eastwood, who named Purdy’s iris () and Purdy’s fritillary for research into the man’s (Fritillaria purdyi) for him. Photograph courtesy of the Carl Purdy Family Collection. life,T his work, his relationships, and the historical and botanical context nated by the natural world, young lis, meaning “loved one,” commonly in which he lived. Carl spent hours hiking the coun- called golden globe lily or Diogenes’ tryside of rural Mendocino. In 1878 lantern. DISCOVERING CALIFORNIA at the age of 17, he found a species WILDFLOWERS of Calochortus that he would later A SELF-TAUGHT BOTANIST learn had not been identified by AND COLLEAGUE By the turn of the 20th century, botanists. Purdy followed a friend’s botanist and horticulturalist Carlton advice and shipped the pressed An eager student of California Elmer Purdy had become a leading flower of the bulbous plant to a botany, Purdy began learning about expert on Western North American plant and bulb dealer both wild and garden-raised geo- lilies, specifically Calochortus, Ery- who was seeking California wild- phytes—perennial plants propagated thronium, and Lilium. He had ar- flowers. This decision proved piv- by underground storage organs, ei- rived in Mendocino County as a otal and was to set the course for ther bulbs, corms, rhizomes, or tu- nine-year-old in 1870. Inspired by the rest of Carl Purdy’s life. The bers. Purdy sent specimens and ques- his sister’s love of flowers and fasci- dealer, assuming it to be Mount tions to California botanists, includ- Diablo globe lily (C. pulchellus), ing Edward Lee Greene at UC Ber- ordered 50 bulbs, paying 75 cents. keley, John Gill Lemmon, and Mrs. For a young man facing limited Kate Brandegee. He developed life- job opportunities in a rural farm- long friendships with Berkeley pro- ing town, receiving payment for fessor Willis Jepson; Alice Eastwood, doing what he loved—exploring the Curator of Botany at the California natural world and learning about Academy of Sciences; and Luther plants—was the catalyst for his Burbank, who urged him to shift career in horticulture. Growing and from a wholesale market to the re- studying Calochortus over the next tail trade in the early 1900s. Collect- 20 years, Purdy determined that ing natural specimens was a favored Golden globelily or Diogenes’ lantern (Cal- this flower he so admired was not research method, so Purdy requested ochortus amabilis) was given its name by Carl Purdy in 1901, years after he dis- C. pulchellus, but something differ- his colleagues collect and send spe- covered it in Mendocino County in 1878. ent—a species unknown to science. cific bulbs from distant locations for Photograph by Ree Slocum. Purdy named the new lily C. amabi- him to study.

16 FREMONTIA VOL. 44, NO. 3, DECEMBER 2016

V44_3_book.pmd 16 2/20/17, 5:14 AM RESEARCHING AND his experiments and horticulture California’s Coast Ranges, from the WRITING ABOUT LILIES business for over 60 years until his prairies bordering the Pacific to the death in 1945 at age 84. interior valleys. He described his Carl Purdy made a special study The earliest surviving catalog in scope: “There are fifty-two counties of lilies, especially the genera Lilium, the Purdy family collections is a in the state, and I get bulbs from Erythronium, and Calochortus, which simple one, printed for the whole- only fourteen of them. . . . I draw he knew well from exploring north- sale market in 1891. Later retail cata- from as little as a thirty-foot square west California. His two-decade logs, with detailed planting and in one case, and scattered over a few study of Calochortus (Mariposa tu- growing descriptions, reflect Purdy’s hundred acres where I get the most.” lips, star tulips, and globe lilies) cul- knowledge from his experiments and Purdy’s assistants included minated in “A Revision of the Ge- customer reports about bulb growth trained local employees who trav- nus Calochortus” published by the in various locales. He marketed what eled mainly in California and con- California Academy of Sciences in he grew both from seed and bulb, as tractors in more distant West Coast 1901. Purdy based this monograph well as wild bulbs, which were col- locations. In 1912, Purdy told a San on extensive observation in the field, lected primarily by trained employ- Francisco Call reporter, “My collec- a study of specimens, and ees and contractors in distant places. tors are instructed to leave the experiments in his garden where he bulbels [aka. bulbils, small second- tested different soils, elevations, light COLLECTING ary bulbs that grow between leaf exposures, and moisture levels. This and stem] and stalks, carefully cov- publication reveals that he was a With landowners’ permission, ering them and in a few years they disciplined researcher despite a lack Carl Purdy collected primarily in produce more than were dug out.” of academic credentials. During this period, Purdy applied This image of Carl Purdy in his gardens appeared in a 1940 issue of Gentleman’s Quarterly. what he learned from his experi- Here he grew more than 3000 species and varieties of plants, including many California ments with geophytes and other bulbs reproduced from both bulb and seed. Botanist Lois Weeth, who visited Purdy at the Terraces in 1936, recalls a variety of Calochortus, Brodiaea, Camassia, Erythronium, and plants to a growing horticultural Trillium species, as well as , among other plantings. Photograph courtesy business. English and European en- of the Carl Purdy Family Collection. thusiasm for with West Coast native flowers had been kindled by Scottish botanist David Douglas who, in the 1830s, had sent Western North American native specimens back to England, includ- ing Calochortus. By the 1890s, Carl Purdy’s experience with East Coast sales and subsequent ones in Eu- rope convinced him that a global market existed for West Coast na- tive bulbs.

CHOOSING HOME AND GARDEN Despite the lure of a lucrative landscaping career in the Bay Area following his role as garden man- ager for the 1915 Panama-Pacific International Exposition, Purdy re- turned to his home, “The Terraces,” in rural Mendocino County. Here, in the northern Mayacamas Moun- tains east of Ukiah, he had planted the spring-fed natural terraces with native and non-native bulbs. These gardens provided the grounds for

VOL. 44, NO. 3, DECEMBER 2016 FREMONTIA 17

V44_3_book.pmd 17 2/20/17, 5:14 AM Documentation regarding Purdy’s numbers of bulbs that Purdy claimed of selling native and non-native distant contractors is limited. to have collected; his profiting from bulbs and seeds was not a source of Achieving complete control over sales; and his marketing of some wealth. He engaged in other work to their work habits would have been bulbs that he described as rare at the make ends meet—landscaping, ar- difficult, and in cases of their en- time. ticle writing, and lecturing. Through gagement to gather bulbs for other “Rare” in the 19th century, when these endeavors and his catalog, collectors, impossible. However, a Purdy came of age and began his Purdy believed that his mission, in newly discovered document indi- business, meant exotic and desir- no small part, was to teach people cates a vigilance regarding distant able, but not limited in abundance about native plants, their culture, collectors and an insistence that they as it is considered today. (Think wild and adaptability to the garden. be of “the right fiber.” In a 1903 trophies, ladies’ plumed hats, letter, Southern California collector etc.) Some question whether his col- ADDRESSING WILDFLOWER Robert Haley Asher, son of San lection of then-rare plants contrib- DISAPPEARANCE Diego’s first commercial nursery- uted to their increasing rarity in the man, described a Mr. Donaldson 20th century and, in some cases, During his lifetime, Carl Purdy who had been sent to accompany current endangered status. himself addressed concerns about him, as one who “was with Carl From the perspective of the over-collecting and increasing wild- Purdy at Ukiah for several years.” present day, the volume of Califor- flower disappearance. He noted the nia native bulbs that Purdy collected loss of wildflowers in great areas of HARVESTING FOR seems shocking (e.g., 10 million be- California and the West, much of it SUSTAINABILITY tween 1890 and 1920). The num- beyond his collecting range. He con- bers of harvested bulbs, however, sidered the problem in the context Carl Purdy’s collecting habits need to be considered in historical of complex environmental changes were informed by his experiences context. “Without historical per- that he had witnessed since the with Mendocino County’s Native spective from which vegetative 1870s. This perspective, including Pomo who relied on geophytes for change can be reconstructed,” cau- decades of collecting along the same in their diet. Purdy was fa- tions author Richard A. Minnich in route from Mendocino County to miliar with their cultural traditions, California’s Fading Wildflowers, Yosemite, gave him a unique oppor- having worked with the Pomo on “conclusions may be ad hoc sto- tunity to observe shifts in environ- his father’s hop farm. His ventures ries.” mental patterns and their effects on into Mendocino’s backcountry also Eighteenth and 19th century de- native bulbs. provided a window into Native har- scriptions of California’s native plant Purdy believed that the severe vest practices. riches suggest that wildflowers gen- impacts that native plants had suf- The Pomo, like other California erally grew in copious amounts, from fered resulted from several settle- Indians, harvested edible bulbs, tu- the Pacific through the inland val- ment activities: fire suppression lead- bers, and corms, commonly known leys and hills into the Sierra. The ing to rampant growth of forest and as “Indian potatoes.” Using a dig- Coast appeared as a “Land of Fire” brush crowding out native plants ging stick, they removed large bulbs to the Spanish explorers for its pro- (contrary to the Native practice of and dispersed the smaller ones, aer- fusion of flowers. To John Muir, the selective burning, which opened up ating the soil, accelerating plant Sierra foothills were “living plant shaded areas, promoting plant growth for future consumption, in gold forming the most glowing land- growth); ever expanding clearance effect, cultivating and sustaining the eye of man can behold.” of land for ; grazing, par- their food source. Nine-year old Carl Purdy, en route ticularly sheep; and the introduc- to Ukiah from Petaluma in 1870, tion of invasive grasses supplanting QUESTIONS ABOUT observed “masses of a single flower both wildflowers and native grasses. OVERCOLLECTING covering . . . hundreds of acres.” Lack- Carl Purdy demonstrated a pas- ing quantitative data about existing sion for plants throughout his life. Concerns about Carl Purdy’s geophyte populations in the Ameri- His love of the natural world is re- work have been raised over the years, can settlement period, it is difficult flected in the tone and content of particularly in more recent times, as to conclude that Purdy’s harvesting his published writing and handwrit- native plant rarity has increased and was excessive relative to plant abun- ten lecture notes, as well as in his extirpation of some species has oc- dance at the time. personal and business correspon- curred. Besides misgivings about the Some critics point to Carl Purdy’s dence, particularly with his col- practices of Purdy’s distant collec- business interest as a motivation for leagues in California botany and tors, other concerns are: the large overharvesting. His lifelong career horticulture. His greatest pleasure

18 FREMONTIA VOL. 44, NO. 3, DECEMBER 2016

V44_3_book.pmd 18 2/20/17, 5:14 AM Carl Purdy and crew sorting bulbs at the Terraces, his nursery and home, in the Mayacamas Range near Ukiah, California, c. 1914. Purdy marketed garden-grown bulbs along with wild-collected ones. Photograph by Charles Turrill, courtesy of the Carl Purdy Family Collection.

beyond the plants themselves was Lenfest, L.A. 1912. The lily man of —. 1919–1920. California’s Choicest sharing his joy with the world’s gar- Ukiah. San Francisco Call, April 7. Bulbs. BiodiversityLibrary.org. deners. Minnich, R.A. 2008. California’s Fad- —. 1927–1928. California’s Choicest ing Wildflowers: Lost Legacy and Bio- Bulbs. Collection of Ellen Uhler, logical Invasions. University of Cali- Oakland, CA. REFERENCES fornia Press, Berkeley, CA. —. late 1920s. TS. Carl Purdy Papers. Purdy, C.E. 1891. California Bulbs. Carl Purdy Family Collection, Ukiah, CA. Anderson, M.K. 2005. Tending the Wild: Purdy Papers. Purdy Family Collec- —. 1976. My Life and My Times. Np: Eugene and Mary E. Humphrey. Native American Knowledge and the tion, Ukiah, CA. —. N.d. MS. On wild flowers, are they Management of California’s Natural —. 1893. Novel and Rare Bulbs and Resources. University of California disappearing and if so why? Carl Plants. BiodiversityLibrary.org. Purdy Papers. Purdy Family Collec- Press, Berkeley, CA. —. 1880–1895. John and Sarah tion, Ukiah, CA. Asher, Robert Haley to Mrs. J.M. Asher. Lemmon Papers, University and Van Soelen, P. 2011. Letter. Pacific Hor- 1903. Collection of Peter Bruegge- Jepson Herbaria, UC Berkeley. ticulture 72(4):56. man, La Jolla, CA. —.1901. A revision of the genus Weeth, L.W. 2003. A visit with Carl Jepson, W.L. to Carl Purdy. 1937. Carl Calochortus. Proceedings of the Cali- Purdy. CNPS Sanhedrin Chapter Purdy Papers. Purdy Family Collec- fornia Academy of Sciences. 3d ser.: Newsletter (Winter/Spring 2003– tion, Ukiah, CA. Botany 2(4):106-157. 2004): Np. Jepson, W.L. 1935. Field book 55: 63. —. 1903. A revision of the genus Jepson Herbarium, University of Calochortus. Flora and Sylva 1(1): Dot Brovarney, 1117 W. Perkins St., California, Berkeley, CA. 22-30. Ukiah, CA 95482; [email protected]

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V44_3_book.pmd 19 2/20/17, 5:14 AM RARITY, THREATS, AND THE CONSERVATION STATUS OF CALIFORNIA GEOPHYTES by Dieter Wilken

he rich diversity, regional en- toric decline. The most frequently ment, road construction and main- demism, and rarity of many cited threats include urbanization tenance, trampling along roads and plants in the California Flo- and associated residential develop- trails, grazing, and competition from ristic Province are mirrored Tin the patterns exemplified by geo- phytes. Some geophytes are among California’s most common and wide- spread species, and occupy many different habitats. For example, heartleaf bittercress (Cardamine californica), blue dicks (Dichelo- stemma capitatum), species of man- root (Marah), and the aptly named skullcap (Scutellaria tuberosa) rep- resent geophytes commonly found in oak woodland, , and grassland throughout California. In contrast, spring beauty (Montia chamissoi) and three-leaved (Lewisia triphylla) are adapted to moist soils and ephemeral wetlands of montane coniferous forests. A few geophytes, like Bermuda buttercup (Oxalis pes-caprae) and asparagoides, are invasive non- natives but they generally occupy disturbed habitats and are consid- ered threats only in agricultural fields and cultivated areas along the coast. Unfortunately, local rarity and a limited geographic distribution, combined with declines in popula- tion size resulting from habitat deg- radation and loss, characterize a rela- tively large number of native geo- phytes. Geophytes might not appear to be especially vulnerable, given their adaptation to surviving peri- ods of summer drought or cold win- ters in montane habitats. However, their conservation status is related almost entirely to anthropogenic fac- tors. Many imperiled species have restricted distributions occurring naturally in or adjacent to areas now occupied by urban areas and agri-

cultural lands, conditions that have TOP: Munz’s onion (Allium munzii). Photograph by Roxanne Bittmann. • BOTTOM: Spanish contributed significantly to their his- Needle onion (Allium shevockii). Photograph by John Game.

20 FREMONTIA VOL. 44, NO. 3, DECEMBER 2016

V44_3_book.pmd 20 2/20/17, 5:14 AM non-native plants. In some species, Kern County. Here, the only per- logging, mining, and changes to the ceived threat appears to be main- hydrological cycle represent signifi- tenance of the Pacific Crest Trail. cant threats. Historically, collecting Threats at the other occurrence, for personal and commercial horti- partly on land administered by the cultural purposes certainly contrib- Bureau of Land Management, in- uted to population declines. How- clude the potential for off-road ve- ever, collecting is infrequently cited hicles and effects of development as a current threat. on adjacent private lands. Never- The examples discussed here theless, the highly restricted distri- (Table 1) have been ranked by the bution and small population size California Native Plant Society and provide sufficient rationale to con- the California Department of Fish sider this species as endangered. and Wildlife as CRPR 1B, plants con- Seventeen of the 18 species com- sidered rare, threatened, or seriously prising Brodiaea (Themidaceae) are (1B.1) to moderately (1B.2) endan- endemic to the California Floristic gered in California and elsewhere Province, nine of which are endan- (CNPS 2016; CDFW 2016). Many gered. Six of them are adjacent to of them are found among the mono- areas that have experienced consid- cots. Most of them were once treated erable urbanization or conversion as members of the Liliaceae (Fiedler to agriculture in the foothills north 1996), but they are now placed in of San Francisco Bay, in the Sierra seven different families, the Agava- Nevada foothills, and in southern ceae, Alliaceae, Liliaceae, Melan- California. The newly described Sul- thiaceae, Nartheciaceae, Ruscaceae, phur Creek brodiaea consists of only and Tecophilaeaceae (Baldwin et. al. a few hundred plants and is found at 2012)). A few others briefly dis- only one location in Shasta County cussed are dicotyledonous geophytes (Preston 2010). Threats include the in the Crassulaceae and Saxifraga- potential for horticultural exploita- TOP: Sulphur Creek brodiaea (Brodiaea ceae. tion, power line maintenance, and matsonii). • BOTTOM: Chinese Camp bro- Among the 60 kinds of onions foot traffic. Chinese Camp brodiaea diaea (). Photographs by (Allium, Alliaceae) in California, 12 occurs at only two separate locali- Robert Preston. are ranked as 1B. Munz’s onion is ties in Calaveras and Tuolumne known from fewer than 20 occur- counties, distributed along ephem- since 1876, when the only known rences in the Perris Basin and eral stream courses on both serpen- specimen was collected by Edward Gavilan Hills of western Riverside tine and non-serpentine soils. The Lee Greene in meadows on the County, an area currently experi- entire range of the species is on pri- banks of the Shasta River near encing considerable urbanization. vate land, threatened primarily by Yreka, Siskiyou County. CNPS bota- Threats include residential develop- development, although efforts to nist Mark Skinner visited the site in ment, mining, agriculture, grazing, protect plants at one locality have 1990 and reported it to be heavily vehicles, and non-native plants. A been pursued through efforts by overgrazed and infested with many significant, historic decline in num- the CNPS Sierra Foothills chapter introduced weeds. Tiburon mari- ber of populations resulted in its (Anonymous 2007). posa, a serpentine endemic occur- designation as Endangered by the Almost half of the 52 different only in Marin County’s Ring U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. A species and in Calo- Mountain Open and Preserve, few populations located within the chortus (Liliaceae) found in Cali- is the rarest extant Calochortus in Cleveland National Forest are moni- fornia are considered rare, includ- California. Its existence continues tored as part of a focused manage- ing 20 ranked as 1B. The most com- to be threatened by invasive non- ment plan. In contrast, Spanish monly cited threats to endangered natives and recreational activities. Needle onion has one of the most Calochortus include trampling and Alkali mariposa is one of the few narrowly restricted ranges of any road construction, development geophytes occurring in California’s California onion, with only two oc- through urbanization, grazing, and deserts, where it occupies a few seeps currences. The largest, with fewer invasive plants. At least one species, and wet meadows in the western than 1,000 plants, occurs on the single-flowered mariposa, is believed Mojave Desert, but with a few outly- slopes of Spanish Needle Peak in to be extinct. It has not been seen ing populations in the lower Owens

VOL. 44, NO. 3, DECEMBER 2016 FREMONTIA 21

V44_3_book.pmd 21 2/20/17, 5:14 AM Floristic Province (Raven and Axel- rod 1978). Most of the known oc- currences of Red Hills soaproot, a gabbro and serpentine endemic, are on lands managed by the Bureau of Land Management, including the Pine Hill Ecological Reserve (El Dorado County) and the Red Hills Area of Critical Environmental Con- cern (Tuolumne County). However, threats to outlying populations on both private and public lands in- clude development, mining, road construction, and vehicles. Purple amole is composed of two varieties, both listed as threatened by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Kofron et al. 2013). The typical variety is found almost exclusively on (Monterey County) and Camp Roberts (San Luis Obispo County). Known from fewer than 20 occurrences, management plans have included cessation of grazing and either the curtailment or moni- toring of military activities in the River Valley and near Buena Vista vicinity of known populations. Non- Lake in the southern San Joaquin native plants and feral pigs remain Valley. Although it shares many the most significant threats. In con- other threats in common with other trast, the Camatta Canyon amole is endangered Calochortus, the loss of represented by only two known oc- a mesic habitat resulting from low- currences, mostly on lands man- ered water tables represents its most aged by the Los Padres National critical, long-term threat. Forest and a highway right-of-way The amole, Chlorogalum (Agava- managed by the California Depart- ceae), comprises five species world- ment of Transportation. Erection of wide and is notable as one of few fences to protect the site from off- genera endemic to the California road vehicles has significantly re-

UPPER LEFT: Single-flowered mariposa (Calochortus monanthus), Type specimen. • LEFT: Tiburon mariposa (). Photograph by Dieter Wilken. • UPPER RIGHT: Alkali mariposa (). Photograph by Roxanne Bittmann.

22 FREMONTIA VOL. 44, NO. 3, DECEMBER 2016

V44_3_book.pmd 22 2/20/17, 5:14 AM duced one threat, but in- vasive plants, pocket go- pher activity, and uncon- trolled cattle grazing re- main as threats. Six of the 20 species in Erythronium (Lilia- ceae) are considered en- dangered; another four are considered rare, threatened, or endan- gered in California but not elsewhere (CRPR 2). The rarest species, Pilot Ridge fawn lily is known from only one locality in the Stanislaus Nation- al Forest of Tuolumne County, with a popula- tion size estimated to be composed of no more than 1,000 plants. Poten- tial loss from rock climb- ing activities and horti- cultural collecting are considered the two ma- jor threats to this narrow endemic. Another rare and endangered fawn lily TOP: Pilot Ridge fawn lily (Erythronium taylori). Photograph by W. Dean Taylor. • is the recently described BOTTOM: Shasta fawn lily (Erythronium Erythronium shastense shastense). Photograph by Julie Kierstead (York et al. 2015). Inde- Nelson. pendently discovered by Dana York, Julie of Fritillaria (Liliaceae) in Califor- Kierstead Nelson, and nia are considered endangered; an- Dean Taylor, this species other five species are on the CNPS is a limestone endemic watch list (CRPR 4). Frequently known from only a hand- cited threats to species in this genus ful of localities in the vi- include grazing, impacts of road cinity of Shasta Lake. Po- maintenance and vehicles, and ur- tential threats include banization. Califor-nia’s rarest fritil- road maintenance, min- lary, Gentner’s fritillary, is a recent ing, hydrological alter- addition to the flora and was first ations arising from res- documented in 2003 from only two ervoir expansion, and in- localities in northern Siskiyou vasive species (Hima- County. First described in 1951 from layan blackberry, Rubus a few scattered populations in Jack- armeniacus). Shasta fawn son and Josephine counties, Oregon, lily exemplifies ongoing it was listed as endangered by the efforts to more fully U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service in document the California 1999, based on multiple threats. flora and identify species These include habitat loss and frag- TOP: Purple amole ( var. purpur- of special environmental mentation, competition from non- eum). • BOTTOM: Camatta Canyon amole (Chlorogalum purpureum var. reductum) in fruit. Photographs by Dieter concern. native plants (e.g., star thistle, Cen- Wilken. Eleven of the 20 kinds taurea solstialis), fungal disease, fire

VOL. 44, NO. 3, DECEMBER 2016 FREMONTIA 23

V44_3_book.pmd 23 2/20/17, 5:14 AM natural colonization tat degradation by feral pigs. In the and establishment. late 1990s estimates of population By the time it was size indicated the occurrence of federally listed as en- 30,000 to 60,000 plants, restricted dangered in 1994, to an area of approximately 32 acres the number had (13 hectares). Following eradication dwindled to about of pigs between 2005 and 2007, a 25 occurrences, with slow but gradual recovery has been fewer than eight in observed, including discovery of California. Threats small outlying populations. These on both public and newly discovered populations have private lands include increased the known range to over development, her- 60 acres (24 hectares). The only bivory, inappropri- major threat remaining to recruit- ate grazing, fire sup- ment is from Festuca perennis, which pression, vegetation forms a mosaic of dense stands on succession, and hor- part of the peninsula. Although not ticultural collecting listed as endangered, island (Anonymous 2009). (, ), Implementation of is another island endemic and geo- a recovery plan phyte, and has shown the same pat- through research at tern of recovery in the absence of Humboldt State pig rooting on both Santa Cruz and University and rein- Santa Rosa islands. Gentner’s fritillary (). Photograph by John troduction efforts Among approximately 285 spe- Doyen. conducted by the cies of bulbiferous or cormaceous Berry Botanic Gar- native monocots in California, 75 suppression, wildlife grazing, small den (Portland, OR) and the U.S. Fish (26 percent) are ranked as 1B. The population size, and over-collection and Wildlife Service (Arcata, CA) percentage of 1B plants in the Cali- by bulb enthusiasts. The California provide an opportunity for measur- fornia flora as a whole is approxi- populations occur on Bureau of Land able success in stabilizing the spe- mately 1157 among 6502 or 18 per- Management lands, and their man- cies. These efforts have been aug- cent (CNPS 2016). This suggests agement has been incorporated into mented through cooperation and that, at least in monocotyledonous a recovery plan embracing the spe- voluntary protection by some but, geophytes, there is a higher than cies in both states (Amsberry and unfortunately, not all private land expected proportion of endangered Meinke 2009). owners. Full recovery, however, will species. Most likely, such endanger- Among the 17 species of Lilium depend on efforts that ensure ment is a result of multiple factors, (Liliaceae) in California, four spe- periodic disturbance cies are considered endangered, al- through carefully man- Western lily (). Photograph by John though another eight are on the aged selective grazing Game. CNPS Watch List (4). Listed as fed- and fire regimes (Anony- erally endangered by the U.S. Fish mous 2009). and Wildlife Service, the western The five tuberous lily (Lilium occidentale) occurs in species comprising Dud- both Oregon and California. It was leya subgenus Hassean- once known from ca. 60 occurrences thus (Crassulaceae) in in wetland habitats, ranging from California are all consid- fens to coastal prairies and ered endangered. Santa shrublands, and early successional Cruz Island dudleya beach pine forests, among others. (Dudleya nesiotica), en- Disturbance, resulting from natural demic to the Fraser Point or limited agricultural grazing and peninsula on Santa Cruz occasional fires, may have played an Island, was originally important role by limiting succes- threatened by preferen- sion and providing opportunities for tial herbivory and habi-

24 FREMONTIA VOL. 44, NO. 3, DECEMBER 2016

V44_3_book.pmd 24 2/20/17, 5:14 AM deeper public awareness and a more widely accepted environmental ethic to guide effective efforts, especially on private lands.

REFERENCES Amsberry, K. and R.J. Meinke. 2009. Integrating California populations of Fritillaria gentneri into the 2003 USFWS Recovery Plan, Oregon De- partment of Agriculture, Native Plant Conservation Program. 45 pp. Anonymous. 2007. Chinese Camp brodiaea (Brodiaea pallida). Five- Year Review: Summary and Evalua- tion. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Sacramento, CA. 13 pp. Anonymous. 2009. Lilium occidentale Santa Cruz Island dudleya, Dudleya nesiotica. Photographs by Dieter Wilken. (western lily). Five-Year Review: Summary and Evaluation. U.S. Fish as shown by examples above. How- ning efforts, but only a few are found and Wildlife Service, Arcata, CA. 48 ever, in general, the natural distri- in preserves or in state and national pp. bution of many species in several parks. New approaches to conserva- Baldwin, B.G., D.H. Goldman, D.J. Keil, R. Patterson, and D.H. Wilken (eds.). genera coincides with areas of in- tion, including regional planning, 2012. The Jepson Manual, 2nd edi- tense human activity, including ag- exploration of novel recovery efforts, tion. University of California Press, riculture development and urban- and more coordinated efforts by Berkeley, CA. ization along the margins of the CNPS and land management agen- Bartosh, H. and J. André. 2015. Future Great Central Valley and on the cies, may become necessary (Bartosh directions for the CNPS rare plant coast. Some species are protected and André 2015). Ultimately, suc- program. Fremontia 43: 20–27. through land management and plan- cessful conservation will rely on a CDFW, California Department of Fish

VOL. 44, NO. 3, DECEMBER 2016 FREMONTIA 25

V44_3_book.pmd 25 2/20/17, 5:14 AM TABLE 1. EXAMPLES OF ENDANGERED GEOPHYTES IN THE CALIFORNIA FLORA.

COMMON NAME SCIENTIFIC NAME CALIFORNIA RARE PLANT RANK

Alkali mariposa Calochortus striatus 1B.2

Camatta Canyon amole Chlorogalum purpureum var. reductum 1B.1

Chinese Camp brodiaea Brodiaea pallida 1B.2

Gentner’s fritillary Fritillaria gentneri 1B.1

Munz’s onion Allium munzii 1B.1

Single-flowered mariposa Calochortus monanthus 1A (presumed extinct)

Pilot Ridge fawn lily Erythronium taylori 1B.2

Purple amole Chlorogalum purpureum var. purpureum 1B.1

Red Hills soaproot 1B.2

Santa Cruz Island dudleya Dudleya nesiotica 1B.1

Shasta fawn lily Erythronium shastense 1B.2

Spanish Needle onion Allium shevockii 1B.1

Sulphur Creek brodiaea Brodiaea matsonii 1B.1

Tiburon mariposa Calochortus tiburonensis 1B.1

Western lily Lilium occidentale 1B.1

SOURCE: California Department of Fish and Wildlife, Natural Diversity Database. January 2016.

and Wildlife, Natural Diversity Da- ety, Sacramento, CA. 153 pp. Raven, P.H. and D.I. Axelrod. 1978. tabase. January 2016. Special Vascu- Kofron, C.P., C. Rutherford, E.R. Clark, Origin and relationships of the Cali- lar Plants, Bryophytes, and Lichens D. Woodbury, and J. Olson. 2013. fornia flora. University of California List. Quarterly publication. 126 pp. Review of the purple amole Chloro- Publications in Botany 72: 1–134. CNPS, Rare Plant Program. 2016. In- galum purpureum (Agavaceae): A York, D., J.K. Nelson, and D.W. Taylor. ventory of Rare and Endangered threatened plant in the coast ranges 2015. Erythronium shastense (Lilia- Plants (online edition, v8–02). of central California. Bulletin, South- ceae), a new species from northern California Native Plant Society, ern California Academy of Sciences California. Madroño 62(3): 158– Sacramento, CA. Website www. 112: 38–48. 166. rareplants.cnps.org [accessed 15 Preston, R.E. 2010. Brodiaea matsonii January 2016]. (Asparagaceae: Brodiaeoideae), a Dieter Wilken, 1212 Mission Canyon Road, Fiedler, P.L. 1996. Rare Lilies of Cali- new species from Shasta County, Santa Barbara, CA 93105; dwilken@ fornia. California Native Plant Soci- California. Madroño 57: 261–267. sbbg.org

26 FREMONTIA VOL. 44, NO. 3, DECEMBER 2016

V44_3_book.pmd 26 2/20/17, 5:14 AM DECLINING SPECIES DIVERSITY ON THE NORTH COAST: THE ROLE OF DISTURBANCE By David Imper

n many ways this article is the story tion might read: any factor or pro- with potential benefits for a great of my career, and lessons I learned cess which produces a change in a many natural communities. working with endangered plants biological community from some for the past 35 years. I believe we baseline condition. However, defin- LILIES AND DISTURBANCE Iare experiencing a steep decline in a ing what baseline means can be broad range of early successional messy. For example, does the act of On my first day as a botanist at habitats on the North Coast, threat- removing grazing after a century Six Rivers National Forest in 1981, I ening many rare species, geophytes, constitute removal of disturbance, visited the only site then known for and biodiversity in general. In my or is it a disturbance itself. Fre- the State and Federally endangered view this threat stems in large part quently cited disturbance factors western lily (Lilium occidentale) in from changes in agricultural prac- include things like fire, grazing, di- California, which happened to be a tices since World War II, altering rect human manipulations (for ex- pasture near Eureka. I soon discov- disturbance patterns that previously ample, development and logging), ered that northwest California is maintained early successional habi- wind, and disease. world-class in its diversity of true tats on a broad scale. The effect of disturbance can vary lilies (sidebar). Eventually, I also dramatically, depending on the tim- learned that disturbance is critical DISTURBANCE—AN ing, duration, intensity, degree of to maintaining healthy populations ELUSIVE CONCEPT impact on native soils, and many in this group. For years I led field other variables. This relationship trips to the Bluff Creek watershed, Given the important role distur- might seem obvious, but oddly, is north of Orleans, to observe what I bance plays in determining the often ignored in relation to domestic suspect may have been the highest structure and composition of natu- grazing. While un-grazed and over- concentration of true lilies in the ral communities, the term is sur- grazed conditions are easily recog- country, and perhaps the world. prisingly hard to define, and fre- nized endpoints, controlled grazing Seven Lilium taxa and hybrids be- quently misused. A standard defini- entails a broad continuum of effects, tween most of those taxa occurred

LILIUM TAXA NATIVE TO THE U.S. AND CALIFORNIA

Northwest California supports the highest concentration of true lily (genus Lilium) taxa, both in the state and across the country, including (left to right, from top): Kellogg’s lily (L. kelloggii), Columbia lily (L. columbianum), coast lily (L. 13 of 18 taxa (74%) in California. maritimum), leopard lily (L. pardalinum subsp. pardalinum), Wiggins’ lily (L. pardalinum subsp. wigginsii), Vollmer’s lily (L. pardalinum subsp. vollmeri). Shasta lily (L. pardalinum subsp. shastense), Kelley’s lily (L. kelleyanum), western lily (L. occidentale), purple-flowered Washington lily (L. washingtonianum subsp. purpurascens), Washington lily (L. washingtonianum subsp. washingtonianum), Bolander’s lily (L. bolanderi), and redwood lily (L. rubescens). A suitable disturbance regime is important for all of these taxa. All photographs are by D. Imper unless otherwise indicated. Photograph of Kelley’s lily is by M. Skinner. Source: VOL.Imper and 44, Sawyer NO. (2009) 3, DECEMBER based on http://plants. 2016 usda.gov (go to FREMONTIA 27 Plants Profile for Lilium/Subordinate species).

V44_3_book.pmd 27 2/20/17, 5:14 AM CRESCENT CITY MARSH—BOTANICAL PARADISE drained, and support pygmy forest and its different successional stages in Mendocino County). As a result, I have watched the successional dy- namics affecting much of the near- coast vegetation in this area.

THE RULE RATHER THAN EXCEPTION? Besides true lilies, many of our rare species, and a great many geo- phytes are dependent on periodic disturbance. For example, of 114 California Rare Plant Rank 1 and 2 flowering species found in Del Norte and Humboldt counties, some 25

TOP: The Crescent City Marsh encompasses approximately 300 acres on the south side of percent occupy emergent wetland, Crescent City, and supports many rare species and habitat types, and greater than 70 open scrub or near the coast, percent of the range-wide flowering population of western lily. Top: Typical, exceptionally habitats dependent on periodic dis- diverse Bogbean (Menyanthes trifoliata) Marsh, and Western Labrador Tea (Rhododendron turbance. Thirty percent occupy columbianum) Marsh communities near the northern boundary of the Crescent City Marsh. wetlands further inland, typically BOTTOM: Some geophyte species in the marsh (left to right): White-flowered -orchid (Platanthera dilatata var. leucostachys), bogbean (Menyanthes trifoliata), arctic starflower dependent on fire or other distur- (Trientalis europaea) and king’s scepter gentian (Gentiana sceptrum). bance, and another 25 percent oc- cupy dry serpentine, chaparral or LEFT AND BELOW: Southern portion broadleaf woodland habitats, again of Crescent City Marsh in 1972 and 2005. Grazing was removed in the predominantly dependent on fire. 1980s, stimulating encroachment by woody species, and virtually eliminating the early successional EARLY SUCCESSIONAL habitat around the edge of the open HABITATS DISAPPEARING water marsh, where the western lily and other rare plants had occurred. The rapid industrialization of the U.S. after World War II may be thought of as synonymous with a general simplification of distur- Oblique aerials ©2002–2015 bance regimes. A couple of changes Kenneth & Gabrielle that particularly impacted biodiver- Adelman, California sity involved the many sprawling Coastal Records ranches that extended up and down Project. the coast, which either were subdi- vided, or more intensively grazed after the war. Another change was within a few square miles. The di- between Coos County, Oregon, and the development of more efficient versity in soils and elevation, geo- Mendocino County, California. methods of fire suppression, which graphic location, and history of log- That work included observing resulted in either no fire, or ulti- ging, road maintenance, and fire changes in literally hundreds of mately, more severe fires. In effect, combined to create a virtual lily para- biologically rich, early to mid-suc- what had been frequent, dispersed, dise. Timber harvest has declined cessional habitats, over the course often moderate disturbance events dramatically in the watershed since of decades. Among others, these in- became essentially all or nothing. the 1980s, and with it, the abun- cluded many of the best examples California’s north coast is char- dance of lilies. of coastal prairie and scrub, emer- acterized by relatively fertile soils Much of my career was subse- gent wetlands, Darlingtonia fens, and mild climate. If not checked, quently devoted to conservation of and vegetation associated with shrub and tree growth are rapid and the western lily and other rare spe- Blacklock series soils along coastal relentless in most habitats. It is not cies, largely focused near the coast Oregon (Blacklock soils are poorly unusual to see Sitka spruce (Picea

28 FREMONTIA VOL. 44, NO. 3, DECEMBER 2016

V44_3_book.pmd 28 2/20/17, 5:15 AM sitchensis) or shore pine (Pinus down the Oregon coast have van- mary of both the prevalence and eco- contorta ssp. contorta) grow six feet ished or are declining rapidly logical benefits of mega-faunal graz- annually. Other species, notably (Christy 2005), including many ing in late Pleistocene California. slough sedge (Carex obnupta)—in within Oregon state parks. In fact, More recently, Anderson (2005) and absence of disturbance, such as graz- my experience suggests species di- others have documented the wide- ing—tends to form versity formerly associated with a spread and relatively sophisticated displacing large swathes of species- wide range of open habitats across use of fire by Native Americans. rich wetlands in a matter of a few most of the Oregon state parks be- Based on the dependence of so much years. Salt marsh, coastal dunes, and tween Coos Bay and Brookings, in- of our native flora on moderate-level exceedingly rocky sites are among cluding Shore Acres, Sunset Bay, Flo- disturbance, there can be little ques- the few kinds of habitats generally ras Lake, Cape Blanco, and others, tion that Native American use of immune to replacement by a rela- has declined dramatically. Included fire, as well as macro-ungulate graz- tively few aggressive native species. are thousands of acres of headlands ing, notably elk, were critical factors historically burned by Native Ameri- in maintaining early successional SPECIFIC EXAMPLES cans, and then domestically grazed, habitats for centuries prior to the prior to state acquisition. 1850s, when the influx of settlers on The list of special habitats either These examples do not include the west coast brought a new set of lost, or in serious decline is long. I’ the more than 60 percent of the disturbance regimes, often includ- mention just a few. Point St. George historical sites for western lily in ing widespread clearing followed by and the Crescent City Marsh, in Del both states, which simply disap- domestic grazing. Though Roosevelt Norte County, together comprise 800 peared into forest, scrub, and slough elk were nearly extirpated from the acres, but contain 25 percent of the sedge over the past century. North Coast in the last century, the rare and in the species is now prospering. Elk habi- county. Both properties were grazed THE CASE FOR GRAZING tat in areas receiving high usage bears for a century or more, until the 1980s. a remarkable resemblance to habitat Point St. George was acquired by the Steve Edwards (1992) provided passively-grazed by cattle. state in 1992. Since 1981, I estimate Fremontia readers an excellent sum- Research documenting the ben- the cover by virtually pure stands of slough sedge has doubled, and to- A JEWEL NO MORE gether with advancing willow scrub and forest, has replaced more than half of the early successional, diverse wetlands and prairie. Much of Crescent City Marsh (sidebar) was acquired by the Cali- fornia Department of Fish and Wild- life in 1980 and became a wildlife area. Although recent manual clear- ing has bought some time for one population of western lily there, four of the five populations that remained in 1992 are gone, along with much of the habitat for other rare plants. Farther south in Humboldt County is Big Lagoon Bog (fen). Similar to Crescent City Marsh and Inglenook Fen, in Mendocino County, it is highly unique and bo- tanically rich. In decline for decades, the North Coast chapter has devel- Natural succession has progressed rapidly throughout the seasonally-dry portions of oped a plan to restore the original Crescent City Marsh since removal of passive domestic grazing in the mid-1980s. • The open fen. I fear Inglenook Fen is wet coastal prairie in 1992 (upper left), five years after removal of passive domestic grazing, supported a dense stand of great burnet (Sanguisorba officinalis) (upper right), suffering a similar fate. and stream orchid ( gigantea) as well as the western lily and many other native With few exceptions, the Sphag- wetland species. By 2008 (bottom) that community was entirely replaced by slough sedge num and Darlingtonia fens up and (Carex obnupta), Douglas aster (Symphyotrichum subspicatum), , and conifers.

VOL. 44, NO. 3, DECEMBER 2016 FREMONTIA 29

V44_3_book.pmd 29 2/20/17, 5:15 AM 30 YEARS OF MANAGING THE WESTERN LILY, TABLE BLUFF ECOLOGICAL RESERVE, HUMBOLDT COUNTY percent in the burned, and no change in the control treatments.

TIME IS RUNNING OUT Protection of natural areas in this country—be it designation of wild- life areas, parks or wilderness—has long been equated with eliminat- ing human disturbance. That effort ignores two important facts: 1) natu- The California Department of Fish and Wildlife acquired the ral disturbance patterns have former Ocean Ranch near Eureka in 1986 and designated it the Table Bluff Ecological Reserve, in part, to manage for the western changed dramatically, even in the lily. Removal of passive grazing by cattle in 1988 led to rapid past 60 years, and 2) absence of encroachment, decline of the western lily, and a steep decline in historic disturbance will inevitably species diversity. Seasonal grazing was resumed in 1997. have a major influence on species ABOVE LEFT: Coastal prairie before (top) and after (bottom) winter grazing, 2011. • ABOVE: composition and diversity. Western lily in June following winter grazing. As a rule, agencies entrusted with conserving our natural resources sim- ply do not perceive managed distur- bance to be a significant part of their mission. Many of the greatest losses I have observed have occurred follow- ing public acquisition of working , most often after domes- tic grazing was removed. Many times I faced vigorous opposition by the public, environmental community, and even agencies to resumed graz- LEFT TO RIGHT: Typical geophytes include Douglas iris (Iris douglasiana); coast sneezeweed (Helenium bolanderi); and coast clover (Trifolium wormskioldii), a common butterfly host ing, which based on the scientific plant. merits, I can only explain as based on predetermined bias. Such bias is efits of controlled grazing has ex- gime. Seasonal grazing is employed understandable given the history of ploded in the past two decades, not at two sites (sidebars), and a third domestic grazing abuse, but regret- just for plants, but a wide range of site is maintained by routine vegeta- table from the standpoint of its huge species, including butterflies, fish, tion clearing under a powerline. potential value to conservation. One and kit fox, to name just a few. With Research conducted at the Table example, perhaps unwitting, is con- respect to the western lily, just three Bluff Ecological Reserve (sidebar) tained in the online guidance for sites across its range are considered and elsewhere, has documented a our own rare plant inventory; the to be stable, based on presence of a variety of ways controlled grazing glossary lists seven grazing-related reasonably reliable disturbance re- benefits the western lily besides threats, none of which identify spe- habitat mainte- cifically, the absence of grazing. nance, such as im- Certainly many agencies, includ- proved hydrology ing the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Ser- and enhanced ger- vice and National Park Service, ap- mination. Five ply disturbance (usually fire) for spe- years following cific purposes, such as fuels reduc- treatment with tion, maintenance of oak woodlands, at Floras or game management. In addition, Lake State Park, the agencies responsible for resource total western lily extraction, such as the Forest Ser- individuals had in- vice and Bureau of Land Manage- creased more than ment, obviously administer routine 400 percent, com- disturbance as a part of their mis- pared with 200 sion. These efforts, while often ben-

30 FREMONTIA VOL. 44, NO. 3, DECEMBER 2016

V44_3_book.pmd 30 2/20/17, 5:15 AM BLACKLOCK SOILS AND GEOPHYTES efitting biodiversity, are rarely if ever aimed at maintaining plant diversity or rare plant species. The simple fact is the two principle public agencies in California entrusted to manage our botanical heritage, the Depart- ment of Fish and Wildlife and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, dedi- cate almost no resources toward monitoring or recovery of rare plants, or plant-related biodiversity. Thus the agencies literally have no way of knowing the extent of the problem, nor impetus to deal with it. I know some will question my assessment of this threat and the pau- city of actions being taken to address Poorly drained Blacklock series soils are common to marine terraces along the coast in it, which in part, is why I wrote this Coos and northern Curry Counties, Oregon, and Mendocino County, California. They article. My response is that I have support a wide array of plant communities and rare plant species. In absence of fire and observed, firsthand, this growing grazing over the past 40 years or more, natural succession has eliminated vast areas of threat for the past 35 years in a re- previously species-rich, early successional vegetation.

gion of the two states I know well. I TOP: Mixed wet coastal prairie/scrub supporting the western lily and other rare species at strongly suspect the problem is preva- Cape Blanco State Park, near Port Orford, Oregon, in 2010. A rare example of early lent elsewhere, to varying degrees, successional vegetation on Blacklock soils, this five-acre remnant was then threatened by especially in areas either subject to encroachment of Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis), subsequently removed. The habitat is seasonally grazed. • BOTTOM, LEFT TO RIGHT: Some of the geophyte species associated with rapid natural succession (fertile soils western lily on Blacklock soils: California pitcher-plant (Darlingtonia californica); bear- and/or mild climate) or where exten- grass (Xerophyllum tenax); round-leaved sundew (Drosera rotundifolia); and western false- sive time has passed since a more asphodel (Triantha occidentalis subsp. occidentalis). natural disturbance regime existed (for example, designated wilderness we would collectively come up with REFERENCES areas too small to support a natural a plan. fire frequency). For those that doubt, Ultimately, land managers and Anderson, M.K. 2005. Tending the however, I welcome the opportunity the regulatory community must Wild: Native American Knowledge to provide further evidence, in the come to embrace the inextricable and the Management of California’s field or otherwise. links between managed disturbance, Natural Resources. University of I spent 30 years coordinating ef- biodiversity and rare species, in the California Press, Berkeley, CA. Christy, J.A. 2005. Sphagnum fens on forts involving well over a thou- everyday management of our envi- the Oregon coast: Diminishing habi- sand volunteers, manually treating ronment and infrastructure, and tat and need for management. Un- as many sites as possible across the seek ways to both meld the two and published report prepared for the range of the western lily. In the streamline the process wherever U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Port- end, these efforts were exceedingly possible. I emphasized grazing here, land, OR. short-lived, and affected only a frac- in part because it can provide an Edwards, S. 1992. Observations on the tion of its declining habitat, not to economic benefit, an important fac- prehistory and ecology of grazing in mention the tens of thousands of tor in designing a sustainable dis- California. Fremontia 20(1):3–11. acres of high quality, early succes- turbance regime. In the same man- Imper, D. and J.O. Sawyer. 2009. sional habitat slipping away nearby. ner, appropriate vegetation manage- Lilium of northwestern California: Without question, this challenge is ment conducted as part of fire safety Conservation challenges for the 21st daunting—to respond at an appro- programs offers a great opportu- century. Paper presented to the Cali- priate scale will require a monu- nity to integrate disturbance with fornia Native Plant Society 2009 mental change in attitudes across conservation of rare species and di- Conservation Conference: Strate- the public and regulatory spectrum, versity. Other significant opportu- gies and Solutions. January 17–19, not to mention a great commitment nities lay in our management of 2009. Sacramento, CA. of resources. But I have to believe utility corridors, roadsides, timber- that if we, as a professional society, lands, exotic species, open space, David Imper, 4612 Lentell Rd., Eureka, fully understand all that is at stake, and other areas. CA 95503, [email protected]

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V44_3_book.pmd 31 2/20/17, 5:15 AM on Walker Ridge (2009). Large photograph by Jeff Bisbee; inset by Richard Philip Bouchard.

GEOPHYTES RESPOND TO FIRE DISTURBANCE eightened number and patch size of H wildflowers benefit and seed- eating birds.

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V44_3_book.pmd 32 2/20/17, 5:15 AM ABOVE: Fremont’s star lily ( fremontii) after the Morgan Fire (2013) on Mount Diablo. NOTE: Poisonous. Large photograph by Scott Hein (www.heinphoto.com); inset by Richard Philip Bouchard.

Vast swath of Ithuriel’s spear () blooming after the Walker Fire (2009) on Walker Ridge. Scenic photograph by Ames Gilbert; close-up by Richard Philip Bouchard.

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V44_3_book.pmd 33 2/20/17, 5:15 AM Edible geophytes like blue dicks are phenomenally abundant on California’s Channel Islands, as evidenced by the springtime bloom on Santa Cruz Island’s West End. Blue dicks occur in various plant communities, but are especially prevalent in grassland/forb field communities, occurring throughout western and on all the islands off the California coast. Photograph by Eamon O’Byrne, TNC, Santa Cruz Island, spring 2014. 10,000 YEARS OF GEOPHYTE USE AMONG THE ISLAND CHUMASH OF THE NORTHERN CHANNEL ISLANDS by Kristina M. Gill

ust off the southern California Chumash), Santa Cruz (Limuw), climate change, and population coast, the archipelago of the Santa Rosa (Wi’ma), and San Miguel growth for at least 13,000 years, un- Santa Barbara Channel is com- (Tuqan) were connected as a single til Europeans drastically impacted Jprised of four east-west trend- landmass commonly referred to by their traditional way of life through ing islands, located between approxi- geologists and archaeologists as disease, enslavement, and forced mately 19 and 42 kilometers from Santarosae (~10-12 km from the assimilation. the mainland today. When people mainland). The Island Chumash and The Island Chumash are famous first arrived during the last Ice Age, their ancestors thrived on these for their seafaring capabilities and the islands of Anacapa (Anyapakh in islands, adapting to sea level rise, strong maritime orientation, with a

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V44_3_book.pmd 34 2/20/17, 5:15 AM long history of fishing, sea extensive processing are much less are the most abundant geophyte on , and shellfishing. Plant common. Other plant foods were the islands today, especially in grass- foods were also important, supply- also used, but geophytes and small lands/forb fields, growing from sea ing Islanders with carbohydrates seeds appear to have been staple level to the highest points, includ- needed to balance rich fats and pro- plant foods in Islander diets (Gill ing Diablo Peak on Santa Cruz at teins obtained from marine re- 2015; Gill and Hoppa 2016). 2,429 feet elevation. sources. Island archaeobotanical Geophytes are notably rich in Blue dicks reproduce both sexu- assemblages (the preserved remains carbohydrates and phenomenally ally (seed) and asexually (cormlets), of plants in archaeological sites) in- abundant on the islands today, - with each mature corm capable of dicate that easily procurable plant pecially those in the Brodiaea com- producing more than 15 cormlets foods high in carbohydrates were plex (Themidaceae) (e.g., Bloomeria annually that in turn produce their consistently the most important. spp., Brodiaea spp., Dichelostemma own cormlets the following year. These archaeobotanical remains are spp., Triteleia spp.). The archaeo- Moreover, blue dicks corms on the well preserved through carboniza- botanical corms could be any one of islands are significantly larger than tion and identifiable thousands of these four genera within the Brodi- their mainland counterparts, mea- years after they were initially burned aea complex, but are morphologi- suring upwards of nearly 50 mm in (often during cooking accidents) cally indistinguishable when car- diameter. Two possible explanations and deposited in habitation sites. bonized. Here, I refer to all ancient for the larger corms on the islands Geophytes, small seeds (especially corms as blue dicks (Dichelostem- include a long history of Island grasses and chenopods), and non- ma capitatum), which are the most Chumash harvest/selection for larger toxic pits like manzanita berries are likely candidate used extensively by corms, and/or the lack of native frequently found in island sites, the Island Chumash based on mod- burrowing or grazing herbivores whereas toxic nuts such as acorns ern distributions and ethnographic present on the islands (e.g., gophers, and cherry pits (islay) that require information (Gill 2015). Blue dicks deer, rabbits). Geophytes are espe-

Blue dicks field on southwest Santa Cruz Island near Pozo Canyon. Photograph by Kristina Gill, Santa Cruz Island, March 2014.

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V44_3_book.pmd 35 2/20/17, 5:15 AM Among the Chumash, the name cacomite (derived from the Nahuatl word cacomitil and introduced by the Spanish) was most commonly applied to blue dicks, as was the Chumash name shiq’o’n (Gill 2015; Timbrook 2007). Shiq’o’n was har- vested using a digging stick, often weighted with a perforated stone (a.k.a “donut stone”). Fernando Kitsepawit Librado, an important Chumash consultant who worked with ethnographer John P. Harring- ton in the early 1900s, indicated that shiq’o’n was particularly important on the islands with several families involved in harvesting and cook-

Hundreds of whole and nearly whole carbonized blue dicks corms were found associated with an earth oven at the Diablo Valdez site on Santa Cruz Island during excavation. Later detailed archaeobotanical analysis of soil samples revealed that blue dicks corms were used for nearly 6,000 years of occupation at this site, from ~5,800 years ago until around AD 1800. Blue dicks corms are the most frequently identified food plant on the northern islands, found in nearly all sites where archaeobotanical analysis has been done. K. Gill is pictured. Photograph by Terry Joslin, Santa Cruz Island, August 2011.

cially fecund on the islands today Ethnographic use of edible geo- and the Island Chumash would have phytes, and blue dicks in particular, had no competition (aside from is extensively documented through- Digging stick weights, also known as other Islanders) for this incredible out much of California as well as in “donut stones,” are one of the most food resource (Gill 2015). the Santa Barbara Channel region. prevalent artifacts found on the Channel Islands, and have been identified in dateable contexts to at least the last 7,500 years. Donut stones have a single hole drilled through the middle and vary in size, shape, and extent of modification around the edges. These artifacts were typically affixed towards the base of digging sticks and used to provide more weight and leverage. The proportion of digging stick weights found on the islands (87%) compared with the adjacent mainland (13%) is quite high (Sutton 2014), further indicating that geophyte procurement was especially important on the islands. Photograph is by Kristina Gill, San Miguel Island, August 2012.

ing large quantities in earth ovens measuring over a meter across (Timbrook 2007). Modern blue dicks corms and underground storage organs of other geophytes on the Archaeobotanical data confirm Channel Islands are significantly larger than their mainland counterparts, measuring ethnographic records that blue dicks upwards of nearly 50 mm in diameter. The larger island corms may be the result of corms were the most important Is- millennia of selection by Island Chumash and/or a lack of native burrowing and browsing herbivores (e.g., gophers, squirrels, deer, rabbits) that are common in mainland California, land Chumash plant food, with evi- and that target blue dicks corms, shoots, and flowers as a food source. Photograph by dence of their use for nearly 10,000 Kristina Gill, Santa Cruz Island, July 2014. years. Island sites generally have re-

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V44_3_book.pmd 36 2/20/17, 5:16 AM markably well preserved corms. Both the spring/ stratigraphy (due to a lack summer (smooth) and fall of burrowing animals) that (adventitious root growth) allows for plant remains stages of seasonal mor- within a given stratum to phological changes in the be radiocarbon dated di- corms have been docu- rectly and/or associated mented on archaeobo- with a specific occupation tanical specimens from layer. Aggregated extant 6,000 years of occupa- archaeobotanical data from tion at Diablo Valdez (Gill 26 sites on Santa Cruz and 2014, 2015) and from a San Miguel Islands com- site on Santa Rosa Island paring densities and fre- (SRI-666) that dates to quencies of carbonized approximately 8,500 years blue dicks corms and corm ago. These specimens dat- fragments through time ing to multiple time peri- show no statistically sig- ods indicate a long tradi- nificant change in their tion of employing at least use over this 10,000-year two seasons of harvest for span (Gill and Hoppa blue dicks on the islands. 2016). A similar pattern The remarkably long was also identified at a history of Island Chu- single site (Diablo Valdez) mash geophyte use em- on Santa Cruz Island, ploying two seasons of where I documented no harvest, with no signifi- significant change in the cant change seen over use of blue dicks for nearly nearly 10,000 years attests 6,000 years, using mea- to the importance of blue sures of density, frequency, dicks as a food staple and and ratios to total plant overall geophyte-based Fernando Kitsepawit Librado, Chumash, demonstrates the use of a weight (Gill 2015). A well- digging stick with no weight attached, near Ventura, CA, around subsistence regime. Fur- preserved earth oven asso- 1912. Photograph courtesy of the Braun Research Library Collection, thermore, it appears that ciated with hundreds of Autry Museum, Los Angeles; Plate 708. the Islanders were actively carbonized blue dicks engaged in managing their corms was found during excavations mens (Gill 2014). The mature par- wild blue dicks fields, including “till- at Diablo Valdez, confirming its pri- ent corms exhibit smooth sides in ing” the soil during the repeated mary function as a shiq’o’n cooking the late spring/summer, with adven- process of harvesting shiq’o’n, re- feature, the first of its kind to be titious root growth occurring around planting cormlets and primarily har- identified archaeologically on the is- the base of the corm in the fall, as vesting mature corms, and possibly lands. While other plant remains the corm emerges from summer dor- using other means such as seed dis- from the Diablo Valdez site also show mancy in anticipation of fall and persal during fall harvest and fire. a similar pattern of consistent use winter rains. The corm then appears These types of manage- through time, blue dicks corms were to “divide” in the winter, where the ment strategies would have pro- the most abundant and most fre- old corm withers from its base, us- moted growth and increased the quently identified plant food. ing its reserved to develop habitat of blue dicks and other im- Although most ethnographic lit- a new corm on top in preparation portant economic grassland taxa erature in California indicate blue for flowering, again exhibiting throughout prehistory. Current land dicks corms were harvested in the smooth sides that remain through management regimes (i.e., fire sup- spring after flowering, a second sea- spring flowering and summer dor- pression, lack of new disturbance/ son of harvest has been documented mancy (Gill 2014). Cormlets (clones regular “tillage”) are vastly different on the islands during the fall. Blue of the parent corm) follow a differ- from those that the islands experi- dicks corms undergo seasonal mor- ent morphological trajectory in their enced over the previous 13,000 phological changes on an annual first year, and are sometimes found years, and it remains to be seen how basis that can be identified on car- archaeologically as well, although well island geophytes will fare in bonized archaeobotanical speci- much less frequently than mature the future.

VOL. 44, NO. 3, DECEMBER 2016 FREMONTIA 37

V44_3_book.pmd 37 2/20/17, 5:16 AM Several different stages of annual corm morphology are shown here, with modern blue dicks corms on the top row (fibrous coats and basal caps removed), and carbonized archaeobotanical corms identified from the Diablo Valdez site on Santa Cruz Island on the bottom row (not to scale). From left to right, corms exhibit smooth sides (A) in late spring/ summer; adventitious roots begin to emerge in early fall, as the corms emerge from summer dormancy (B); adventitious roots continue to grow from around the corm base through the fall months, with scars of fully emerged adventitious roots present on archaeobotanical specimens (C). On archaeobotanical specimens, smooth-sided corms are indicative of a late spring/summer harvest (A), while emerging adventitious roots or root scars are indicative of a fall harvest (B, C). Composite photograph by K. Gill, adapted from Gill 2014.

REFERENCES the importance of geophytes among the Island Chumash of Santa Cruz Gill, K.M. 2014. Sea- Island, California. Unpublished sons of change: Us- Ph.D. Dissertation, Department of ing seasonal mor- Anthropology, University of Califor- phological changes nia Santa Barbara, CA. in Brodiaea corms Gill, K.M., and K.M. Hoppa. 2016. to determine sea- Evidence for an Island Chumash son of harvest from geophyte-based subsistence econo- archaeobotanical my on the Northern Channel Is- remains. American lands. Journal of California and Great Antiquity 79(4): Basin Anthropology 36(1)51-71. 638-654. Sutton, E. 2014. Digging stick weights Gill, K.M. 2015. An- and doughnut stones: An analysis of cient plant use and perforated stones from the Santa Barbara Channel Region. Journal of California and Anthropol- TOP: Excavations at two loci of Diablo Valdez, an upland village site on the northern side ogy 34(1):17-42. of Santa Cruz Island, revealed deep and well-stratified deposits spanning nearly 6,000 Timbrook, J. 2007. Chumash Ethno- years of occupation. Various features including two earth ovens, a house floor, and hearth botany: Plant Knowledge among the cleaning pits, indicate that this was primarily a domestic site where daily activities such as cooking took place in and around living areas. K. Gill is pictured. Photograph by Amber of Southern Califor- Marie Madrid, Santa Cruz Island, August 2011. • BOTTOM: Earth ovens were used for nia. Santa Barbara Museum of Natu- cooking large quantities of geophytes at a time, and were most often built and used ral History Monographs No. 5, Pub- communally. Chumash consultant Fernando Kitsepawit Librado indicated that shiq’o’n was lications in Anthropology No. 1. particularly important on the islands where several families collectively harvested and Heyday Books, Berkeley, CA. cooked them in earth ovens measuring more than a meter across. At the Diablo Valdez site, an upland village on the north side of Santa Cruz Island, a well-preserved earth oven dating Kristina M. Gill, Santa Barbara Botanic to ~4500 years ago was identified during excavations. Hundreds of carbonized blue dicks corms were found associated with this feature, confirming its primary function as a means Garden, 1212 Mission Canyon Road, to cook geophytes, and representing the first such feature to be identified archaeologically Santa Barbara, CA 93105; kristinamarie on the islands. Composite photograph by Kristina Gill, Santa Cruz Island, August 2011. [email protected]

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V44_3_book.pmd 38 2/20/17, 5:16 AM GEOPHYTES AND HUMAN EVOLUTION by M. Kat Anderson

eophytes are both di- scended from several small refuge abundant than those elsewhere. verse and abundant in populations. These refuges may have been in the Mediterranean-type cli- What was the phenomenon that Cape South Coast region of South mates throughout the pushed humans to the brink? Cli- Africa. Gworld but nowhere are they more mate change. A short time after the In a cave known as PP13B, ar- diverse than on the continent of human species arrived on the scene, chaeological excavations reveal a Africa, where our species began. some 195,000 years ago, the cli- very long record of intermittent hu- Because of this association, geo- mate shifted, producing colder and man occupation between 164,000 phytes may hold a very special place more arid weather less conducive and 35,000 years ago, a period that in our evolutionary history. to the growth and survival of the spans both the bottleneck and the Modern DNA studies reveal a edible plants and animals on which time thereafter when the human surprising fact: our species carries early humans depended. This ice population recovered and grew. little genetic diversity relative to age, which climatologists refer to Based on this and other evidence, other species. Our limited genetic as “Marine Isotope Stage 6,” lasted archaeologists hypothesize that variability may be best explained until roughly 123,000 years ago. shellfish, marine , and geo- by a “population bottleneck,” a Sometime during this long period phytes together provided the essen- population crash in early Homo sa- came the population bottleneck, tial proteins and carbohydrates that piens. It seems that humans came when several small groups of early the human residents of this area perilously close to , and humans survived in locales with needed to survive this most difficult that all the humans alive today de- food resources more varied and of times.

All geophyte species pictured are found in the Cape Region of South Africa. Here is a population of Chasmanthae aethiopica growing in dune vegetation within view of the Indian Ocean. This geophyte has astringent corms that require processing to make them edible. Photograph by Richard M. Cowling.

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V44_3_book.pmd 39 2/20/17, 5:16 AM LEFT: Cyphia digitata occurring in . Photograph by Jan de Vynck. • ABOVE: Edible tubers of Cyphia digitata which can be eaten raw. Photograph by Susan Botha.

Although geophytes have left little in the way of material remains because they lack bones or hard shells, archaeologists hypothesize an important role for them in the human food supply during the ice

A of the Palaeo-Agulhas Plain off Mossel Bay some 60,000 years ago during a moderate cold phase (glacial). The mid-ground shows a group of modern humans at a campsite on a sandy, limestone ridge beneath a large white milkwood tree. On the left, children are collecting firewood from the dune thicket and protea veld, while two men return from a hunt with bluebuck (center), and two young women are offloading their harvest of intertidal shellfish. The women on the right are preparing to cook the corms of geophytes collected in the surrounding veld. This palaeoscape painting is by Maggie Newman, courtesy of the Centre for Coastal Palaeoscience at Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University.

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V44_3_book.pmd 40 2/21/17, 2:31 PM age that ended 123,000 years ago. Geophytes, they point out, had diverse representa- tion in the regional flora at the time, the ability to sur- vive droughts, and high en- ergy-yielding carbohydrate composition. Certain geo- phytes are also easy to gather and digest and there is plenty of ethnographic, historic, and later archaeological evi- dence that hunter-gatherer groups ate them. In the ar- ABOVE: Salvia infused crispa cheologists’ view, geophytes tubers on a bed of wild cress. Photograph by Roushanna Gray. may have been one of the • RIGHT: growing in major foods that pulled us limestone fynbos. Photograph by through the bottleneck. Jan de Vynck. This story also carries some lessons for the present day. As ity of wild foods, and we enter another period of rapid we are far more likely climate change—this time of our to avoid a second own making—the human history of population bottle- geophyte consumption reminds us neck in humanity’s of our reliance on the many non- future if we recognize human species that, like us, are prod- and draw inspiration ucts of the evolutionary process. In from the ancient re- the coming decades and centuries, lationship between our continued existence as a species people and the plants may, in part, hinge on the availabil- in our environment. As edibles, geo- may end up being the key to our Pelargonium triste edible tubers. Photograph by Richard M. phytes in particular survival. Cowling. remind us of the im- portance of broaden- REFERENCES ing the genetic and the ecological base of De Vynck, J.C., R.M. Cowling, A.J. our food supply, and Potts and C.W. Marean. 2016. Sea- we can perhaps learn sonal availability of edible under- something from their ground carbohydrate resources to amazing resilience in human foragers on the Cape South the face of aridity and Coast, South Africa. PeerJ 4:e1679; DOI 10.7717/peerj.1679. drought. Further- Marean, C.W. 2010. When the sea more, if geophytes saved humanity. Scientific American helped us get through 303 (2):54-61. the hard times long Singels, E., A.J. Potts, K.J. Esler, R.M. ago, it seems only Cowling, C.W. Marean, and J. De right for us to help Vynck. 2016. Foraging potential of them survive the com- underground storage organ plants in ing climate disrup- the Southern Cape, South Africa. tions through wise Journal of Human Evolution 3:1-11. management and con- servation. That prin- M. Kat Anderson, USDA Natural Re- ciple of reciprocity— sources Conservation Service, California applied generally to- State Office, 430 G St., Davis, CA 95616; ward all species— [email protected]

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V44_3_book.pmd 41 2/20/17, 5:17 AM THE CALIFORNIA ARCHAEOLOGICAL RECORD AND BRODIAEA COMPLEX CONSERVATION by Eric Wohlgemuth

aleoethnobotanists identify pits, small seeds, and geophyte un- than 75 archaeological sites. The ancient macroscopic remains derground storage organs (bulbs, most common are corms of the of plants from archaeological corms, and tubers) are most com- Brodiaea complex, which includes sites in California and around monly found as residues of fuel and the closely related genera Brodiaea, Pthe world, recovered using fine-mesh plant foods. These finds become Dichelostemma, and Triteleia. water separation (flotation) of ar- charred in cooking or heating fires, Charred Brodiaea complex corms cheological sediment. Charred plant and preserve because they are ined- have been found in archaeological remains of wood, nutshells, berry ible to herbivores and microbes. sites in grassland and savanna habi- Plant remains help tats over much of lowland Califor- Archaeologist Bill Stillman processing a sediment sample using archaeologists recon- nia. Ancient finds of corms indicate flotation. Sediment is immersed, and buoyant charred plant struct past diets, uses they have been eaten for millennia: remains are recovered in 0.4-millimeter mesh. Photograph by of plants and land- on the northern Channel Islands Angela Arpaia, 2014. scapes, practices that they date to about 10,000 years ago enhance particular (Reddy and Erlandson 2012), while plants, and impacts the oldest directly radiocarbon-dated of human interac- corms, from near Fremont in the tions with their envi- , are 9,365 + ronments. 30 years old. The vast majority While archaeological finds of of the more than Brodiaea complex corms have been 250,000 paleoeth- found throughout much of lowland nobotanical finds California, they are most abundant from California, by far in sites of the Channel Islands mostly identified to and the Sacramento Valley bottom the family or genus (see Gill this issue; Gill 2015; level, are dietary resi- Wohlgemuth et al. 2015). Intensive dues. Remains of at use of corms in these areas may be least four geophyte due in part to the lack of alternative genera have been dietary sources of carbohydrates, identified in more such as the diverse staple nut found in mainland foothill and coastal regions. Valley oak acorns, the only oak species along the lower Sacramento River, were not a pre- ferred food and did not store well (McCarthy 1993). Geophyte corms may have become a mainstay food rivaling the staple food that acorns furnished in other parts of Califor- nia. Very abundant archaeological corms also show that plants of the Brodiaea complex were an impor- tant component of local vegetation along, or within a short gathering distance of, the Sacramento River in the valley bottom, not gathered from Ancient (>9,000 years old) charred Brodiaea complex corm, and modern Triteleia laxa distant stands and brought to the corm. Photograph by Tammara Norton, 2016. archaeological sites.

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V44_3_book.pmd 42 2/20/17, 5:17 AM from around 930 to 500 ing with the interplay between plant years ago), charred corms harvest, restraint, and population are substantially smaller maintenance as human interactions than when the sites were with landscapes are reestablished. used as shorter-term sea- sonal encampments, and REFERENCES gathering pressure in- creased to the extent that Gill, K.M. 2015. Ancient plant use and some cormlets were col- the importance of geophytes among lected along with mature the Island Chumash of Santa Cruz corms. More intensive Island, California. Ph.D. Disserta- collecting and processing tion, Department of Anthropology, no doubt had an impact University of California, Santa - on local Brodiaea complex bara, CA. McCarthy, H. 1993. A political plant populations. Over economy of Western Mono acorn these long time periods, production. Ph.D. Dissertation, De- Map of Brodiaea complex corm abundance in California however, it is clear that partment of Anthropology, Univer- archaeological sites. Brodiaea complex plant sity of California, Davis, CA. populations were not Reddy, S. N. and J.M. Erlandson. 2012. The paleoethnobotanical record completely extirpated, as corms con- Macrobotanical food remains from can also assist archaeologists in de- tinued to be gathered in quantity a trans- sequence at Daisy tecting subtle shifts in harvest prac- tices of plant foods, and resilience of plants to long-term gathering pres- sures. For example, hundreds of whole Brodiaea complex corms from two archaeological sites north of Sac- ramento were measured to track corm size from 2,500 to 260 years ago. During seasonally limited oc- cupations of the sites, harvesters se- lected the largest corms without small cormlets, suggesting cormlets were replanted. However, when these sites were used as year-round village communities (from about 2,500 to 1,800 years ago, and again

Changes in corm size by settlement use at archaeological sites near Sacramento.

after the sites were abandoned as Cave, (CA-SMI-261), San Miguel village communities and used as sea- Island, California. Journal of Archaeo- sonal camps after 500 years ago logical Science 39:33-40. (Wohlgemuth et al. 2015). Wohlgemuth, E., A. Arpaia, W. Pierce, Because populations of geophytes and A. Tingey. 2015. Charred plant within the Brodiaea complex seem to remains from CA-SAC-15. Unpub- withstand intensive harvest pressures lished report submitted to U.S. Army over lengthy periods, common spe- Corps of Engineers, Sacramento, CA. Modern Brodiaea complex cormlets, with cies could become candidates for example of a charred archaeological cormlet (inset) from a 600-year old village mound plantings in ongoing restoration Eric Wohlgemuth, Far Western, 2727 Del in the Sacramento Valley. Photograph by projects designed to restore ethno- Rio Place, Suite A, Davis, CA 95618; eric@ Tammara Norton, 2016. botanical uses, and begin experiment- farwestern.com

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V44_3_book.pmd 43 2/20/17, 5:17 AM BEAUTY, BOUNTY, AND BIODIVERSITY: THE STORY OF CALIFORNIA INDIANS’ RELATIONSHIP WITH EDIBLE NATIVE GEOPHYTES by M. Kat Anderson and Frank K. Lake

alifornia supported a great diversity of plants with edible underground stor- age organs available to CIndian tribes. Together, plant foods, fish and meat made up an indig- enous diet that was well-rounded, diverse, and relatively secure. The edible underground parts possessed by these plants are classified as bulbs, corms, taproots, tubers and rhi- zomes, and when conditions turn unfavorable (too cold or too dry), the above-ground stems die back and the underground organs remain alive. Botanists and ecologists call the plants that employ this strategy geophytes. Indians often call them Indian potatoes or “root foods” be- cause they are hidden under the ground. Geophytes were an impor- tant source of food for indigenous people throughout California.

STAPLE FOOD In pre-contact California there were dozens of species of geophytes gathered for their edible under- ground storage organs in multiple plant communities from the salt marshes, to the deserts, to chapar- ral, to the open understories of co- niferous forests and oak woodlands. For example: the Ohlone dug the bulbs of harebell (Campanula prenanthoides) in winter and early spring for food in the vicinity of tan oaks; the Wailaki and Pomo har- TOP: Raw camas (Camassia sp.) bulbs and brodiaea (Brodiaea and Triteleia spp.) corms on vested the bulbs of the fawn lily a bed of Pacific big leaf maple leaves prior to baking them in an earth oven. Photograph () in the open- by Frank K. Lake, 2005. • BOTTOM LEFT: A bounty of camas ( subsp. ings amongst interior live oaks; and breviflora) for food. Photograph by Heron Brae, 2012. The camas bulb, found several the Kashaya Pomo unearthed the inches below the earth’s surface, is about the size of a large hazelnut, but can grow as large tubers of elegant piperia (Piperia as a walnut. Camas (C. leichtlinii subsp. suksdorfii and C. quamash subsp. breviflora) produces few offsets, but Native people note that when dug repeatedly and encouraged, elegans) in dry areas between Cali- they tend to divide. • BOTTOM RIGHT: Cooked camas (Camassia sp.) bulbs and brodiaea fornia black oaks. Some of the most (Brodiaea and Triteleia spp.) corms wrapped in a bed of Pacific big leaf maple leaves after important genera gathered by many baking them in an earth oven. Photograph by Frank K. Lake, 2005.

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V44_3_book.pmd 44 2/20/17, 5:17 AM tribes include Allium, Brodiaea, Camassia, Chlorogalum, Calochortus, Dichelostemma, Lilium, Lomatium, Perideridia, Sanicula, and Triteleia. Indian potatoes were not only di- verse, but also provided a variety of tastes to please the palate from slightly bitter, to mildly nutty, to sweet. They were eaten raw, boiled, baked, or steamed and then mashed, made into cakes similar to a frittata, bread or biscuits. Many of these geo- phytes were stored in their raw state in great quantities for later cooking and consumption or stored after bak- ing, roasting and/or drying them. The use of geophytes as part of the regular human diet in California

ABOVE RIGHT: Alferetta and Grapevine Tom, Achomawi, digging the edible, medicinal, and ceremonial tubers of búlidum’, (Lomatium californicum). A hardwood digging stick was the most common digging implement used up and down California to pry millions of plump, juicy bulbs, corms and tubers from the earth. Photograph by J.P. Harrington, Catalog number JPH-CA-AC-18. Courtesy of the Santa Barbara Museum of Natural History, circa 1931-32. • ABOVE LEFT: A close-up of the tubers of búlidum’ (L. californicum), one of eight lomatiums with edible tubers eaten by California Indian tribes. Others include Wasatch desertparsley (L. bicolor var. leptocarpum), Canby’s lomatium (L. canbyi), Gray’s lomatium (L. grayi), bigseed biscuitroot (L. macrocarpum), Nevada biscuitroot (L. nevadense), Indian biscuitroot (L. piperi), and nineleaf biscuitroot (L. triternatum). Photograph by J.P. Harrington, Catalog number JPH-CA-AC-19. Courtesy of the Santa Barbara Museum of Natural History, circa 1931-32. • RIGHT: Edible, dried, peeled taproots of bigseed biscuitroot (L. macrocarpum), some of which have been ground into flour. They will be combined with dried huckleberries and pine nut flour to make pinch cakes. Photograph by Heron Brae, 2013.

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V44_3_book.pmd 45 2/20/17, 5:17 AM dars, denoting a have been due, in part, to human predictable, re- management of the plants and their newable food habitats. source. For ex- ample, one of the THE HARVEST 12 moons of the Central Pomo Gathering the edible parts of geo- year Putitcda (our phytes, hidden below the surface of May) meant “ed- the soil, required extraction with a ible bulbs ripen- digging stick sharpened to a point. ing.” These stor- While digging time spanned the age organs also whole year, May to late October was have high nutri- the peak season. Harvesting differ- tional value, con- ent genera of geophytes differed by taining significant tribe and area. For example, among amounts of fiber, the Karuk, of northwestern Califor- and complex car- nia, Brodiaea, Calochortus, Dichelo- bohydrates. stemma, and Triteleia were dug in Before the sub- the spring to summer and Lilium stantial ecological species in the fall. Traditional gath- changes brought ering sites were visited annually, by European and areas were specifically owned settlement, many and maintained by particular fami- of the geophytes lies and passed down intergenera- of California had tionally. all of the attri- Despite relatively intensive, an- butes of a staple nual gathering, populations of geo- food crop: they phytes remained robust. This was were abundant, due in part to the gatherers’ aware- widespread, stor- ness of harvesting methods and how able, intensifi- they affected the plant’s regenera- able, and nourish- tion and the overall health of the ing. As little as habitat. Always thinking about the 200 years ago, harvest into the future, tribes made many areas in sure that the harvest would help TOP: Columbia lily () and other lilies have California were increase future yields. bulb scales which readily separate and scatter in the digging clothed in geo- When indigenous people har- process. The bulbs of this species and at least three other lilies were eaten by California Indian tribes including leopard lily phyte flowers vested geophytes, they did more than (L. pardalinum), alpine lily (L. parvum), and Washington lily during the spring just retrieve the largest storage or- (L. washingtonianum). • BOTTOM: The larger bulbs of checker lily and summer— gans for consumption. They re- () were roasted in ashes or baked in earth purple patches of planted the smaller bulblets, corm- ovens, and mashed and made into cakes by various tribes. It blue dicks, orange lets, tuber fragments, and bulb has numerous rice-grain bulblets that scatter when dug. At least three other were gathered for food: brown bells swaths of tiger scales; they tilled the soil to facili- (F. micrantha), yellow fritillary (F. pudica), and scarlet fritillary lily, yellow car- tate the growth of the new plants; (F. recurva). Photographs by Fred Sharpe, 2007. pets of common weeded non-desired plants; and they goldenstars, and scattered the seeds contained within is very old. The archeological record snowy areas of wild carrots. Early the dried seed pods to enhance re- shows that geophyte harvesting is at reports suggest that wildflowers with production. A grassland or coastal least 10,000 years old on the Chan- storage organs were much more prairie subject to this kind of man- nel Islands and that bulbs, corms, prevalent historically and gathered agement might not show overt signs and tubers were more or less har- in prodigious amounts. As will be of human manipulation, but the val- vested in most if not all regions of discussed, the abundance of edible ued foods would likely have broader the state during the last several thou- geophyte populations observed in distributions and higher population sand years. This storage organ had certain areas around the time of con- numbers than would be the case in its own month in many tribal calen- tact (circa AD 1840–1850s) may the absence of any tribal manage-

46 FREMONTIA VOL. 44, NO. 3, DECEMBER 2016

V44_3_book.pmd 46 2/20/17, 5:17 AM UPPER LEFT: Blue dicks has dozens of different names in Indian languages and was probably the most widely eaten geophyte in California. The corms are eaten raw, boiled, or roasted in ashes. Photograph by M. Kat Anderson, 1988. • LOWER LEFT: A single blue dicks plant can produce a large number of both corms and cormlets. This and other underground swollen stems were eaten in great quantity and gathered at the same sites year after year by employing harvesting and management strategies designed to benefit populations and ensure their continuation. One of these techniques was to replant the cormlets after digging, while another is described by Mono elder Melba Beecher to ensure re-seeding: “The bulb [Dichelostemma capitatum] is harvested in late summer or early fall when the blooms are gone.” Photograph by Kat Anderson, 1992. • RIGHT: Ross Stone, Big Pine Paiute, gathering nahavita, also known as blue dicks (D. capitatum) corms, a favorite traditional Paiute food on the east side of the Sierra Nevada. Photograph by Bill Helmer, 2005. All of the four other Dichelostemma spp. were also dug and eaten by California Indian tribes including fork-toothed ookow (D. congestum), firecracker flower (D. ida-maia), wild hyacinth (D. multiflorum), and twining brodiaea (D. volubile).

ment. Many tribal harvesters learned ductive adaptations. Evolving in en- erwise separated from the parent from, or emulated the digging-re- vironments in which drought, fire, structure could grow into geneti- lated disturbances of wildlife, such and herbivory were common, geo- cally identical plants. With these ad- as gophers or bears. phytes all developed clonal struc- aptations, disturbances, especially The harvest of geophytes could tures—offsets or propagules in the herbivory, that might threaten the be coupled closely with propagation form of scales, bulbils, bulblets, or existence of the parent plant were because of the nature of their repro- cormlets—which if severed or oth- also likely to separate and disperse

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V44_3_book.pmd 47 2/20/17, 5:17 AM the propagules—thus ensuring the cellent subjects for food intensifica- from getting too clumped and thus continuation of the genome. In feast- tion strategies. maximizing production. Perhaps, ing upon these highly nutritious Aerated and loosened with dig- most importantly, indigenous foods, gophers, voles, moles, bears, ging sticks, the soil had a higher people made conscious decisions deer, or elk would simultaneously moisture-holding capacity and be- about what to harvest and what to be acting as predators and dispers- came a better environment for seed leave behind, based on accumulated ers. Native people who exploited and propagule growth. knowledge about the plants’ repro- geophytes as food were taking ad- Native people also managed plant duction and adaptive traits. In the vantage of the pre-existing adapta- density, preferentially harvesting the case of blue dicks, for example, tions that made most geophytes ex- densest patches to keep the plants Leah Harper, Nor-Rel-Muk (pers. comm. 2003) explained how she harvested the largest organs and left in the soil the immature ones: “Grandma told us how to take the big bulb and leave the babies. And put them back in.” Human geophyte harvesters could also benefit the plants’ sexual repro- duction by properly timing the har- vest. When dug after seeds had ma- tured, this process could facilitate dispersal of the seeds, which were more likely to find safe germination sites in tilled soil. It was a common practice to take this facilitation a step further by placing broken stems with seed pods into the holes before covering them. Undesirable plants were also weeded out to favor geo- phytes at many gathering sites—thus reducing competition and increas- ing site productivity. Through observation and experi- mentation, Native Americans in Cali- fornia learned a great deal about the ecological requirements of the ed- ible geophytes. The most important conclusion they came to was that fire was good for many of the “root foods,” which included checker lil- ies, leopard lilies, sanicles, and wild carrots, among others. By burning geophyte habitats, Indians could maintain the sunny environments that most required, eliminate com- petition, reduce accumulated leaf lit- ter and duff, that could block or Ruby Pomona, North Fork Mono, with the edible tana or turkey pea (Sanicula tuberosa) dug in open black oak and ponderosa pine stands in Sierra National Forest. According to hinder their emergence each year, Ruby (pers. comm. 1989), tana, as well as a brodiaea with a purple flower, and wild carrot and thus enhance reproduction. The (Perideridia spp.), “came up better after a burn.” The small tuber was gathered widely by results were manifested at both the the Mono, Nisenan, Pomo, Salinan, Sierra Miwuk, and Wailaki and it is still relished today individual and population levels: in- and generally eaten raw. Already by 1932, Salinan consultants, Maria and David Mora, dividual plants grew more vigor- relayed to interviewer John P. Harrington that tr’ôtêmák (Sanicula tuberosa) is “scarce now.” Photograph by M. Kat Anderson, 2006. At least two other sanicles were dug ously, producing larger or more nu- for their edible tubers, sharptooth blacksnakeroot (S. arguta) and poison sanicle (S. merous underground storage organs, bipinnata). and populations were enlarged rela-

48 FREMONTIA VOL. 44, NO. 3, DECEMBER 2016

V44_3_book.pmd 48 2/20/17, 5:17 AM toes grow in bunches and ripen big...They go to find things there.” Today Native elders equate produc- tive bulb collection areas with de- liberate burning or . Because of their underground storage organs, geophytes are well adapted to withstand the effects of fire. Growing deep in soil, the bulbs, corms, and rhizomes are protected and insulated from the heat. Fire benefits geophytes in a number of ways, and are actually dependent on its regular occurrence. One hypothesis is that for some geophyte species, fire confers its ben- eficial effects directly to the plants through heat. Their underground storage organs have contractile roots, and thus can pull themselves down deeper in the soil when stimulated by the heat of a fire. When this hap- pens, the scales, bulblets, or cormlets attached to the main “mother” or- gan are stripped off. While attached, the growth of these clones is sup- pressed; when separated, they grow into new plants. In this direct way, therefore, fire promotes asexual re- production and enlargement of population sizes. Geophytes receive

tive to what would have been the gist J.W. Duncan equated the Maidu case without fire. burning of oak areas with motive of In the historical and ethnographic fostering more bulbs and greens. Lin- record there are accounts of Indians guist Alice Shepherd (1989:411) re- burning to enhance the geophyte corded for the Wintu: “Where the harvest. For example, anthropolo- ground has been burned, wild pota-

ABOVE: Lois Conner Bohna (North Fork Mono/Chukchansi) sustainably harvesting wavyleaf soap plant () bulbs, another traditional food, by breaking them off at the root crowns and leaving them behind to grow into new plants. This was also a common practice among various Sierra Miwuk and Yokuts cultural groups. Photograph by M. Kat Anderson, North Fork, 2008. At least three other soap plants were harvested for food including narrowleaf soap plant (C. angustifolium), smallflower soap plant (C. parviflorum), and Santa Lucia purple amole (C. purpureum var. purpureum). • RIGHT: Lois Conner Bohna (North Fork Mono/Chukchansi) taking two additional conservation-minded steps. She scattered the seeds into the hole and covered them and the remaining root crowns with additional soil. This North Fork site had been burned the year before. She remarked: “Where it has been burned I find plants that are doubles, triples, and bigger clusters, and the bulbs are huge.” Photograph by M. Kat Anderson, 2008.

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V44_3_book.pmd 49 2/20/17, 5:17 AM Tanya Spoonhunter, Dorothy Stewart, Jannah Terrazas, and Margaret Romero of the Big Pine Paiute tribe, displaying nahavita (Dichelostemma capitatum) corms that they will plant on their reservation in a large community garden plot and for a conservation field trial, October 2005. This effort is an example of diverse tribes bringing back traditional stewardship practices in various parts of California. Photograph by M. Kat Anderson.

most of the benefits of fire indirectly, crease by the light-absorbing black changed the soil’s texture or physi- however, through fire’s effects on color of the carbon that results from cal properties in ways that benefited the environment or habitat in which burning. Such warming is necessary geophyte growth and/or facilitated they live. Thick layers of leaf litter for both vegetative growth and harvest by humans. The bi-product and duff can inhibit or even prevent flower bud differentiation, and it also of burning woody material results geophyte growth. The bulbs remain provides the sequence of cold– in the production of charcoal or alive in the soil, but the accumu- warm–cold temperatures that most “biochar” that serves to increase soil lated dead biomass blocks the heat edible geophytes in California need porosity, nutrient retention and and light that would stimulate for good bulb development. Warmer moisture holding capacity in addi- growth, and may even act as a physi- soil temperatures in the spring pro- tion to increasing soil texture com- cal barrier for sprouting. In over- mote more flower buds, and this plexity. Today, the traditional ben- grown areas, bulbs can sit in the soil means more dry with seeds eficial uses of biochar are being in- bank for decades without growing. that can grow into new plants. Fire’s vestigated and technologically de- After the leaf litter and other bio- cleansing properties, are therefore, veloped for modern garden and ag- mass covering the soil are eliminated a mechanism which promotes larger ricultural uses. by fire, however, the plants are able and denser geophyte patches. Probably the most important ef- to push through the blackened earth. Fire also impacts geophytes fect of fire on geophytes is to main- When fire reduces duff and litter, through its effects on the soil. Burn- tain (or increase) the size of the the sun can warm the soil thoroughly ing releases a flush of nutrients, but areas in which the environmental where the warming effect may in- Indian burning may also have conditions are suitable for geophyte

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V44_3_book.pmd 50 2/20/17, 5:17 AM growth. To a great extent, this means there has been a general decline in Phytologist 197(1): 19-35. simply eliminating or suppressing geophyte populations, and today Coomes, O.T. and B.C. Miltner. 2016. the growth of plants that compete there are numerous rare and endan- Indigenous charcoal and biochar with geophytes for light. Most ed- gered geophyte taxa in California; production: Potential for soil im- provement under shifting cultivation ible geophytes require full or partial this decline may be tied not only to systems. Land Degradation & Devel- exposure to the sun to grow and habitat loss and fragmentation, but opment 00:1-11. DOI: 10.1002/ reproduce properly. The flowering also to the termination of the former ldr.2500 and bulbing of wild onions (Allium indigenous disturbance and manage- Einert, A.E. and C.O. Box. 1967. Ef- spp.) and wild lilies (Lilium spp.), ment regimes under which the geo- fects of light intensity on flower bud for example, are greatly affected by phytes most recently evolved. abortion and plant growth of Lilium how much light they receive. In the While few indigenous people longiflorum. Proceedings of the Ameri- lily family, low light intensities usu- gather or manage root foods today, can Society for Horticultural Science ally result in flower abortion. The this is changing. Tribes are renew- 90:427-432. high light requirements of most geo- ing their gathering rights and prac- Gill, K. 2014. Seasons of change: using phytes are a primary reason for their tices, forming new collaborations seasonal morphological changes in occurrence in open habitats. When with land management entities, set- Brodiaea corms to determine season of harvest from archaeobotanical trees or brush encroach on open ting up ethnobotanical gardens, cre- remains. American Antiquity 79(4): lands and create unfavorable shaded ating their own land trusts, restor- 638-654. conditions, camas (Camassia spp.), ing digging, and returning fire to Harrington, J.P. 1932. Tobacco among leopard lily (Lilium pardalinum), their reservations, rancherias, and the Karok Indians of California. Bu- wild onions, and other geophytes other traditional lands. Many tribes reau of American Ethnology Bulletin remain as a corm and bulb bank in are incorporating food security in- No. 94. Smithsonian Institution, the soil, their growth suppressed. terests with landscape restoration Washington, D.C. With fire, plants are released from strategies. An example is thinning Le Nard, M. and A.A. De Hertogh. the shaded environments, and grow of dense trees and shrubs and pre- 1993. Bulb growth and development and flower vigorously. Flowering scribed burning to meet the dual and flowering. In: The Physiology of greatly benefited insects and other objectives of hazardous fuels reduc- Flower Bulbs. A. De Hertogh and M. pollinators. Botanist Mark Skinner tion and the re-establishment of ed- Le Nard (eds.), pp. 29-43. Elsevier Science Publishers, Amsterdam, The (pers. comm. 2007) said: “Burning ible geophytes aligned with broader Netherlands. definitely encourages (the growth tribal resource objectives. These ef- Major, J. 2013. Biochar: A new soil of) many North American Lilium forts are helping to restore the management tool for farmers and taxa. Some are adapted to frequent beauty, bounty, and biodiversity of gardeners. International Biochar Ini- fires (L. pyrophilum, L. iridollae, L. California landscapes. tiative and Appalachian Sustainable catesbaei), some proliferate after fires Development Bulletin. 12 p. (L. washingtonianum). I’m sure it’s REFERENCES Nabhan, G.P., D. Walker, and A.M. nutrient availability to some degree, Moreno 2010. Biocultural and eco- but mostly it’s light availability that Anderson, M.K. 1997. From tillage to gastronomic restoration: The renew- drives that phenomenon.” table: The indigenous cultivation of ing America’s Food Traditions Alli- geophytes for food in California. ance. Ecological Restoration 28 (3): Journal of Ethnobiology 17(2):149- 266-279. CONCLUSIONS 169. Shepherd, A. 1989. Wintu texts. Uni- Anderson, M.K. and D.L. Rowney. versity of California Publications in Tribal gathering secured huge 1998. California geophytes: Ecology, Linguistics Vol. 117. University of quantities of subterranean plant ethnobotany, and conservation. California Press, Berkeley, CA. parts by revisiting the same tradi- Fremontia 26(1):12-18. Stone, E.C. 1951. The stimulative ef- tional gathering sites. Tribal harvest- ______. 1999. The edible plant fect of fire on the flowering of the ing and management strategies were Dichelostemma capitatum: its vegeta- golden brodiaea (Brodiaea ixioides designed to benefit populations and tive reproduction response to differ- Wats. var. lugens Jeps.). Ecology ensure their continuation with eco- ent indigenous harvesting regimes 32(3):534-537. logical consequences for species, in California. Restoration Ecology 7(3):231-240. populations, and plant communi- M. Kat Anderson, USDA NRCS, Califor- Clarke, P.J., M.J. Lawes, J.J. Midgley, ties. The Native gathering and man- B.B. Lamont, F. Ojeda, G.E. Burrows, nia State Office, 430 G. St., Davis, CA agement systems have been in place N.J. Enright, and K.J.E. Knox. 2013. 95616; [email protected]; Frank long enough to influence what con- Resprouting as a key functional trait: K. Lake, USFS Orleans Ranger Station, stituted fitness for evolving geophyte How buds, protection and resources P.O. Box 410, Orleans, CA 95556; species. Over the last two centuries, drive persistence after fire. New [email protected]

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V44_3_book.pmd 51 2/20/17, 5:17 AM ABOVE: Early fall bloom of a yampah (Perideridia gairdneri and P. kelloggii) dominated prairie at OAEC. With what began as a relatively small patch of yampah over 20 years ago, we have actively expanded its size and density through targeted mowing, weed whipping, hand removal of velvet grass (Holcus lanatus), seed collection, and seed sowing. We also distribute seeds to other favorable seasonally saturated wet prairies at OAEC, which previously lacked representation with either yampah species. Photograph by Brock Dolman. • BELOW: Gairdner’s yampah (Perideridia gairdneri) has delectable seeds and tuberous roots, which were and still are highly coveted by indigenous peoples, and the land stewards at OAEC. The root when eaten raw is nutty, earthy and sweetens up when cooked. The delicious seeds have a spicy flavor reminiscent of coriander. Some of the seeds will be saved for hand dispersal later in the season. Photograph by Brock Dolman. MENDING THE WILD AT THE OCCIDENTAL ARTS AND ECOLOGY CENTER by Brock Dolman

or over 20 years, members of ticultural techniques. Through the residential community ecological and observational Sowing Circle LLC in collabo- studies, we have concluded ration with staff biologists of that the geophytes on our land, Fthe non-profit Occidental Arts and including yampah (Perideridia Ecology Center (OAEC) have been spp.), bluedicks (Dichelostem- restoring geophyte habitat on our ma spp.), Triteleia spp., Brodi- 70-acre Wildlands Preserve in west- aea spp., and yellow mariposa ern Sonoma County using guide- lily () need lines derived from both indige- management at different scales. nous traditional practices and hor- First, management has to be

52 FREMONTIA VOL. 44, NO. 3, DECEMBER 2016

V44_3_book.pmd 52 2/20/17, 5:18 AM finely tuned to the ecological re- Before and after images of a coastal prairie quirements of the species at the restoration effort at OAEC which initially habitat level—the right moisture, required a very labor intensive process of removing encroaching coyote brush, light regime, plant associations, and Douglas fir and exotic Scotch broom. As other factors. The geophyte popu- can be seen in the after image, the woody lations that occur on our land are slash was burned onsite with the ashes later found in coastal prairie. Second, at scattered. Afterwards previously collected the scale of the individual—these native bunch grass and forb seeds were sown into the burn pile areas and places plants have a reproductive biol- with bare mineral soil created from the ogy that doesn’t readily propagate removal of the various woody plants. Many through cloning or seed dispersal of these sites have been restored to prairie, without assistance in the form of although the capacity of an older stand of disturbance: such as small or large Scotch broom, with a significant soil seed bank, should not be underestimated rela- mammal digging, eating, and dis- tive to the level of need for ongoing and persal of cormlets or bulblets, and multi-year follow up! Photographs by Brock human dispersal of propagules and Dolman. seeds. Taking these requirements into consideration, OAEC designed an active management program through a combination of: collect- ing native wildflower and grass seeds; reintroducing traditional prac- tices of burning the coastal prairie; active removal of encroaching Dou- glas fir, coyote brush, Scotch and French brooms; targeted mowing/ weed whipping of invasive annual and perennial grasses; sowing the seeds into the burned and unburned areas; and finally monitoring the results. We call this “mending the wild” and it requires active human engagement with the landscape re- peatedly with an astute focus on managing for stages of succession optimally conducive to the struc- ture, function and composition of a ecology of the coastal prairies, re- (Danthonia californica), and purple healthy diverse coastal prairie. From cent changes, and the current con- needlegrass (Stipa pulchra), inter- the beginning of our project, we dition on our land and in the sur- spersed with the geophytes already chose to honor and curate our onsite rounding region. Research in the mentioned. genetic lineage, thus focusing our past 25 years has found that Cali- In zones with very low frequency restoration efforts on working with fornia’s coastal prairies are rich of lightning strikes, such as along and expanding our localized native in biodiversity (Stromberg et al. California’s coast, whole plant populations and the plant com- 2001).Native perennial grasses of- exist that are clearly fire-dependent, munities that house them. ten are the dominant form of plant including coastal prairies. Further, life, with forbs (wildflowers) mak- ecologists are recognizing that a gen- THE HISTORIC LANDSCAPE ing up a significant proportion of eral decline in biodiversity in coastal AND RECENT the species richness of coastal prai- areas is likely linked to the absence DEGENERATIVE ries (Hayes and Holl 2003). On our of indigenous management using preserve, we currently have roughly digging sticks and propagule re- DISTURBANCE seven acres of remnant coastal prai- planting combined with the setting To understand why we chose rie, and there are native perennial of frequent, low intensity fires, be- these practices, we need to step bunchgrasses like blue wildrye cause lightning along the coast back and explore the historical (Elymus glaucus), California oatgrass would have been insufficient (Stuart

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V44_3_book.pmd 53 2/20/17, 5:18 AM and Stephens 2006). Originally these of the unplowed area at the base of another five acres of 30+-year-old prairies were subjected to grazing each grapevine. A closer inspection dense Douglas fir stands, or coyote pressures exerted over many mil- of these mounds show that some of brush/broom patches along the edges lennia by , the largest crowns of native bunch- of our existing prairies. Interestingly, which are well documented in the grass we have onsite are often found when you look at the ground surface regional fossil record (Parkman on the tops of these historically below these stands you will also find the telltale pattern of the plowed vine- yard mounds. Thus, these areas have recently been encroached by coastal coniferous forest and coastal scrub, a successional pattern that provides evidence for an even greater loss in our overall extent of coastal prairie. Tree and shrub encroachment also appear to be accelerated by the re- moval of keystone processes, such as lack of frequent, low intensity fire, native herbivore grazing regimes and/ or the cessation of wild-tending practices by traditional peoples. We therefore have come to see some of these historic and modern Euro-American settlement activities as “degenerative disturbances,” leav- ing a legacy of ecological illiteracy expressed in the landscape. As a way forward, our management practices A restored coastal prairie in bloom at OAEC of California oatgrass (Danthonia californica) co-mingling with sanicle (Sanicula sp.)—several species of which provide important edible try to mimic the natural disturbances tubers to indigenous people, shooting star (Dodecatheon hendersonii), and sun cup (Tara- with which coastal prairies have xia ovata) to name a few. Photograph by Brock Dolman. evolved, striving to become agents of regenerative disturbance rather 2006) and in later times the prairies unplowed mounds. Grassland ecolo- than degenerative disturbance. supported herds of mule deer, prong- gists have documented the capacity , and tule elk, also de- for Stipa pulchra to live for several REGENERATIVE veloping under some grazing pres- hundred years (Hamilton et al. DISTURBANCE: RESTORING sure (Schiffman 2007). 2002). Based on the large size of GEOPHYTES AND COASTAL In the last 150 years, Euro-Ameri- some bunchgrass crowns on the cans heavily influenced OAEC’s mounds, we have inferred that they PRAIRIE coastal prairie. In the early 1870s represent the assumed vegetation Based on the aforementioned im- the first Italian homesteaders com- community at time of the type con- pacts of European settlement, our menced logging of old growth red- version to , and thus offer work over the past 22 years has pri- wood, and the targeted plowing of us “reference” state or quasi-baseline marily focused on land management all our prairies to plant vineyards, window into the past that inspires practices that favor and strengthen which persisted until their removal our management goals and informs existing native biological assem- during the era of prohibition in the our “mending the wild” activities. blages. Recovery from such rapid 1920s. Vines were dry farmed on 10' Nearly a century later in the and extensive changes requires pa- 10' centers and managed as head- 1960s/70s the land ownership went tience and ample adaptive manage- pruned shrubs, which were subse- through several new changes, which ment to re-adjust the species com- quently maintained with annual came with a different degree of dis- position, structure and function of plowing between vine rows to a nar- turbance marked in this case by a ever evolving ecological states. row perimeter around the base of significant decrease in active man- Our approach recognizes the criti- each vine. This resulted in an easily agement of the land towards a pas- cal importance of human communi- observed pattern on the land of hun- sive untended approach, although ties reviving and re-“story”ing our dreds of 1m circular – 10 to 20cm regional fire suppression policies relationship to, and acknowledging tall mounds, which are the vestiges were enforced. We have roughly our dependency on thriving biologi-

54 FREMONTIA VOL. 44, NO. 3, DECEMBER 2016

V44_3_book.pmd 54 2/20/17, 5:18 AM TOP: Using prescribed fire on a cool windless early morning at the Occidental Arts and Ecology Center to restore geophyte habitat in coastal prairie, November 11, 2005. The timing of this fire was in the fall after initial rains had moistened the landscape for general safety concerns. Goals of the burn were to reduce the exotic grass seedlings, and remove extensive dense thatch so as to open up soil space between native bunch grass crowns for onsite collected native geophyte and grass seeds to be thrown and sown, or “shucked and hucked.” Photograph by Brock Dolman. • ABOVE LEFT: Yellow mariposa lily (Calochortus luteus) flower with red yarn tied on it, which significantly enhances the process of locating the dry pod for seed collection several months later when it blends into the dense standing stalks of various grasses. Photograph by Brock Dolman. • ABOVE RIGHT: Yellow mariposa lily (C. luteus) pods and seeds were hand collected, or “shucked” in September. The seeds were stored in paper bags in a cool dark location and subsequently sown several months later with the first rains, after the prescribed burn. Photograph by Jim Coleman.

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V44_3_book.pmd 55 2/20/17, 5:18 AM spring, but by late summer, close tribal citizens of the Federated Indi- searching for seedpods amidst a sea ans of Graton Rancheria. In 2016, of dried brown annual exotic grasses OAEC completed a comprehensive requires one to develop a skilled Stewardship Plan that details the search image. After several seasons land history and management goals we learned to optimize our chances of our Wildlands Preserve. This 200- of re-locating the dried seedpods by page plan and much more informa- tying short lengths of bright red yarn tion can be found at oaec.org/wild- on the blooming flower stalk. lands. The process of visiting each indi- vidual flower in the spring and tying REFERENCES the red yarn on was quite fulfill- ing knowing that in a few months, Hamilton, J.G., J.R. Griffin, and M.R. we would more easily relocate the Stromberg. 2002. Long-term popu- mature pod for seed harvest. In late lation dynamics of native Nassella summer/early fall, we collected the () bunchgrasses in Central seedpods and shucked them by hand California. Madroño 49(4):274–284. to access the small disc-like seeds. Hayes, G.F. and K.D. Holl. 2003. Cattle grazing impacts on annual forbs and Next, we stored the seeds in paper vegetation composition of mesic bags in a cool dry indoor location. grasslands in California. Conserva- Prior to the first fall rains we then tion Biology 17: 1694–1702. went out in the field and hucked Parkman, E.B. 2006. The California the Calochortus luteus seeds. We call Serengetti: Two hypotheses regard- this our “shuck-n-huck” method. ing the Pleistocene paleoecology of After burning, native geophyte seeds, such Over the years, in to assure the San Francisco Bay Area. Califor- as yellow mariposa lily (Calochortus luteus) seed contact with bare soil, we ei- nia State Parks. www.parks.ca.gov/ and perennial native bunch grass seeds ther, scattered the seeds in recently pages/22491/files/the_california were sown into the exposed bare mineral _serengetti_pleistocene_ paleoecol- soil, aiming for enhanced seed germination, burned areas of coastal prairie, or ogy_of_ san_francisco_bay.pdf with the influx of nutrients and reduced opportunistically flattened the soil competition. Photograph by Jim Coleman. mounds of the gophers with our Schiffman, P.M. 2007. Ecology of na- boots, then sprinkled some seeds on tive animals in California grass- cally and culturally diverse water- the new mineral seedbed—rough- lands. Pp. 180–190 In: M.R. Stromberg, J.D. Corbin, and C.M. shed communities. The results of our ing up the surface lightly with our D’Antonio (eds.). California Grass- work over two decades are markedly hands to cover the seeds. To opti- lands: Ecology and Management. Uni- heightened patches of diverse native mize our “assisted migration” efforts, versity of California Press, Berkeley, perennial bunchgrasses and wild- we diversified the distribution of CA. flowers in our coastal prairie. seeds on the property by targeted Sonoma Marin Coastal Prairie Work- As a case study, yellow mariposa shucking and hucking in all other ing Group. http://www.sonoma.edu/ lily is one species that receives spe- suitable prairie patches on the prop- cei/prairie/ cial attention. It is simply a spec- erty. We are elated to say that after Stromberg, M.R., P. Kephart, and . tacular flower and has ethnobotani- 22 years, in the spring of 2016 we Yadon. 2001. Composition, invasi- cal value in the edible landscape of stopped counting flowers/plants at bility, and diversity in coastal Cali- the indigenous peoples being an 1,000 individuals in the original fornia grasslands. Madroño 48: 236- important food of tribes as diverse source prairie site alone! 252. Stuart, J., and S.L. Stephens. 2006. as the Coast Miwok, Pomo, South- The over-arching goals of the North Coast California bioregions. ern Paiute, and Southern Sierra Mi- OAEC Wildlands Program are to Pp. 147–169 In: N.G. Sugihara, J.W. Wuk. In 1994, there were only seven demonstrate, educate, and train van Wagtendonk, K.E. Shaffer, J. individual plants found in one rem- communities about the various prac- Fites-Kaufman, and A.E. Thode nant patch on an east-facing slope. tices and experiments we use to re- (eds.). Fire in California’s Ecosys- Making early note of this, we began establish a more regenerative rela- tems. University of California Press, a concerted effort to locate the pods tionship with our wildlands and wa- Berkeley, CA. each season for seed harvest to be tersheds. Special emphasis is placed sown later that year. Finding the upon Traditional Ecological Knowl- Brock Dolman, 15290 Coleman Valley beautiful yellow flowers in full edge (TEK) collaborative trainings Road, Occidental, CA 95465; Brock@ bloom is not a challenge in late with Coast Miwok/Southern Pomo oaec.org

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V44_3_book.pmd 56 2/20/17, 5:18 AM CALIFORNIA BULBS’ LOVE AFFAIR WITH NATIVE POLLINATORS by Nancy Gilbert

any pollinators, native bulbs and this led to our even- and open their bell-like flowers. Their especially domesti- tually establishing a small native blooming period is synchronized cated honeybees, wild bulb business, Far West Bulb Farm, with the early spring emergence of native and nu- which we fondly describe as a the mining bees, whose small size Mmerous butterfly species, are declin- gone berserk. These two interests, and adaptation to cool weather suit ing world-wide, including within along with Ames’ and my shared them perfectly for pollinating these California. Public and private gar- interest in wildlife and native plant early bloomers. Like most native bees, dens designed specifically to attract photography, have all converged to they are soil nesters and when the and sustain our insect pollinators our present focus on studying and queens emerge, they immediately are popping up all across the coun- photographing the love affair be- begin foraging for , their pri- try. Many excellent books and ar- tween native bulb flowers and their mary source of energy. Mining bees’ ticles continue to be published to pollinators. In this article I wish to adult lives are short and busy and assist those of us drawn to pollina- share a bit of what I have learned they mate almost immediately. The tor gardening, and organizations, over the years about our native bulbs females then excavate their nests and such as the Xerces Society, the UC and their pollinator partnerships. collect , which they transport Berkeley Urban Bee Lab and the As early in the spring as late Feb- on the stiff hairs (called scopae) of California Native Plant Society, are ruary and continuing through March their hind legs. This pollen is the actively promoting and supporting and early April, the fritillarias emerge food that will feed their larvae in the this trend. Lists of plants underground nests. As that attract pollinators Butte County fritillary () with mining bee you observe Fritillaria are being published in (Andrena sp.). All photographs by Nancy Gilbert, taken near Grass flowers, watch for these books, magazines and Valley. small bees, with their online. As I have read heavy loads of pollen, - through these lists I have ing from flower to flower noticed that our native and then disappearing in- California bulbs are of- side a nodding blossom. ten not as well repre- The Erythronium spp. sented as the pollinator (fawn lilies) begin bloom- all-stars, such as plants ing just as the fritillarias in the Buckwheat and are finishing up, usually Aster families. This is un- in late March and ending fortunate, as the flowers by May, with higher el- of California’s native evation species flowering bulbs are incredible mag- concurrent with snow- nets for a wide array of melt. Now other native pollinators and the two bee species are emerging have evolved together from nests in the ground over many tens of thou- or within chambers lo- sands of years. cated in the hollow stems As I delve deeper into and cavities of plants or the complex relation- tree stumps. As with the ships between pollinators mining bees, they have and flowering plants, I evolved to pollinate the have become captivated flowers that are flowering by this dynamic micro- at the time the adults are world. My husband, flying. Native bees such Ames, and I became as sweat bees, digger bees, charmed long ago by our leafcutter bees, mason

VOL. 44, NO. 3, DECEMBER 2016 FREMONTIA 57

V44_3_book.pmd 57 2/20/17, 5:18 AM LEFT, TOP TO BOTTOM: California fawn lily () and long-horned bee (Eucera sp.). • Papery onion (Allium membranacerum) and bee fly (Merodon equestris) and Nelson’s juniper hairstreak butterfly (Callophyrs gryneus nelsoni). • Fork-toothed ookow () and snowberry clearwing moth (Hemaris diffinis). • ABOVE: Humboldt’s lily () and tiger swallowtail (Pterourus rutulus rutulus).

bees, polyester bees, long-horned A frequently overlooked family bees, carpenter bees and bumblebees of spring-flowering native bulbs is are beginning to appear during this the , or onions. It is in a very time. Honeybees are also now ac- large family with species in nearly tively foraging. These many types of every habitat. I have never seen a bees can be found flying throughout patch of alliums that is not mobbed California from mid-spring well into with honeybees and native bees, summer, and the carpenter bees and small butterflies such as hairstreaks bumblebees can be seen foraging into and coppers, as well as a variety of the cool autumn months. Each bee bee and flower flies. For your genus has a variety of adaptations garden, select Allium and other bulb for taking in nectar and for collect- species that are adapted to your lo- ing and transporting pollen to their cal area and plant the bulbs in fairly nests. Observing, classifying and un- large groups for maximum pollina- derstanding the many bee species, as tor visits, as it is much more effi- well as the butterflies, moths, flower cient for pollinators if there are large flies and beetles can easily become a patches of each plant species rather life-long pursuit. than a one-here, one-there approach.

58 FREMONTIA VOL. 44, NO. 3, DECEMBER 2016

V44_3_book.pmd 58 2/20/17, 5:18 AM As spring progresses, the camas- our native bulbs and their pollinat- sias, dichelostemmas, and triteleias ing partners varies throughout our begin blooming and many continue diverse and large state. In the higher flowering well into May or early elevations of the Coast Range and June, depending on the species and the Sierra Nevada, the blooming location. They flower just in time dates and emergence of native bees, for the arrival of the later emerging butterflies and other pollinators is native bee species, as well as myriad considerably later. In the warmer beetles, butterflies, wasps, moths, and drier habitats of Southern Cali- and bee and flower flies, not to men- fornia, as well as the more moderate tion an occasional . coastal zones, these dates will likely Swallowtail butterflies are particu- need to be adjusted to an earlier larly fond of both fork-toothed time frame. (Dichelostemma congestum) and As citizen scientists, we can all round-toothed ookow (D. multiflor- join in the fun and challenge of learn- um), as are bumblebees, sweat bees, ing more about the amazing and digger bees, and snowberry clear- Redwood lily () and leaf- complex relationships between our wing moths. cutter bee (Megachile sp.). native geophytes and their numer- As spring merges into the warm ous and diverse pollinators. We can months of summer, the true lilies Soap plant (Chlorogalum spp.) is also work to preserve their wild habi- open their gorgeous and sometimes another summer-blooming native tats, reduce destructive and fragrant blooms to be pollinated by bulb species that is primarily polli- use throughout our state, bees, butterflies, , and nated during the early evening by a and restore native plant and pollina- moths. Species such as Humboldt variety of bees and an occasional hun- tor habitats one garden at a time in lily (Lilium humboldtii) and leopard gry butterfly, while moths frequent our communities and home land- lily (L. pardalinum), are enticements the white flowers after dark. Each scapes. I hope this article will help for hummingbirds, many types of blossom of a soap plant literally pops inspire you to take a closer look at bees and pale and tiger swallowtail open as dusk approaches and has who is visiting the blooms of our butterflies, which offer the photog- closed by sunrise. The many species native bulbs, to preserve wild bulb rapher some great opportunities. of Brodiaea are also now blooming populations and to incorporate some The fragrant lilies, such as Wash- and they provide a rich source of of our beautiful geophytes into your ington lily (L. washingtonianum) and nectar and pollen for our pollinators landscape. redwood lily (L. rubescens), attract through the month of June. not only numerous day-time polli- The dates for bloom times and Visit cnps.org/fremontia/geophytes for nators, but also the moths that fly pollinators that I have given are more resources on native pollinators from dusk to dawn; they locate the largely based on my observations and native geophytes. flowers mostly by their sweet fra- here in the Northern Sierra foot- grance. hills, and timing for the flowering of [email protected]

LEFT: Crinkled onion (Allium crispum) and black-rumped bumblebee (Bombus melanopygus). • RIGHT: Bridge’s triteleia () and a visiting male California bumblebee (Bombus californicus).

VOL. 44, NO. 3, DECEMBER 2016 FREMONTIA 59

V44_3_book.pmd 59 2/20/17, 5:18 AM LEMON LILY FESTIVAL OF IDYLLWILD: HOW A LOCAL LILY BECAME A CAUSE TO CELEBRATE by Kathryn A. Kramer

he lemon lily () sular ranges of southern California most horrifying reason may have to of the Southern California and in the Sky Island Region of do with bulb fanciers at the turn of Mountains may be the only southeastern and , the last century. In 1902, Harvey native geophyte with its own Mexico. Although neither Federally Monroe Hall noted the activity of Tfestival. This is the tale of how an or State-Listed, L. parryi is rare bulb collectors in the San Jacintos: entire town came together to cel- enough to warrant 1B.2 status by “. . . one party took out over 5000 ebrate and conserve this species. CNPS and is a Forest Service Sensi- [lemon lily] bulbs in a single sea- tive Species. This perennial herb son” (p. 68, Hall, 1902). While THE LILY grows from a bulb-like scaly rhi- lemon lily habitat quality has de- zome along mountain streams and clined, this may be the case of a Lilium parryi is one of 11 species meadows above 4,000 feet; it is re- plant becoming rare due to being of the genus Lilium native to Cali- stricted to riparian habitats. A single over-loved. fornia. It occurs in scattered popu- plant may grow to four to six feet lations in the transverse and penin- with multiple, large, fragrant yellow CONCERN IN THE flowers. Local bota- COMMUNITY The lemon lily (Lilium parryi) found in the southern nists found one plant California mountains and the Sky Islands of southern with 40 buds and Our story takes place in Idyllwild, Arizona. One population has been reported from Mexico. flowers in a single a small community in the San Jacinto Photograph by Jordan Zylstra and courtesy of the U.S. Forest Service. year! This stunning Mountains above Palm Springs. Lo- plant is an excellent cal botanists Dave Stith and Tom excuse for a hike Chester have studied the local flora h to cooler mountain as an avocation for several years. meadows in early July. Dave, in particular, is a longtime Unfortunately, admirer of lemon lilies. After find- most lemon lilies are ing the quote in Hall’s monograph now only found in on the flora of the San Jacinto Moun- high elevations above tains several of us wondered if some- 7,000 feet; there are thing couldn’t be done: public aware- few to enjoy in easily ness was key. Holding a festival de- accessible areas. There voted to the lemon lily was one way are many reasons that of getting the word out to a large lemon lilies have dis- number of people. Idyllwild has a appeared from the history of festivals; one celebrating most visible public such a beautiful plant would help creeks and streams: ensure that both locals and visitors the striking flowers are aware and care about the fate of are tempting to pick this stunning plant. and tuck on the out- The mountain environment of side of a daypack, Idyllwild is a getaway place for lemon lilies are eaten people of San Diego, Los Angeles by local herbivores: and the desert cities to escape the deer crop off flower summer heat. It is a tourist town buds and gophers con- with repeat visitors, some whose sume the rhizomes, families have been coming to and lower snowpack Idyllwild for generations. It also at- in recent years has re- tracts artists, musicians, and hikers sulted in less prime and is a stop for Pacific Crest Trail habitat. However, the through-hikers. In short, Idyllwild

60 FREMONTIA VOL. 44, NO. 3, DECEMBER 2016

V44_3_book.pmd 60 2/20/17, 5:18 AM ABOVE: Spectacular Lilium parryi in its native habitat. The flowers are large, 4–6" in diameter. • RIGHT: Lemon lily close-up. Photographs by Jordan Zylstra and courtesy of the U.S. Forest Service.

attracts enough interested people for gasp in the room.” It was easy to a festival celebrating a beautiful plant convince people that this was a to be successful. good cause. Several committees were formed and met for months before STARTING THE FIRST the first festival in 2010 at the FESTIVAL—JULY 2010 Nature Center. The Nature Center director at the time, Shelly Kibbey, Dave Stith started working on the was extremely supportive of the Lemon Lily Festival in 2009 by gar- festival. The festival committee be- nering support from the local mer- came part of the non-profit Friends chants, Riverside County’s Idyllwild of the Idyllwild Nature Center, an Nature Center and various interested organization that facilitated much porters convinced the county su- groups and individuals. His efforts of the preparation. Another talented pervisors to proclaim July as Lemon and commitment to include the town leader from the business commu- Lily Month in Riverside County. have paid off in spades. He has said nity, Doug Yagaloff, stepped up, and “Education, celebration, and that whenever he mentioned Hall’s the merchants were very active in restoration of the lemon lily” was report of 5,000 lily bulbs being dug the first year’s festival. Doug also Dave’s festival mantra. This was a up in a single year to the various contacted the local county supervi- very relevant theme as few people groups, there would be “an audible sor and a group of lemon lily sup- at that time had actually seen a lemon

VOL. 44, NO. 3, DECEMBER 2016 FREMONTIA 61

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V44_3_book.pmd 62 2/20/17, 5:18 AM lily. With photographs of lemon lilies and a few purchased bulbs, community creativity was set loose! Over the years of the festival, vari- ous lemon lily-themed activities have occurred: gift baskets of donated items were offered in a raffle in which money had to be spent in local stores to obtain the raffle tickets in the first year. Many merchants offered lemon lily-themed products during the Festival weekend. The local quilt- ing guild designed and donated an original lemon lily quilt to be raffled off with the proceeds benefiting the Lemon Lily Festival restoration work; later, original art- work includ- ing a stained- glass piece and a ce- ramic lemon lily platter were raffled off. A lemon lily banner competition was held and the banners were also auctioned off. Prior to the festival, the banners were displayed in town to encourage people to come to the event. Festival organizers have offered t-shirts and pins for visitors. The theme for the festival was celebrating the time in Idyllwild when lemon lilies would have been abundant, before the turn of the last TOP: Information table at the first Lemon Lily Festival in Idyllwild. Photograph courtesy of the Idyllwild Town Crier. • BOTTOM: For several years, the Lemon Lily Festival held a century. Music and activities were banner competition for the local artists. The banners were displayed in downtown Idyllwild organized with this in mind. A lemon before the Festival and auctioned off afterwards. Photograph by Barbara Rees and courtesy lily song was written and performed of the Idyllwild Town Crier. by a group of local singers and people dressed in turn-of-the-last-century and naturalists led hikes to observe sode of California’s Gold devoted to inspired clothing. Education talks lemon lilies in nature. Fortunately, the first festival—which the station were offered several times each day there were a few, accessible lilies graciously continues to replay each left in Lily Creek on Idyllwild Na- year before festival time. ABOVE: Each year an original piece of art is ture Center land for festival visitors made especially for the festival. In the to see. We talked about what had RESTORATION EFFORTS— early years, the local quilt guild donated a handmade quilt for this purpose. Pho- happened to the lemon lily and how INCREASING THE LEMON tograph by Avianna Jones; courtesy of its numbers could be increased LILY the Idyllwild Town Crier. • FACING PAGE: through both preservation and res- Lilium parryi in the San Jacinto Wilder- toration at every opportunity. Having actual lemon lilies in ness in typical habitat. Photograph by Jordan Zylstra; courtesy of the U.S. Forest Los Angeles public television sta- bloom in nature for people to see Service. tion KCET even did an entire epi- was important for festival credibil-

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V44_3_book.pmd 63 2/20/17, 5:19 AM in hopes that they would be in bloom in time for the festival; it is always difficult to plan an event based on flowering in nature in advance! Over the years, this has supplied many “teachable moments” at the festival on how springtime temperatures af- fect the bloom time of most plants. Bulbs have been planted in appro- priate habitat around the commu- nity on private property and at the Nature Center—in Lily Creek—to augment the population. We continue to perfect propaga- tion techniques for increasing lemon lilies. We’ve tried tissue culture tech- niques but have found that local seed is relatively easy to germinate after being stratified for a few months in a refrigerator. We are learning how to “overwinter” the seedlings in order to grow bulbs large enough to survive once planted. The goal is to re-establish colonies in the Idyllwild area in lily habitat. As of this writing, the Lemon Lily Festival continues on. The Idyllwild Nature Center has taken the lead and held the festival for the last few years. Festival status can be found at lemonlilyfestival.com. The festival has changed the public’s attitude towards lemon lil- ies—from being unaware of this gor- geous native plant to becoming fiercely protective of it! Lemon lilies are celebrated every July in River- side County and there is now a con- tinuing community effort among botanists and gardeners to “bring them back” to local habitats.

REFERENCES

Hall, H.M. 1902. A botanical survey of San Jacinto Mountain. University of California Publications Botany 1:1– 140. TOP: Education talks are given each year at the festival about lemon lily natural history, McRae, E.A. 2001. Lilies: A Guide for restoration efforts and the fate of lilies after the Mountain Fire in 2013. Photograph by J.P. Growers and Collectors. Timber Crumrine and courtesy of the Idyllwild Town Crier. • BOTTOM: Lemon lily with bulb scales. This plant is three years old. Photograph by Kathryn Kramer. Press, Portland, OR.

ity. In addition to the few plants a nursery in Oregon whose original Kathryn A. Kramer, Ph.D., 40250 Reseda growing naturally at the nature cen- stock had come from this area in the Springs Rd., Hemet, CA 92544-9021; ter, bulbs were also purchased from 1970s.The first bulbs were planted [email protected]

64 FREMONTIA VOL. 44, NO. 3, DECEMBER 2016

V44_3_book.pmd 64 2/20/17, 5:19 AM TIPS ON GROWING GEOPHYTES IN THE GARDEN by Judith Larner Lowry

may be a devoted native with many geophytes are neither plant gardener, enjoying the mysterious nor complicated. Appro- benefits of a yard replete priate for beginners are many mem- with California native spe- bers of the family Themidaceae, Ycies. The bulbs, corms, tubers, and or Brodiaea, which includes the Brodiaea, Triteleia, Bloomeria, and Dichelostemma genera, with many species both widespread and adapt- able. They are the focus of this article. Even they may be difficult to find in native plant nurseries and are rela- tively expensive. Supplies can fluc- tuate from year to year. Bulb suppli- ers with high standards, who grow bulbs from seed of wild stock, who

TOP: Prettyface or golden star () can be found from central Cali- fornia north to Oregon in a variety of situations. There are five subspecies. • BOTTOM: Ithuriel’s spear (T. laxa) is one of the most showy and frequently grown native geophytes. All photographs by Peter G. Smith unless otherwise noted.

taproots that are a compelling and threatened part of the California landscape are not often found in our

gardens. Growing geophytes is a TOP: One-leaf onion (Allium falcifolium) close-up. A. falcifolium is considered difficult to Californian form of gardening prac- grow but does well in containers. • BOTTOM: A. falcifolium in a container. tice, an opportunity to deepen fa- miliarity with our state’s indigenous do not wild-collect bulbs, and who to paint your grassland with color flora and ecology. keep track of sources, often sell out may be costly and possibly anxiety- The requirements for success early in the fall. Buying enough bulbs producing. The seasonal above-

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V44_3_book.pmd 65 2/20/17, 5:19 AM by ornamental containers. Lessons the ground and top-dress annually, learned will serve the gardener well during the early growth period, when planting in the ground. with more potting soil or . For example, in three years, six Light bulb is sometimes corms of California brodiaea (Bro- used. Allen Chickering (1938) ob- diaea californica) planted in one large served greatly expanded Calochortus ceramic container produced 24 blooms following fires. He regularly good-sized parent corms, as well as applied an annual wood ash top- approximately 100 robust offsets at- dressing with good results. Crushed tached to their sides. The offsets, oyster shells will also supply needed when separated from the parent potassium. corms and replanted in the ground, Many different soil combinations produced blooming plants the fol- are suitable for container-growing lowing year, enough to create a no- bulbs. Light, organic, manure-free table garden feature at the front of a potting soil, available from garden perennial border. centers, works well. Vermiculite, perlite, , or sand can help main- CONTAINER-GROWING tain good drainage and avoid root rot. Woodland species like addi- To augment planting stock tional humus. Desert species prefer through container-growing, select a a higher percentage of sand. large ceramic or wooden container Bulb bloom in containers and in at least 18" deep and 2' wide. the ground begins from March Square to rectangular boxes of through July. For containers planted different sizes can be easily built to with summer-dry species, stop wa- house bulbs. tering after bloom and seedset. Sepa- Smaller containers may produce rate these containers from those fewer or scrawnier offsets. The top planted with species that prefer of a corm from which the sprout some summer moisture, such as emerges comes to a more or less white brodiaea (Triteleia hyacin- obvious somewhat pointed tip, while the roots emerge later from the base, the flattened side, where a plate or callus from a previous with- ered corm is often visible. Plant TOP: Ithuriel’s spear (Triteleia laxa) in a corms root side down, 2" to 6" deep container. • BOTTOM: Ithuriel’s spear corms. The results of a two-year long grow-out in and 1" to 4" apart, depending on a container, which began with six large the ultimate size of the plant. Some corms. corms will have sprouted already, even when stored in a cold dry place. ground disappearance of geophytes Plant these immediately, sprout fac- when they die back and go dormant ing upwards and almost covered by in the fall, may create more sus- the soil. pense than some gardeners will tol- When selecting which corms or erate. The bulb-hungry gopher bulbs to plant, don’t begin with mon- population that provides a healthy tane species when you live in the disturbance for a large stand of flour- lowlands, or coastal species when ishing wild geophytes can be devas- you live in the desert. Choose those tating to a garden planting of a dozen species known to be local to your expensive bulbs. area, They will be useful for local The beginner can gain confi- insect populations, including native dence, practice techniques, and and honey bees, bee-flies, flower readily propagate planting stock by beetles, butterflies, and humming- starting with growing bulbs in the birds. Blue dicks (Dichelostemma capitatum) in almost foolproof situations provided Move offsets to new pots or to bloom in a bulb box.

66 FREMONTIA VOL. 44, NO. 3, DECEMBER 2016

V44_3_book.pmd 66 2/20/17, 5:19 AM in a new place, dug and stored in a cool, dry place for later replanting October–December, or left in place. After seedset is generally a good bulb-digging time. Use a hori-hori, trowel, digging stick, or iron pry- bar to dig bulbs and corms. A con- tinuously worked soil makes it easier to avoid inadvertently jabbing the bulbs. In clay soil, it may be prefer- able to dig bulbs before the soil bakes hard in summer.

GROWING FROM SEED Geophyte seeds in a plastic bag after cold- stratification (sealed in bag with moist Growing geophytes from seed, medium, placed in refrigerator for two to another inexpensive way to gain ac- three months), at Telos Rare Bulb Nursery cess to sufficient quantities for satis- in Ferndale. Photograph by Diane Chapman. factory garden effects, has a few pit- falls and requires a bit more USES IN THE GARDEN patience. According to Diana Chapman, owner of Telos Once you have enlarged your Rare Bulbs, access to native supply of corms and bulbs, they can bulb seed is a limiting factor be used in dry borders as accent in bulb production (The Bulb plants, grouping them with peren- Maven blog). To achieve nials requiring a similar watering bloom from seed ranges from regime, such as “summer-dry” or two to five years. “summer-moisture-tolerant.” Bulbs The first two years, when are also set off by driftwood or rocks, new seedlings go dormant or grown in solid masses of one without much root to sustain species, as seen in the wild. In this TOP: White brodiaea () in bloom in a bulb box. Photograph by Peter G. Smith. • them, is tricky. Sow seeds in case, dig the soil out to a depth of BOTTOM: A close-up of white brodiaea blossoms in flats 8" deep, to avoid hav- two feet and line the bottom and April 2016. ing to move them until three sides of this hole with rust-resistant or four years have passed. 1/2" screen. Reinforce the corners. thina), crown brodiaea (Brodiaea During this critical time in the Urban gardeners, whose cement coronaria), and seep brodiaea (Trite- seedling’s lifecycle, they are puny driveways and sidewalks can inad- leia peduncularis). Others can handle and hard to spot. They may be over- vertently create a relatively bulb- drought once the buds appear. In- come by weedy species or even predator-free “planter box,” can formation on habitat of origin in inadvertently pulled out. Once the sometimes plant in the ground with- the wild will influence your water- sprouts have broken through the soil, out protection. ing strategy. supplement rainfall if grown out- To make use of your abundance doors with enough moisture to keep CREATING A NATIVE of bulbs and corms, whether in the them growing. GRASSLAND ground or in a container, many varia- Coir is a good, fungus-resistant tions of the basic strategy work. medium for starting bulbs from seed Native bulbs are an important Large, healthy bulbs with well-de- when mixed with other supple- addition to existing native grass- veloped and numerous offsets, opti- ments. Some growers recommend lands or used as part of the creation mal density, and the well-churned soaking both the seed and the plant- of backyard “mini-prairies.” For a soil once found in managed indig- ing medium in water before sowing, grassland planting that includes geo- enous bulb gardens are the goal. to ensure consistent moisture for phytes, establish the native grasses From the ground or from a con- germination. The Pacific Bulb Soci- first, spacing them based on their tainer, bulbs and their offsets can be ety provides invaluable member ex- mature width, so that the spaces in- either dug, separated, and immedi- periences for growing many species between the bunchgrasses can be ately replanted in the same spot or from seed. planted with groupings of geophytes

VOL. 44, NO. 3, DECEMBER 2016 FREMONTIA 67

V44_3_book.pmd 67 2/20/17, 5:19 AM and other perennials. ations and reseeds We make small pro- well. Blooming in Feb- tective screen “cups” ruary and March, it for groups of four to goes to seed in April ten bulbs, or use store- and May. Blue dicks bought gopher bas- (Dichelostemma capi- kets for protection tatum), possibly the from gophers, ground most reliable and wide- squirrels, rabbits, spread native corm mice, rats, and other in the West, blooms bulb predators. next. It goes dormant You may want to Ithuriel’s spear (Triteleia laxa) growing in the garden as part of an early in May-June, to be fol- follow the bulb plant- spring flowering combination with alum root (Heuchera sp.), Pacific bleeding lowed by white bro- ing by sowing a wild- heart (Dicentra formosa) and driftwood. Photographer unknown. diaea and Ithuriel’s flower bulb-cover. spear. Good possibilities abound, such as and Chinese houses. Douglas mead- A large planting of bulbs that are baby blue eyes (Nemophila menzi- owfoam (Limnanthes douglasii) has dormant for a good part of the year esii), tidy tips (Layia platyglossa), or been successful as an early-bloom- creates a challenging but interesting any of a number of late winter and ing bulb cover. This lover of vernal garden feature. Areas of bare, weed- early spring blooming annuals, in- pools, seeps, and other seasonally free soil are increasingly rare in Cali- cluding goldfields, gilias, lupines, moist areas is adaptable to drier situ- fornia. Such seasonally unvegetated

Douglas meadowfoam (Limnanthes douglasii) in bare soil area. These vigorous wildflowers favor seasonal wetlands. With the first drop of water, they germinate, blooming in February-March. The plants disappear by the end of March, making way for the first bulb shoots. Photograph by Peter G. Smith.

68 FREMONTIA VOL. 44, NO. 3, DECEMBER 2016

V44_3_book.pmd 68 2/20/17, 5:19 AM Diogenes’ lantern (Calochortus amabilis) growing on dappled hillside in eastern Mendocino County on Rte. 162. Note nodding seed capsules forming. Photograph by Judith Lowry.

areas can become a place for ground- ing genus Calochortus, which con- nesting native bees to make nests, tains many spectacular species. It is for quail to enjoy dust baths, for divided into three sections and nu- other species that dislike competi- merous subsections (Gerritsen and tion to grow, for a safe firepit, and Parsons, 2007). Globe lilies, also for summer play in an otherwise called fairy lanterns, in the section lawnless garden. Calochortus and in the subsection Success may turn your thoughts Pulchelli are among the easiest to to growing members of the entranc- grow. C. albus, C. amoenus, C. pul-

LEFT TO RIGHT: Kellogg’s yampah (Perideridia kelloggii) blossoms up-close. Photograph by ©Neal Kramer. • Kellogg’s yampah (Perideridia kelloggii) tubers which are edible with a sweet, nutty flavor. Young sprouts and leaves are edible as well. It is a host plant for the anise swallowtail. Photograph by Peter G. Smith. • Gairdner’s yampah (Perideridia gairdneri) edible tubers are grown out in containers before being divided and planted in the ground. The native yampah species are still common in some areas, such as the Sierra, while in other areas such as the Coast Ranges, they may be in decline. Their lacy white flowers are rarely seen in gardens. Photograph by Peter G. Smith.

VOL. 44, NO. 3, DECEMBER 2016 FREMONTIA 69

V44_3_book.pmd 69 2/20/17, 5:19 AM chellus, and C. amabilis, all with highly nutritious Gairdner’s yampah Camas (Camassia spp.) contains glossy, intricately folded pendant (Perideridia gairdneri subsp. gaird- substantial levels of inulin. It was flowers, are enchanting in partly neri), which is considered threat- cooked by indigenous peoples in shaded to sunny gardens. ened. Perideridia species still thrive earth ovens for up to 36 hours to One difficulty in their manage- in some places and were once gath- make it digestible. (Some research ment is that Calochortus bulbs some- ered by Native Americans by the indicates that a certain amount of times make their way to the bot- basketful. inulin in the diet is beneficial). Bake toms of containers, where they can The genus Allium has many at- them in the oven, in a closed casse- assume dormancy for years, with no tractive and easy-to-grow species role with water reaching halfway indication of life. Good drainage is with a familiar oniony taste and odor. up the bulbs, for five hours at 300 essential in preventing the rotting of They are used like any domestic degrees. Water is added as needed. these obstreperous bulbs. They pre- onion. As they caramelize, the oven tem- fer no summer water. The corms in Themidaceae can perature is lowered. Sprinkle on bal- Interest in geophytes as food can be boiled for 20 minutes and then samic cream and salt and pepper. Or deepen and enrich your garden with roasted or sautéed till they are soft boil in sweetened, rosewater-flavored rarely grown species, like Kellogg’s and golden, producing a delicately milk for a pudding. yampah (Perideridia kelloggii) or the flavored -like appetizer. Beautiful and delicious, your gar- den geophytes can offer garden time spent reveling in their abundance, giving back to them some part of the territory they have lost. You may wonder why you waited so long. TELOS RARE BULBS The most complete offering of bulbs native to the western USA available anywhere, our stock is propagated at the nursery, with seed and plants from legitimate sources only.

Telos Rare Bulbs P.O. Box 1067, Ferndale, CA 95536 www.telosrarebulbs.com

70 FREMONTIA VOL. 44, NO. 3, DECEMBER 2016

V44_3_book.pmd 70 2/20/17, 5:19 AM Wildly diverse plants for both novice and nerd ◆◆◆

72 Channing Way, Berkeley 94710 Open Thursday, Friday, and Saturday www.oaktownnativenursery.info

bility: Revisiting Klamath and Kaldy, M.S., A. Johnston, and D.B. Modoc traditions of plant commu- Wilson. 1980. Nutritive value of nity management. Journal of Ethno- Indian bread-root, squaw-root, and biology 29(2): 306-308. Jerusalem artichoke. Economic Deur, D. 2005. Tending the garden, Botany. , making the soil: Northwest coast es- Bronx, . 355–357. tuarine gardens as engineered envi- Lowry, J.L. 2014. California Foraging: ronments. In: Keeping It Living: Tra- 120 Wild and Flavorful Edibles from ditions of Plant Use and Cultivation Evergreen Huckleberries to Wild Gin- on the Northwest Coast of North ger. Timber Press, Portland, OR. America. Turner, N.J. and D. Deur O’Brien, B. 2016. Growing Calochor- (eds.). University of Washington tus. Manzanita, Spring Issue, Vol. Press, Seattle, WA. 20, No. 2. East Bay Regional Parks Gerritson, M.E. and R. Parsons. 2007. Calochortus: Mariposa Lilies and their Botanic Garden, Berkeley, CA. Relatives. Timber Press, Portland, Pacific Bulb Society: pacificbulbsociety. OR. org/pbswiki/index.php/Photographs Harlow, N. and K. Jakob (eds.). 2003. AndInformation as well as: Bulb TOP: One-leaf onion () close- Wild Lilies, Irises, and Grasses: Gar- Exchange. up. It is a widespread and easy to grow dening with California Monocots. Uni- native onion. • BOTTOM: Camas (Camassia Judith Larner Lowry; info@larnerseeds. leichtlini subsp. suksdorfii) growing at the versity of California Press, Berkeley, head-waters of Cherry Creek in Mendocino CA. com County. Photographs by Peter G. Smith.

REFERENCES Anderson, M.K. and D.L. Rowney. 1999. The edible plant Dichelostemma capitatum: Its response to different indigenous har- vesting regimes in California. Resto- ration Ecology, Vol. 7, No. 3. 231–240. Chickering, A.L. 1938. Growing Calo- chortus. Monographs. Horticultural Series Number 1. Rancho Santa Ana Botanic Garden, Claremont, CA. Chapman, D. Telos Rare Bulbs at telosrarebulbs.com/aboutus.html Chuang, T.I., and L. Constance. 1969. A systematic study of Perideridia (Umbelliferae-Apioideae). UC Pub- lications in Botany, Vol. 55. Univer- sity of California Press, Berkeley, CA. Deur, D. 2009. A caretaker responsi-

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V44_3_book.pmd 71 2/20/17, 5:41 AM FESTIVAL EXTRAORDINAIRE: CALIFORNIA WILD FLOWER DAY n 1915, many of our wildflowers were still I so striking and ubiquitous in the land- scape that it prompted the 23rd Governor of California, Hiram W. Johnson, to de- clare April 24th California Wild Flower Day, launching an annual fete across the state. It has been many years since this festival has taken place. Might we restore geophytes and other wildflowers to their former glory, making the California land- scape worthy of bringing back this cele- bration?

TOP TO BOTTOM: California fawn lily (Erythronium californicum). Digital painting by Ames Gilbert based on photograph by Nancy Gilbert. • Redwood lily (Lilium rubescens) and leafcutter bee (Megachile sp.). Digital painting by Ames Gilbert based on photograph by Nancy Gilbert. • Yellow mariposa (Calochortus superbus). Digital painting and original photograph by Ames Gilbert.

72 FREMONTIA VOL. 44, NO. 3, DECEMBER 2016

V44_3_book.pmd 72 2/20/17, 5:20 AM Join Today! CNPS member gifts allow us to promote and protect California’s native plants and their habitats. Gifts are tax-deductible minus the $12 of the total gift which goes toward publication of Fremontia. ❏ $1,500 Mariposa Lily ❏ $600 Benefactor ❏ $300 Patron ❏ $100 Plant Lover ❏ $75 Family ❏ $75 International or Library ❏ $45 Individual ❏ $25 Limited Income CORPORATE/ORGANIZATIONAL ❏ $2,500 10+ Employees ❏ $1,000 7-10 Employees ❏ $500 4-6 Employees ❏ $150 1-3 Employees

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CONTRIBUTORS (continued from back cover) SUBMISSION Frank K. Lake completed a Bachelor of Science degree from University of Califor- nia-Davis (1995) in Integrated Ecology and Culture with a minor in Native Ameri- INSTRUCTIONS can Studies and completed his Ph.D in Environmental Sciences at Oregon State CNPS members and others are University in 2007. He is currently working for the US Forest Service-Pacific South- invited to submit articles for pub- west Research Station, Fire and Fuels Program. lication in Fremontia. If inter- Judith Larner Lowry has been the proprietor of Larner Seeds, specialists in Cali- ested, please first send a short fornia native plants and seeds, for the last 40 years. She consults on restoration summary or outline of what projects, native plant gardens, and is the author of three books. you’d like to cover in your ar- Philip Rundel, a fifth generation Californian, is Distinguished Professor of Ecol- ticle to the Fremontia editor at ogy and Evolutionary Biology and Director of the Mildred E. Mathias Botanical [email protected]. Instruc- Garden at UCLA. tions for contributors can be Dieter Wilken, former Director of Conservation at the Santa Barbara Botanic found on the CNPS website, Garden, is retired and a Research Associate at the Garden. He has served on the www.cnps.org, under Publica- CNPS Rare Plant Committee. tions/Fremontia. Eric Wohlgemuth is an archaeologist with Far Western Anthropological Research Group, Inc., in Davis. He has worked for 40 years doing California archaeology and archaeobotany. Fremontia Editorial Advisory Board Jim Andre, Phyllis M. Faber, ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Holly Forbes, Naomi Fraga, Dan Deep appreciation is expressed to Eric Engles and Michael Kauffmann for Gluesenkamp, Brett Hall, David additional editing that improved this special issue’s clarity, organizational Keil, Patrick McIntyre, Kara Moore, structure, and cohesion. Thank you to Philip Rundel for his expertise and Pam Muick, Bart O’Brien, Roger and wisdom in seeing this issue to fruition. Special gratitude is given to Raiche, Teresa Sholars, Dick Beth Hansen-Winter for her creative eye and her splendid layout and de- Turner, Mike Vasey sign of this issue.

VOL. 44, NO. 3, DECEMBER 2016 FREMONTIA

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CONTRIBUTORS FROM THE EDITOR

M. Kat Anderson is an ethnoecologist with the USDA NRCS s is typical for an organization with so many passionate and is a research associate in the Department of Plant Sci- supporters, having volunteers step forward to help in ences, UC Davis. She is author of Tending the Wild: Native A times of transition eases the experience for all. My transi- American Knowledge and the Management of California’s Natu- ral Resources. tion into the job has been made easier by the efforts of volunteers as guest editors. Last issue we have Phyllis M. Dot Brovarney earned her M.A. in History at U.C. Santa Barbara and works as an independent historian, curator, and Faber to thank for her efforts, and this issue Kat Anderson writer whose primary interest is the relationship between stepped in to guide the process. culture and landscape. While this is the first Fremontia issue I have been a part Brock Dolman is a wildlife biologist/botanist, who co- of since being named editor, Kat Anderson deserves full founded the Sowing Circle, LLC Intentional Community & editorial credit for this stunning issue. Kat has a true pas- Occidental Arts and Ecology Center in 1994 (www.oaec.org), sion for excellence, easily seen through the captivating where he continues to reside and act as a director of OAEC’s Wildlands Program in western Sonoma County, California. progression of storytelling in this special double issue. I first Nancy Gilbert received her M.S. degree in Science Educa- discovered Kat’s work when a friend suggested I read Tend- tion from the University of . She has worked as a natu- ing the Wild to explore her references to traditional uses for ralist, science educator, native bulb business co-owner, land- conifers. Reading the book changed the way I viewed and scape designer/project manager, and is a nature photography understood the California landscape. Since that time, I have hobbyist. She serves as Education and Horticulture chair of Redbud chapter CNPS. continued to learn from Kat’s work, and the work of others, who interpret land use and historic ecologies as they relate Kristina Gill is an archaeobotanist with over ten years of experience working on the islands off Southern California. to the modern day. That is what this issue does for our Her research focuses on ancient human-plant relationships, current understanding of geophytes; perspective has grown subsistence strategies, and Native land management prac- in depth and breadth. tices. I am excited to begin my post as editor of Fremontia and David Imper, North Coast Chapter board member, retired will move forward, thanks in part to Kat’s guidance, to from the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service where he was re- produce future issues as important as this one. California sponsible for Federally-listed plant recovery in northwest- ern California. Geophytes will have a special place on my bookshelf as both a reference guide and as a celebration of the unique botani- Kathryn A. Kramer is an independent botanist inspired by the flora of inland Southern California. She owns SoCal cal landscape we call home. Biology, a consulting and nursery business. —Michael Kauffmann

FREMONTIA ((continued on inside back cover)) VOL. 44, NO. 3, DECEMBER 2016

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