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When referring to this work, full bibliographic details including the author, title, awarding institution and date of the thesis must be given e.g. AUTHOR (year of submission) "Full thesis title", University of Southampton, name of the University School or Department, PhD Thesis, pagination http://eprints.soton.ac.uk UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHAMPTON FACULTY OF HUMANITIES Experiencing Rhythm: Contemporary Malagasy Music and Identity by Jenny Fuhr Thesis for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy November 2010 ii UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHAMPTON ABSTRACT FACULTY OF HUMANITIES Doctor of Philosophy EXPERIENCING RHYTHM: CONTEMPORARY MALAGASY MUSIC AND IDENTITY by Jenny Fuhr My thesis is about experiences of ‘rhythm’ in ‘Contemporary Malagasy Music’ (Randrianary 2001), a field that has hardly been researched. I argue for the importance of integrating musical practices into ethnomusicological research. Despite an on-going debate on the need for a more performative approach, only very few scholars have put this aim into action (Baily 2008). Most music research so far, particularly studies on African music, are marked by prevailing and dominating Western discourses on and approaches to music with musical notation remaining the main analytical tool. This has been criticised as a constant search for difference, ignoring indigenous theories and understandings of music (Agawu 2003) and for carrying the risk of ‘essentializing music’ (Bohlman 1993). The challenge of competing discourses in my research becomes obvious with regard to ‘rhythm,’ a topic that seems to be the starting point for the musicians’ search for a collective identity for which music is a powerful tool (Stokes 1994, Frith 1996, Connell and Gibson 2003, Biddle and Knights 2007). In present day Madagascar where more and more musicians are transnationally connected (Kiwan and Meinhof 2011), but where musicians still struggle to access an international music market, questions of identity are regularly negotiated through the term and concept of ‘6/8 rhythm.’ Yet at the same time this term and concept is highly contested by the musicians as well. In Western music theory it is based on the idea of musical notation which at first glance seems to contradict the musicians’ emphasis on the Malagasy concept of oral tradition, the lova-tsofina (lova = heritage; sofina = ear) that many describe as the base for Malagasy music making. iii In order to tackle this challenge and go beyond the study of seemingly contradictory discourses, I argue that we need to analyse discourses and musical experiences in a constant interrelation. My thesis therefore takes on an interdisciplinary perspective, combining ethnomusicological methods, referring to the so-called ‘new fieldwork’ (Hellier-Tinoco 2003), with a discourse analytical approach to interview data. I focus on individuals and individual experiences as proposed in Rice’s ‘subject-centred ethnography’ (Rice 2003) as it is only through creating a shared space of experience that encompasses the researcher and the researched in an equal manner (Rice 2003: 173-174) that we can implement a ‘ presumption of sameness’ (Agawu 2003). iv List of contents List of illustrations……………………………………………………………………….. ix List of accompanying material…………………………………………………………... xi Author’s declaration……………………………………………………………………. xiii Acknowledgements………………………………………………………...……………. xv Section 1 Introduction ………………………………………………………………………….….. 1 Section 2 Chapter 2.1 – Theorising ‘rhythm’ Introduction………………………………………………………………………...……. 11 Literature review……………………………………………………………………....…12 “Contemporary Malagasy music” (Randrianary 2001) and the lova-tsofina …………… 17 The ‘6/8 rhythm’ and the role of rhythm in the musicians’ search for identity………… 19 Introduction: the concept of ‘rhythm’..………………………………………………….. 21 The concepts of ‘metre’ and ‘measure’ – different interpretations and understandings....22 Rhythm in African music and the invention of new terms……………………………… 26 Example: Discourse on rhythm in Cuban music ...………………………………..…….. 33 Rhythm in culture and language………………………………………………………… 34 Malagasy rhythm(s)………………………………………………………………..……. 41 Chapter 2.2 – Methodological reflections: integrating musical experiences into ethnomusicological research Introduction…………………………………………………………………………...…. 47 Key terms: Experiences and Self-Other dichotomy…………………………………...… 49 Theorising Fieldwork • Historical reflections…………………………………………………..…………….. 50 • The idea of ‘Self’ and ‘Other’ within fieldwork …………………………….……… 53 v • Experiences: ‘narrativisation of experiences’ and “musical being-in-the-world” (Titon 1997)………………………………………………………………………………… 54 • ‘New fieldwork’ in ethnomusicology……………………………………………….. 56 The importance of integrating both, the analysis of discourses and musical practices.… 58 “Towards a (more) performative ethnomusicology” (Baily 2008)…………………...….58 Why there is a need to participate musically……………………………………….…… 59 Understanding musically…………………………………………………………...…… 62 “Presumption of Sameness” (Agawu 2003) and “Subject-Centred Ethnography” (Rice 2003)………………………………………………………………………………..…… 67 Chapter 2.3 – Fieldwork experiences Introduction…………………………………………………………………………...…. 73 Development of my research ……………………………………………………......….. 73 The role of Antananarivo …………………………………………………………..……76 Some reflections on my fieldwork in Antananarivo………………………………….…. 78 Development of my musical practices……………………………………………….….. 82 The interrelation of analyses of discourses and musical experiences – Outlook: section 3……………………………………………………………………….. 87 Section 3 Introduction section 3 - Analyses……………………………………………….………. 89 Chapter 3.1 – Contesting the ‘6/8 rhythm’ Introduction………………………………………………………………………………91 Speech about music / Language and identity………………………………………….… 92 The presence of the term ‘6/8 rhythm’ in the musicians’ discourses…………………… 96 The ‘6/8 rhythm’ as used in Western musicology…………………………………….… 96 ‘6/8 rhythm’ meets lova-tsofina …………………………………………………...……. 99 The importance of the research context……………………………………………….… 99 The term ‘6/8 rhythm’ in the Malagasy context…………………………………….…. 101 vi • The musicians’ usage of the term ‘6/8 rhythm’: identification or taking distance?..101 • Terminological confusion…………………………………………………..………108 • Example salegy ……………………………………………………………………. 108 The challenge of the international ‘world music market’ – musicians’ individual experiences: perspectives and strategies………………………………………………..113 Conclusion …………………………………………………………………………….. 119 Chapter 3.2 - Exploring the lova-tsofina: Musician’s theories on the origin and meaning of ‘rhythm’ in Malagasy music Introduction………………………………………………………………………….…. 121 The importance of listening to the musicians’ own concepts……………………….…. 122 The topoi……………………………………………………………………………….. 122 • Environment…………………………………………………………………….….. 124 • Everyday life……………………………………………………………………….. 131 • Language……………………………………………………………………………138 • Dance………………………………………………………………………………. 143 • Influences from outside…………………………………………………………….. 146 • Emotions and spiritual ideas……………………………………………………..…148 Conclusion………………………………………………………………….………….. 155 Chapter 3.3 – Experiencing Rhythm Introduction …………………………………………………………………………..... 157 The musical experience of ‘rhythm’……………………………………………...……. 158 • Composing and ‘malagasising’ tunes …………………………………………..…. 161 • Tapping feet, counting, and clapping………………………………………………. 166 • Intercultural musical encounters - examples of musicians’ experiences……….….. 169 Participating musically myself ………………………………………………………… 173 The interrelation of discourses and musical experiences…………………….………… 174 Examples: • The importance of the lova-tsofina ………………………………………………... 175 • ‘6/8 rhythm’ and the opportunity of binaries and ternaries…………………….….. 176 vii • Engaging in ‘malagasising’ music……………………………………………….…179 • The importance of language and lyrics…………………………………………….. 182 • The importance of the instrument and its playing technique………………………. 184 • The emphasis on personality/individuality in Malagasy music………………...….. 189 Outlook / further research possibilities………………………………………………… 194 Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………...… 198 Section 4 Conclusion …………………………………………………………………………….. 201 Appendices Appendix I English translations of interview quotes (section 3)..………………………………….. 209 Appendix II List of all interviews conducted………………………………………………………... 227 Bibliography ………………………………………………………………….……….. 231 viii List of illustrations Chapter 3.1 • Illustration 1 : Excerpt of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart’s piano sonata A major, K 331. In: Mozart, Klaviersonaten Band 2, Urtext-Ausgabe von Walther Lampe, München- Duisburg (HenleVerlag) 1955: p. 160...............................................................…..…97 Chapter 3.3 • Illustration 2 : Private photograph: The playing technique of the bamboo zither valiha ……….…………...………….. 185 ix x List of accompanying material DVD with video- and sound examples : • Video examples 1-2: filmed at Erick Manana’s concert at the Conservatoire de musique de Montréal , Montréal, Canada,