Brewing in the Medieval Period:

How Beer and Ale Developed into a Commercial Industry

Marshall Abbott

HST 407: Religion and the Crusades

March 21, 2018

1

Introductory Material

The fog is just beginning to lift on a cold London morning when an ale brewster raises a flag in front of her brew house indicating that a new batch of beer is ready. The purpose of the flag is not to notify the public that the new batch is ready for sale. Rather, it is to beckon the

Alkonneres, the official taster of ale, that the new batch is ready for inspection. It is the responsibility of the Alkonneres to sample each new batch of beer or ale that is brewed in

London to determine if the beer or ale is suitable for public consumption and to set the price at which it may be sold.1

Alkonneres were first established in London, England in C.E. 1377 and adopted by many other towns and cities of England. Their purpose was to prevent the sale of low quality beer and ale.2 The use of Alkonneres is but one example of how societies responded to the growing commercialization of beer and ale in the medieval period. The brewing of beer and ale is not unique to the Middle Ages but it was at this time that brewing transitioned from a domestic endeavor with the primary goal of creating a beverage for personal consumption, to the production of beer and ale in larger quantities for consumption by many individuals, such as in a monastery, to brewing in much larger quantities of scale for the sole purpose of selling a product as a market commodity.

By examining texts from the period as well as secondary sources, this paper analyzes how this transition occurred and what significant developments took place that allowed beer and ale to become a tradable and profitable good on the European market. Specifically, it examines the development of brewing as a tripartite progression: (a) that beer and ale were brewed in the

1 P. W. Hammond, Food and Feast In Medieval England, (Phoenix Mill: Wrens Park Publishing, 1998), 84. 2 Hammond, Food and Feast, 84. 2 home and the significance of domestic brewing on the local society and economy; (b) that beer and ale were brewed in monasteries and the significance monastic brewing had on the monks, local peasants, and local lords; and (c) that brewing became a commercial enterprise that was profitable and even revered as a profession. In examining these three sub-developments this article investigates that brewing impacted Europe’s local and regional economies and the importance of beer and ale to both society and culture in the medieval period.

Background Material

A Note on Names

Beer has been brewed for thousands of years by many cultures. The nomenclature for beer has evolved over time. What is referred to in one text as beer may be referenced in another text as ale. To alleviate some confusion throughout this article, fermented beverages derived from grain will be referred to as ale, while fermented beverages derived from grain with hop plant additives will be referred to as beer. The principle difference between the two is the absence or presence of hop plant additives.3 This is a historical distinction and should not be confused with modern definitions for ale and beer. The two terms are often used interchangeably in historical documents and it is sometimes unclear if a text, be it a primary or secondary source, means to reference the brew as ale or beer.

A Brief Explanation of the Brewing Process and Early History

3 “Ale,” Oxford Dictionaries, February 12, 2018, https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/ale. 3

Brewing beer or ale has been done in the home, primarily by women, for thousands of years.

Until the age of industrialization, the process remained relatively constant. The first step in the brewing process includes the making of malt, partly germinated grain, usually barley, wheat, rye or oats, that forms the base of the beer. Depending on the circumstance of the brewer the malt may be made by the brewer or purchased from a maltster or other supplier. 4 In either case the brewer or maltster begins by soaking the grain in water in order to hydrate the seed. After twelve to twenty-four hours the water is removed and the seed allowed to partially germinate. This process of germination converts the starches of the seed into sugars that can be used later. For several days the wetted grain is turned and mixed to prevent the growth of mold and to evenly distribute the radiant heat that is generated by the grain.5 The germination is stopped after a few days, usually by drying the grain in a kiln or other heat source.

When the malt is made it is placed into a hot water bath and allowed to steep for several hours. The liquid or wort, sometimes referred to as sweet wort due to its high sugar content, is then strained from the spent grain and placed in a pot or cauldron and allowed to boil over a fire.

At this point the brewer may add various plants, such as hops, to the boiling wort to change the flavor profile or for other desired effects.6 After the wort has boiled for an hour or more and allowed to cool, the yeast is added which was usually saved from the last batch of beer or ale.

The yeast is allowed to ferment, converting the sugars into alcohol and CO2. While brewers in the Middle Ages did not understand the microbiological origins of yeast they did understand it to be an essential ingredient in beer and ale.

4 Richard W. Unger, Beer in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2004), 4. 5 Unger, Beer in the Middle Ages, 4. 6 Unger, Beer in the Middle Ages, 5. 4

Prior to the Christianization of Europe, the process of fermentation was often thought of as a mystical affair. People often thought that the knowledge of brewing was a gift from the gods. In Norse culture for example, there are many stories involving Odin giving the gift of mead, fermented honey, to humans.7 If a brewer did not have a yeast sample saved, they would start a wild fermentation: a small batch of wort would be placed an open area, perhaps a forest clearing, to collect the wild yeast that floats in the air invisible to the naked eye. This process perpetuated the idea that beer and ale were a gift of the gods in pre Christian Europe.8 After

Christianity spread through Europe, such pagan beliefs would have lessened in popular culture but the microbiological process of yeast production and fermentation would still not be known until the modern period.

After the yeast is added, the brew is set aside and allowed to ferment. This primary fermentation usually takes a few days to a week. When fermentation is done, the beer or ale may then be consumed or stored for secondary fermentation or aging. This was done in some cases for beer, but less often for ale. As the beer or ale is allowed to age, the brew may take on slightly different flavors, similar to wine which can change its flavor profile with time9

Though beer and ale have been brewed for thousands of years, the very early history of brewing is largely shrouded in mystery. Little or no information was recorded and preserved by the people who brewed. It was not until the period of ancient Rome that written accounts of brewing began to appear. From this point through the Middle Ages, written records become more prevalent and reliable.10 Conclusions may nevertheless be drawn from these accounts and recent

7 Jereme Zimmerman, Make Mead Like a Viking: Traditional Techniques for Brewing Natural, Wild-Fermented, Honey-Based Wines and Beers, (White River Junction, 2015), 12-16. 8 Zimmerman, Make Mead Like a Viking 78-81. 9 Unger, Beer in the Middle Ages, 5-6. 10 Unger, Beer in the Middle Ages, 7. 5 archeological and archaeobotanical research. This early history which begins prior to the Roman period and continues through around the seventh century C.E. comprises the first stage of brewing history: small scale brewing done almost exclusively in a domestic setting.

The first accounts of brewing beer and ale in northern Europe comes from the Germanic peoples, an Indo-European ethnic group with Northern European origins. The Germanic people did not keep records for themselves because they were illiterate. Hence, little is known about the early brewing practices of the Germanic people except for those records kept by the Romans and other explorers from the same era. One of the earliest accounts of northern European brewing is from Pytheas, a Massilian navigator in the fourth century B.C.E. Pytheas traveled to many unknown lands including Britain, where he wrote, “they who used grain and honey, made also a drink of it.”11 This reference to honey and grain is evidence that the people of Britain were familiar with the fermentation of both ale and mead, a fermented beverage derived from honey.

A Roman account from the first century B.C.E. continues to illustrate the brewing and drinking practices of early northern Europeans, in particular the Gauls: “Since the climate is cold, their country produces neither wine nor olives… and they for this reason prepare for themselves a beverage made of barley, so-called beer (zythos, Diodorus wrote in Greek).”12 This account comes from Diodorus, a writer living in the time of Caesar. During his exploits in Gaul

Diodorus observed the practices of the Gauls and saw that lacking a climate suitable for growing grapes for wine, the Gauls made beer from barley. Diodorus clearly indicates that wine would be preferable to beer, but given that he is writing as a Roman this is not surprising. Despite

Diodorus’ preference, his account offers an important insight to the origin of beer in northern

11 John, P. Arnold, Origin and History of Beer and Brewing (Cleveland: Beerbooks.com, 2005), 140. 12 Arnold, Origin and History, 197. 6

Europe. Having a climate that supported the growth of barley and other grains, the people of northern Europe relied on these grains as a source of fermentable sugars for brewing. If the

Gallic people had ready access to grapes, perhaps they would prefer wine over beer and ale, but this is only retrospective speculation. Consequently, beer became a cultural staple of northern

Europe. Even after grapes became more available, beer remained the preferred choice for the everyday drink.13

Analysis

Domestic Brewing: Small Scale Brewing in the Early Middle Ages

While the accounts of Pytheas and Diodorus are important for establishing context and cultural significance of beer and ale to northern European peoples, they give little insight to the actual practice and economic significance of brewing. For this, one must look to the end of the Roman period and the start of the Middle Ages.

John P. Arnold, author of Origin and History of Beer and Brewing, writes that for centuries leading up to the start of the Middle Ages the task of brewing was largely limited to the home; it was not done on any significant scale.16 Domestic brewing was a common task in households throughout Europe as a means to produce ale for immediate consumption by the family. Most of the brewing at this time was done by women.17 Unfortunately, like brewing prior to the medieval period, little was written about this practice. The lack of written evidence prior to about the eighth century was because most people were unable to read and write. Those

13 Arnold, Origin and History, 194. 16 Arnold, Origin and History, 197. 17 Arnold, Origin and History, 197. 7 that could often did not write about day-to-day activities such as brewing. They often preferred to record events of a political nature or scribe copies of the bible.18 One must also keep in mind that most writing at this time was done on parchment, a writing medium surface made from animal skin. Parchment was a commodity not easily made in great quantities.19 The second reason that written records are limited is due to the nature of brewing as a domestic skill.

Brewing as a practice was passed from one generation to another, often from mother to daughter, and so did not need to be recorded.

Nevertheless, because the brewing process on a domestic level seems to have changed little over time, the written record of later centuries can be used to fill in the gaps. Since brewing was done primarily by women until commercialization of the craft in the fourteenth century, it is unique to other professions that were commercialized and later industrialized, such as blacksmithing or fishing. The English Housewife, written by Gervase Markham in the early seventeenth century, describes various aspects of ideal womanhood, including the ways in which a proper household should be run. Though this book was not written during the Middle Ages, it does contain information that would have been necessary for women to know and accomplish, such as brewing beer and ale at home.

In Chapter nine of his book, titled Of the office of the brew-house, and the bake-house, and the necessary things belonging to the same, Markham gives instruction on the process of brewing beer including steeping, boiling, primary fermentation, and secondary fermentation or aging. The text describes “ordinary beer” as the most used beer in a home. This beer could be brewed all year round and was expected to be in supply at any given time. “Ordinary beer” was

18 Erik Kwakkel, “Words, Words, Words: Medieval Handwriting,” Khan Academy, March 19, 2018, https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/medieval-world/medieval-book/making-medieval-book/a/words-words- words-medieval-handwriting. 19 Kwakkel, “Words, Words, Words: Medieval Handwriting.” 8 the common beverage enjoyed by all classes, from servant to nobleman, throughout the Middle

Ages.20 While it is not explicitly stated, it is likely that this “ordinary beer” would have a low alcohol content since it would be consumed throughout the day and on a regular basis.

It should also be noted that though this text referenced beer, ale was likely the preferred beverage in most European homes until about the eighth century. Prior to the eighth century when ale was preferred, the storage period of ale was limited due to the lack of hops, which has natural preservative qualities, and the absence of knowledge about contamination. The limited shelf-life of ale meant that brewing had to be done regularly, perhaps once per week, as noted by

P. W. Hammond, author of Food and Feast in Medieval England.21 Any extra ale would be sold to neighboring families as a means to gain a secondary source of income or to acquire other desired goods. Some scholars such as Judith M. Bennett, author of Ale, Beer, and Brewsters in

England, theorized that the duty of brewing beer may have rotated between households in a localized area. When a household was freed of brewing duties, they would purchase ale from their neighbors in exchange for other goods. While this is an interesting theory, there is no evidence to support the claim that the task of brewing was deliberately rotated between households.22 However, there is evidence that extra ale was sold to neighboring households.

While this practice has an unclear origin, it was common by the fourteenth century.23

Domestic Brewing: Growing Volumes and Estate Brewing

20 Gervase Markham, The English Housewife, ed. Michael R. Best (Kingston: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 1986), 204. 21 Hammond, Food and Feast, 72. 22 Judith M. Bennett, Ale, Beer, And Brewsters In England: Women’s Work In A Changing World 1300-1600 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996), 19. 23 Bennett, Ale, Beer, And Brewsters In England, 19. 9

Another form of home brewing that was common at the beginning of the Middle Ages and continued to be popular until the early modern period took place in the home or estate of landed nobles. Like small scale brewing that was done in the homes of peasants and serfs, the goal of brewing at estates was to produce a fermentable beverage to be consumed on a regular basis.

Richard Unger, author of Beer in the Middle Ages and Renaissance, argues that estate brewing became prevalent in the eighth or ninth centuries under the Carolingian dynasty and especially under Charlemagne.24 While it is true that the frequency of estate brewing seems to have increased under the Carolingians this was not the start of estate brewing. Estate owners or local regional leaders would have expanded on the practices of their predecessors; so long as there was a need for beer and ale on an estate there was brewing. Unger’s argument likely stems from the increase in estate accounting documentation that was more prevalent under the Carolingians and as he puts it, “The political rival of the eighth and ninth centuries associated with the

Carolingians, and especially with the reign of Charlemagne, was critical in promoting the development of estate or official production.”25 Brewing in large volumes on the estate was a means to display wealth and power in the same way that building a castle or fine estate would display ones wealth and power. At a time were the appearance of such qualities was imperative to the ruling class, brewing became another method to showcase the status of a regional ruler.

The goal and methods of estate brewing were fundamentally the same as that of small home brewing, differing only in volume. In order to meet the demands of the estate, larger batches of beer or ale had to be brewed to supply each household member and peasant working at the estate with a daily ration of ale or beer. The daily allowance of beer and ale would vary

24 Unger, Beer in the Middle Ages, 26. 25 Unger, Beer in the Middle Ages, 26. 10 from one estate to another, but a gallon of brew per person per day would not be unusual.26 As to who made the beer or ale, this would vary as well. The beer or ale at some estates may have been made by the wife of the landowner, though this was more likely if the estate were small. At larger estates, there may have been a servant whose sole task was to brew and manage the beer and ale.27

The limited nature of translated estate logs from the early medieval period makes it difficult to determine the gender and duties of estate brewer or brewster. By examining documents from later centuries, however, the histories may be better illuminated. The logs of

John Howard, Duke of Norfolk are typical of what one might find when examining the household log journals of a large landed estate.28 They include entries regarding sums and values of various goods that one would typically find at a noble estate in fifteenth-century England. Some of these include entries that pertain to beer and brewing. It should be noted that the ledger does not differentiate between beer and ale and is unclear which is being logged, in addition both beer and ale were consumed in fifteenth century England. Relying on modern understanding of the cultural preference of England at this time, the accounts probably were in reference to ale.29

In an entry dated C.E. 1481-1483, the household log notes a transaction concerning a large volume of ale that was brewed by a man named John Hobbes.30 Most likely, Hobbes worked as the estate brewer. The total volume noted was 22 pipes of beer (one pipe ≈ 105 US gallons) for the sum of 4li. (pounds), 8s. (shillings), and 4d. (pence); this equates to about 2310

26 Hammond, Food and Feast, 72. 27 Anne Crawford, ed., The Household Books of John Howard, Duke of Norfolk, 1462-1471, 1481-1483 Vol. II (Phoenix Mill: Alan Sutton Publishing Ltd., 1992), .64. 28 Crawford, ed., The Household Books Vol. II, 64. 29 Hammond, Food and Feast, 86-87. 30 Crawford, ed., The Household Books Vol. II, 64. 11

US gallons for 1124d (pence).31 This would appear to be a large volume but considering a single individual could consume a gallon of beer or ale on a daily basis such an amount could be consumed fairly quickly depending on the number of people living and working at the estate. For this reason large volumes of beer or ale were brewed on estates on a regular basis. Given the volume and value of ale, it is unlikely that the entire sum of 1124d (pence) went to paying

Hobbes. It is most likely that the sum was used to pay for ingredients, upkeep of the estates brewhouse, and labor of Hobbes and any persons working under him.

Large scale brewing was also done at the courts of nobles such as Charlemagne for the same reasons that brewing was done at estates: to provide a daily beverage and to improve the prestige of the court. In 778 Charlemagne was noted for saying that he wanted to have a brewer in his court to monitor the quality of the beer that he served. According to Alcuin, a famed writer and thinker who attended Charlemagne’s court, the beer and ale of continental Europe was bitter and of poor quality when compared to the ales of England and Ireland. 33 Charlemagne’s desire to have a skilled brewer in his court was likely in response to Alcuin’s comments and those of others, as a means to improve the prestige of his court.

These two settings, home brewing on a small scale and estate brewing, make up the first stage of the commercialization of the brewing industry. Brewing at home or at the estate for the most part remained constant in method and practice for centuries and even continued to be used throughout the period of commercialized beer and ale. Early domestic brewing, performed primarily by women, was one of the many household chores which was regarded as a necessary but not always a revered task. As the volume of beer and ale brews increased at settings such as

31 Crawford, ed., The Household Books Vol. II, 64. 33 Unger, Beer in the Middle Ages, 26. 12 estates, men had entered the trade by the fifteenth century, though this did not replace the role of small scale home brewing. To be sure, the brewing industry progressed in volume and frequency, home brewing was still a fundamental way to obtain the fermented beverage so beloved by the people of northern Europe.

The Monastery of St. Gall: A Case Study for Monastic Brewing

At a time when a village consisted of a series of small dwellings occupied by peasants and the goal of a typical peasant was to grow enough food to last the winter, a monastery must have seemed as grand a display of human achievement as could be imagined. By the eighth century, monasteries were centers of both prayer and trade. They were critical to the stability of the local economy and society. Many monasteries in Europe began to brew beer and ale for the monks’ own consumption as well as for consumption by low and high born individuals. To meet the daily demands of the monks and that of non-monastic individuals, monasteries had to devote more time and resources to the art of brewing and inadvertently became the most significant and skilled centers for brewing until the commercialization of the trade.34

The monastery of St. Gall, located in modern day Switzerland is an excellent case study for the examination of monastic brewing. Walter Horn and Ernest Born authors of, The Plan of

St. Gall: A Study of the Architecture & Economy of, & Life in Paradigmatic Carolingian

Monastery, claim that every building located on the grounds of St. Gall monastery would also have been built at other monasteries during the early medieval period, making St. Gall monastery

34 Horn and Ernest Born, The Plan of St. Gall: A Study of the Architecture & Economy of, & Life in a Paradigmatic Carolingian Monastery Vol. II, (Berkley: University of California Press, 1979), 261. 13 representative of not only monastic brewing, but of early medieval monasteries in general.35

Furthermore, the monastery of St. Gall preserved a wealth of information about the day-to-day life of monks and the functions of the monastery. This examination takes into account the impact that the monastery of St. Gall had on the local economy, what the dedicated space for brewing looked like, how it functioned, and how monastic brewing affected the brewing industry as a whole.

The monastery of St. Gall was established in C.E. 747 and reached its zenith under the reign of the Carolingian Louis the Pious at the beginning of the ninth century.36 At the height of the monastery when it was led by Abbot Adalhard of Corbie, St. Gall could provide a daily ration of bread and beer to about 300 monks as well as an unspecified number of serfs and other workers.37 Under Abbot Adalhard, a ration of 1.4 liters of beer was given to each person. Thus, on any given day the monastery would have to serve 420 liters, or about 110 US gallons, of beer to its population of monks.38 To meet such a demand it was imperative that the monastery establish its own brewery.

Based on illustrations and translated passages from The Plan of St. Gall, it is evident that by the beginning of the ninth century the buildings needed for the production of beer and ale on a large scale were already in place at the monastery. Buildings with functions such as the storage of grain, production and storage of malt, the grinding of grain, and the building in which the beer and ale was actually brewed were built by this time. After grain had been harvested and separated from the stock of the plant it was stored in one of the many storage buildings on the

35 Horn and Ernest Born, The Plan of St. Gall: A Study of the Architecture & Economy of, & Life in a Paradigmatic Carolingian Monastery Vol. I, (Berkley: University of California Press, 1979),, xxi. 36 Horn and Born, The Plan of St. Gall Vol. I, xxi. 37 Horn and Born, The Plan of St. Gall Vol. II, 222. 38 Horn and Born, The Plan of St. Gall Vol. II, 261. 14 monastery grounds. Most of the grain storage buildings were situated on the east side of the monastery along with many of the buildings needed to facilitate both brewing and baking. In The

Plan of St. Gall, the authors theorize that the placement of these buildings was not by chance but by purposeful design of the monastery.39 They argue that due to the loud nature of the grinding process which may have been disturbing to some monks, the mills needed for both brewing and baking were placed at the edges of the monastery grounds.40 Horn and Born also argue the placement was meant to increase efficiency of the brewhouses and bakehouses.41 The authors continue to theorize that it was likely that the mill was water-powered, an endeavor that would have been more practical had the mill be situated at the outskirts of the grounds.42

The brewhouse itself where the monks fermented their own beers was fairly large measuring 42 ½ feet wide by 75 feet long, about 3188 square feet.43 The brewhouse would have been furnished with all the equipment necessary to brew at a large scale and for the most part would have been familiar to any domestic brewer. Specifically, the brewhouse included a large stove with four ranges that allowed for the heating of water and the boiling of wort. The brewhouse also included space where the wort could be steeped and cooled, and an adjacent area for primary fermentation.44 Managing temperature during the primary fermentation is often one of the most important stages when brewing. Even without the advent of modern thermometers it would have been fairly easy to keep the beer or ale within a reasonable temperature range, perhaps five or ten degrees Fahrenheit, using the radiant heat from the stove. By using this

39 Horn and Born, The Plan of St. Gall Vol. II, 224. 40 Horn and Born, The Plan of St. Gall Vol. II, 224. 41 Horn and Born, The Plan of St. Gall Vol. II, 224. 42 Horn and Born, The Plan of St. Gall Vol. II, 233. 43 Horn and Born, The Plan of St. Gall Vol. II, 253. 44 Horn and Born, The Plan of St. Gall Vol. II, 261. 15 facility the monks of St. Gall were able to brew enough beer and ale to accommodate every brother at the monastery.45

In addition to brewing beer and ale for the brothers of the monastery, the monks also brewed for peasants and pilgrims that visited, as well as lords and people of higher standing. This is evident because, about the same time that the monk’s brewhouse was built in the eighth or ninth century, two more brewhouses were constructed to meet the needs of visitors. These brewhouses were similar in design and function to the brewhouse for the monks and differed primarily by size. The brewhouse designated for peasants’ brew was about 1350 square feet; the brewhouse for higher born guests was about 2636 square feet; compared to the monks’ brewhouse was about 3188 square feet.46 The distinction between these three brewhouses can be made due to Latin passages written by monks at the time, which have been translated by Horn and Born. The difference in size was primarily dictated by importance of the brew as well as needed volume. Since the monks’ brewhouse required a considerable scale of production, it required more space. The brewhouse of distinguished guests also required a fair amount of space to accommodate not only the nobles that visited the monastery but also their retainers.47 The brewhouse of the peasants and pilgrims on the other hand could be much smaller. Horn and Born postulated that the three brewhouses may have brewed with differing ratios of ingredients as well which reflected the varying dietary need and status of the three groups. The difference was also a function of class distinctions. Constructing separate buildings to brew different kinds of beer and ale demonstrates how the monks were aware of the differing class structure that existed in society.

45 Horn and Born, The Plan of St. Gall Vol. II, 261. 46 Horn and Born, The Plan of St. Gall Vol. II, 253. 47 Horn and Born, The Plan of St. Gall Vol. II, 253. 16

The first use of hops in a monastic setting was recorded in C.E. 768 when King Pepin the

Short deeded a hop garden to the monastery at St. Denis.48 Though this is the first written record of hops use by a monastery, hops were likely used by monasteries and by home brewers for thousands of years prior to the start of the Middle Ages.49At the same time that monastic brewing became a regular development throughout Europe, so did the use of hops. The use of hops has several distinct advantages to beer over ale. First, the cone of the hop plant contains oils that when boiled provide a natural preservative lengthening the storage life of beer. Second, the flowering plant also provides subjective enjoyment of the beverage by its floral and often citrus- like notes.

As the second stage in the commercialization of the brewing industry, monastic brewing for the first time regularly brewed and distributed beer and ale on a large scale. Monastic brewing, at least at St. Gall, was capable of providing refreshment to a population of 300 monks and other workers on a daily basis. From the beginning of the medieval period through the

Renaissance, monasteries were centers for the trade of goods and ideas and provided a much needed framework for later developments in the brewing industry. Monasteries provided a template for scaling brew production that would become common in the late Middle Ages, as well as a proof of concept to the increasing demand for beer and ale. Taken together, the monastic brewing practices that began in the eighth century was pivotal for the transformation of domestic brewing to commercial brewing.

Commercial Brewing: Growing Industry

48 Horn and Born, The Plan of St. Gall Vol. II, 263. 49 Karl-Ernst Behre, “The History of Beer Additives in Europe – A Review,” Vegetation History and Archaeobotany 8 (1999): 36. 17

In the centuries preceding the fourteenth century, brewing in the Middle Ages made its transition from domestic and monastic brewing to commercial brewing. Many facets of the industry, society, and economy changed with it. As brewing became a more profitable endeavor, men began to brew more and pushed women out of the trade. As the reliance on brewers grew, regulations were established in order to provide the populace with a reliable beverage source. As the use of hops became ever more popular, a debate between beer lovers and ale lovers erupted, especially in England, putting into question which would prevail as the favored consumable drink. These were but a few of the social and economic developments that occurred as a direct result of the commercialization of beer and ale in Europe.

From the beginning of the early history of brewing, women were the primary brewers for a domestic household. Beginning in the fourteenth century women began to brew in larger quantities with the intent to sell their beer and ale. This marked the first point at which commercialized brews were sold to a local economy. By about C.E. 1500, however, a transition occurred. Brewing had become profitable. Men entered as profession leaders and they pushed women out of the trade.52

The increase in scale of production was largely directed by the steady rise of demand for beer and ale in the fourteenth century as a result of several developments in the economy and society of Europe. The average daily earnings of male laborer steadily rose from about 1 ½ pence in C.E. 1300 to 8 pence in C.E. 1600. Women earned about half of a man’s wages at any given time.53 This increase in wages was partly due to inflation and partly due to the increase of living standards for both peasants as well as nobles. Harry A. Miskimin, author of The Economy of

52 Bennett, Ale, Beer, And Brewsters In England, 3. 53 Bennett, Ale, Beer, And Brewsters In England, 1. 18

Early Renaissance Europe: 1300-1460, argues that as the price of bread fell while the daily wages of workers rose, peasants were able to afford semi-luxury goods such as beer and ale more regularly and thereby increasing the demand on breweries.54

At the same time, the towns and cities were growing and developing into a more urbanized and commercialized local economy. Brewers could sell their product on a larger scale to a higher density consumer base. With the increase of demand for beer and ale, brewers started establishing more taverns and breweries in towns. Many of these early breweries and taverns were owned and operated by women as natural developments from when women would sell extra ale out of their homes.55 Even some of the early laws from the British Borough Charters:

1042-1216, a collection of about 330 charters and documents from various British boroughs, references women as the primary brewers and operators of taverns.56 As brewing became more profitable, the trade became a more desirable profession, and men began to enter the industry. By the early sixteenth century, brewers in Oxford were among the wealthiest and most powerful individuals in town57. Most of them were men.

Commercial Brewing: Regulation

As the brewing industry grew and occasional domestic brewing diminished, in response to increased competition, townsfolk became more reliant upon local breweries, taverns, and alehouses to provide them with their daily consumables.58 This arrangement benefited the

54 Harry A. Miskimin, The Economy of Early Renaissance Europe: 1300-1460 (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, inc., 1969), 36. 55 Bennett, Ale, Beer, And Brewsters In England, 20. 56 Adolphus Ballard, trans., British Borough Charters (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1913), 157-158. 57 Bennett, Ale, Beer, And Brewsters In England, 50. 58 Bennett, Ale, Beer, And Brewsters In England, 46. 19 brewers and tavern owners but left the populace vulnerable to extortion by the “adulteration” of beer and ale. In response, local officials began to regulate the brewing and sale of beer and ale, just as bread was regulated, in order to ensure that everyone had ready access to this culturally and dietary significant beverage.

The governing body that enforced regulations on the brewers as well as the bakers in towns were usually referred to as the Assize of Bread and Beer in England; similar regulatory bodies developed in other kingdoms.59 The British Borough Charters provide some insight into the regulations imposed upon brewers beginning in the eleventh to thirteenth century while commercialized brewing was still in its infancy. In a charter from the town of Tewkesbury,

England the privilege to brew is protected by stating, “And that they might bake bread for sale in their own oven or another’s and might brew beer for sale in their own brewhouse or another’s, provided that they kept the royal assize.”60 This decree gives legal protection for the brewer’s ability to brew but also comes with the stipulation that the brewer abide by the rules and regulations of the Assize. Though the British Borough Charters were written prior to the surge of the commercial industry in the fourteenth century and targeted small occasional brewers, charters such as these laid the groundwork for the spike in production in the fourteenth century.

Other regulations on the brewing industry were common in England and other countries in medieval Europe. In London, for example, the office of the Alkonnerres was established in

C.E. 1377 as the official taster of ale and beer. It was the duty of the Alkonnerres to taste the

59 Ballard, British Borough Charters, 157. 60 Ballard, British Borough Charters, 96. 20 freshly brewed beer or ale to determine its quality as well as the price at which it could be sold to the public.61 This Assize regulation worked to limit “poor ale” in the market.

However, this practice was not without flaws. For example, it is difficult to determine the strength of a brew by taste. It would be fairly easy for a brewer to water down a batch of beer or ale without the knowledge of the Alkonnerres.62 Bribes could also be used to evade regulation, though there is no evidence that bribing Alkonnerres was a common practice. While not perfect, regulations such as these spread throughout England and many other kingdoms of Europe as a means to protect the common folk from being exploited by the brewing industry.

Commercial Brewing: Hops, Beer v. Ale

As previously noted, the distinction between ale and beer historically has been the use or lack of hops, Humulus lupulus, in the brewing process.63 Depending on the source and origin of the source, the terms for beer and ale were used interchangeably. As hops became more popular in the late Middle Ages, a debate began to emerge regarding which product was superior and which should be allowed by law.64 Traditionally ale is the older of the two substances, though preference for one or the other largely depended upon the availability and favorability of hops. In the article The History of Beer Additives in Europe – A Review, Karl-Ernst Behre studied the distribution of hops in Europe by examining the natural growth area of hops and its presence at archeological and archaeobotanical sites dating as far back as the Neolithic period. Behre explains that hops have a natural distribution in many temperate regions of Europa, including

61 Hammond, Food and Feast, 84. 62 Hammond, Food and Feast, 84-85. 63 “Ale,” https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/ale. 64 Hammond, Food and Feast, 86-87. 21 areas of mid-Scandinavia to the Mediterranean region.65 More isolated areas such as England preferred ale for most of the Middle Ages in large part due to historical tradition of brewing ale and lack of sufficient hop sources at that time. Consequently, the debate between ale and beer was predominantly an English affair.

P. W. Hammond, author of Foods and Feast In Medieval England, examined food and drink prevalent in medieval England and discusses the debate between ale and beer. Hammond states that though beer was known to the English by about the thirteenth century; English brewers did not start using hops themselves until the fifteenth century.66 From the early fifteenth century onward, the use of hops was widely debated in England. Rumors circulated in C.E. 1436 that brews with hops were “poisonous and not fit to drink.”68 In C.E. 1484 the London [Ale]

Brewers Guild went as far as petitioning that brewers be limited to using only water, malt, and yeast in their ale, likely as an economic response to beer as an industry competitor. Petitions such as these were prevalent in England and saw success in towns such as Shrewsbury in C.E.

1542 which forbade the use of hops in the town’s breweries.69

Despite such efforts to undermine hops as an additive, they grew in popularity with

English brewers. Beginning in the early fifteenth century and continuing through the early modern period, hops grew in popularity with English brewers for many of the same reasons that they were already popular in continental Europe. Beer, unlike ale, had a lower risk for contamination due to the oils of the hop plant which act as a natural preservative. 70 At a time where the bacterial infection that causes brews to spoil was unknown, any ingredient that would

65 Behre, “The History of Beer Additives,” 39. 66 Hammond, Food and Feast, 86. 68 Hammond, Food and Feast, 87. 69 Hammond, Food and Feast, 87-88. 70 Hammond, Food and Feast, 87. 22 limit spoiled batches would have been welcomed by brewers. These same preservative qualities also lengthened the life of a beer after primary fermentation. It allowed the brewer or tavern owner to keep the same barrel in storage longer than barrels of ale. More importantly, the longer storage period of beer and its reduced risk of contamination allowed for more extensive trade routes, prompting international trade.71 Ale on the other hand was limited in storage time and distance of trade reducing its commercial expansion potential. In addition to the preservative qualities, the use of hops reduces the amount of malt needed in a given batch due to the additional flavor profile of hops. The ability to reduce the amount of malt became significant during an inflation of England’s economy in the sixteenth century which increased the price of grain. 72 By reducing the quantity of malt, brewers could continue to profit even with increased costs of raw ingredients.

Hops, more than any other factor helped to commercialize beer and inadvertently reduced the production of its leading competitor, ale. The use of hops had been popular in continental

Europe since the fourteenth century and spread to England as the primary brew additive by the end of the sixteenth century. From this point on, beer grew as the dominant fermented beverage for most of northern Europe, more so than ale, mead, or even wine. Over the many centuries of development, the brewing industry affected not only brewers but the very fabric of society and economics of the medieval period and forever left its mark on the culture of Europe.

Conclusion

71 Hammond, Food and Feast, 87. 72 Hammond, Food and Feast, 87. 23

At the beginning of the Middle Ages, the brewing of beer and ale was thought of as a household chore. It was something that needed to be done in order to provide a much needed and desired refreshment to the members of a tight-knit family. On occasion, surplus brew would be sold to other local households as a means of a secondary income. Even on estates where it was expected for a noble to have large stores of ale or beer, the brewing of such a beverage was not highly revered. It was just a necessary task to keep the estate functional. It was not until monasteries adopted the practice of brewing that beer and ale became a significant commodity of the time to be consumed by the monks and by visitors to the monastery. With a greater dedication to the practice, greater volumes were brewed and with increasing sophistication. The development and specialization of brewing continued until it was a recognized profession in the European economy. By the thirteenth century onward professional brewers were profiting from their endeavors and providing a much needed, desirable, and tradable good to the local and even international market.

As this practice transitioned from a domestic task to a large commercial endeavor, the brewing of beer and ale affected not only the economy but also how society viewed beer and ale, as well as the roles of gender in brewing. Fewer people brewed for personal consumption and relied more heavily on the commercial industry to provide them a regular supply of beer and ale.

In order to prevent the adulteration of beer and ale some of the first regulatory bodies were established to protect the public from less than scrupulous brewers. As the profitability of the brewing industry increased, the trade became more desirable as a profession and the original innovators, women, were largely replaced by men wishing to grow in wealth and prestige. These are but a few of the ways in which the commercialization of the brewing industry changed medieval Europe. This transition and the consequences that followed did not occur in a single

24 year or even over the span of a century, but rather as slow, evolving process over many hundreds of years by many different cultures.

25

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