DIASPORAS, ETHNIC CONFLICT, AND TRAUMATIC EVENTS A dissertation presented by Christopher P. Cunningham to The Department of Political Science In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the field of Political Science Northeastern University Boston, Massachusetts April 2013 1 DIASPORAS, ETHNIC CONFLICT, AND TRAUMATIC EVENTS by Christopher P. Cunningham ABSTRACT OF DISSERTATION Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Political Science in the Graduate School of Social Sciences and Humanities of Northeastern University April 2013 2 ABSTRACT This research examines how ethnic diaspora communities perceive and respond to “traumatic events” in the homeland and evaluates the capacity of these events to act as catalysts to mobilize diasporas in support of co-ethnic separatist movements. Although other factors help to shape perceptions and influence the relative effectiveness of mobilization, the purpose of this research is to develop a clearer understanding of how a single violent event can have a grave and unique impact on diaspora views of a homeland separatist movement and help lead to the mobilization of its supporters. To gain these insights and analyze diaspora perceptions and ensuing forms of mobilization, the research entails both an in-depth single case study and a multi-case comparative approach. For the single case study, I use structured interviews conducted with Sikh diaspora members living in the United States to examine the perceptions and ensuing actions of these Sikhs to a controversial 1984 Indian military operation codenamed Operation Blue Star. For the multi-case study, I analyze the response of the Irish and Uyghur ethnic diasporas to three homeland traumatic events: the 1972 Bloody Sunday killings and 1981 Irish hunger strike in Northern Ireland, and the 2009 Urumqi riots in Xinjiang. Based on the results of these comparative case examinations, I argue that traumatic events affect ethnic members symbolically and emotionally, leading to a process of “event galvanization” where diaspora opinions shift in favor of the separatist movement, increasing the likelihood of mobilization among diaspora members to take actions in support of the separatist movement. Key Words: diaspora, ethnic conflict, ethnonationalism, traumatic events, symbolism, emotion, Punjab, Sikhs, Northern Ireland, Irish America, Xinjiang, Uyghurs 3 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This research began and ended as a journey. During summer expeditions to Punjab, India in 2009 and 2010, I had the chance to explore the lively bazaars breathing at the foot of the Golden Temple in Amritsar, where Sikh shopkeepers barter with pilgrims and holy men handle thousands of portraits and other remembrances of the violence inflicted on their most beloved shrine during a 1984 government-ordered attack codenamed Operation Blue Star. It was during one of these nights that I first conceived of researching the impact of traumatic events on ethnic populations, including those living overseas. Over the next few years, I traveled around the country to meet Sikhs who could share their perceptions of the attack, and by project’s end I had visited California, Massachusetts, Maryland, Vermont, Virginia, and Washington D.C. in pursuit of these interviews. Even my dissertation defense was a journey — from Alexandria, Virginia where I moved after marrying my college sweetheart, back to Boston in the spring of 2013 — a trip I had eagerly anticipated but which became remarkable for different reasons. That was the week the Boston Marathon bombing took place, a traumatic day for anyone who had ever lived in Boston, to say nothing of the injured and killed. When President Obama arrived later that week to console the victims and speak at Holy Cross Cathedral, he spoke of the grit and perseverance of “the Boston diaspora,” and in that dark moment I was reminded again of humankind’s wonderful, occasionally troublesome tendency to see those with whom we share a common experience as members of our extended family. As this journey reaches its end, I feel quite privileged then to thank what has become my own extended family for their tremendous support these past few years. 4 First, I wish to thank the members of my committee, whose willingness to engage, discuss, brainstorm, encourage and collaborate made this research project an awesome and deeply powerful experience. Thanks to Professor James Forest, who provided insightful suggestions and constant encouragement; his expertise on terrorism studies strengthened the overall caliber of this project. Prof. Forest is a true scholar and ambassador, and I anticipate and look forward to future collaborations. I also wish to thank Professor Amílcar Barreto, who has made a dramatic impact on my life ever since I arrived at Northeastern in the fall of 2008. His expertise helped me think more fundamentally about nationalist processes, including how nationalists interpret events symbolically and imaginatively. This project would have come up short without his counsel; more importantly, his wisdom and stories shared over beers at Woody’s Pizza and Pub enriched my life. Thank you, Amílcar, for your faith in me and your friendship. Finally, I want to express my deepest thanks to my first reader and dissertation supervisor, Professor David Schmitt, who is the reason I came to Northeastern and the reason I leave it as a proud recipient of its PhD. Prof. Schmitt encouraged me to think creatively during the early stages of this project, provided the steady voice of reason and theory during its middle stages, and in latter months encouraged me to contemplate real world implications and the role of justice. His critiques were powerful, his criticism constructive, but most of all, he encouraged me to think provocatively and speak the heart and mind. Professor Schmitt, your impact on my life is profound. I will apply the lessons you taught me throughout my career and my life. There are other professors in Northeastern’s Department of Political Science with whom I may not have worked directly on this project, but whose oversight and supervision on other projects fed directly into this research. In this respect, I wish to thank Profs. David Rochefort, Suzanne Ogden, Woody Kaye, John Portz, and Gov. Michael Dukakis. I also wish to thank those 5 who provided direct institutional support for this project. It is difficult to overstate how highly I think of Northeastern’s Office of Human Subjects Research Protection. I am indebted to Andrea Goldstein in particular, who shepherded my project through the necessary preparations with tremendous skill and effectiveness, and along the way made several suggested “tweaks” that dramatically strengthened my data collection. She is simply superb. I also wish to thank Amy Killeen, the Director of Graduate Studies for the College of Social Sciences and Humanities. She is by far the most responsive and enthusiastic administrator I met during my five years at Northeastern, and saved me from more than one catastrophe — which is to say I had the same experience with her that every other graduate student has had at one time or another. Thanks to fellow graduate students Jennapher Lunde Seefeldt, Portia Cason, and Elizabeth Killian, who put in the painstaking hours to help me transcribe dozens of interviews. Jennapher, Portia, and Beth: it is no exaggeration to say this project would have been impossible without you. Thank you. I am also deeply appreciative of the support and friendship of Barbara Chin and Lyle Ring, both of whom care deeply about the department’s graduate students and serve as their administrative guardians. On behalf of my fellow graduate students, thank you both. I am deeply indebted to all of the Sikhs who agreed to be interviewed for this project and offered such personal reflections to a complete stranger. They welcomed me into their homes, introduced me to their families, and then spoke honestly and openly about one of the darkest days of their lives. I believe that the willingness of these respondents to relive painful memories for the sake of this research speaks to their overwhelming desire to increase understanding about Sikhism. I am so grateful to each one of these respondents; they changed my life. I also wish to express my deep thanks to Aman Saini, who rescued this project at a critical stage by facilitating 6 several critical interviews. Aman’s insights into Sikhism and the Sikh people also strengthened my own understanding of his culture. You have such a bright future Aman. Danvad. This research would not have been possible without the support of all my friends, family and loved ones. I want to offer my heartfelt gratitude to the unholy mob with whom I grew up, and who were there for me during every traumatic episode of my life: Timothy Johnstone, Taylor Ewing Johnstone, David Simon, Alex Hoffmann, Jimmy Schwarz, Joey Wilkinson, and the late Zachary Scarpellini. I also wish to thank Patricia Condon and Michael Fowler, who first got me pointed north — or east, rather, toward Northern Ireland — when I was at the University of Louisville. And thanks to Prof. Dale Billingsley, who rescued me during a critical impasse; vouched for me, a brave move at the time; and ever since has served in the almost completely disadvantageous and undesired role of being my most trusted confidante. Thanks DBB. It is with deepest affection that I thank my extended family in Boston, fellow students in the doctoral program who endured the same trials that I did and thus knew where I was coming from when I occasionally shouted or demanded a fish sandwich: thanks to Diane Bulpett, Adam Mosher, Alison Uzdella, Julie Garey, and Kristen Hudak Rosero. Thank you for being my extended family in Boston, for all the political and policy debates, and for consistently rallying behind my leadership of Tolstoy Reader. I also wish to thank my Boston friends who allowed me to become part of their lives and whose friendship I look forward to in future years: Sydney Schneir, Jarvis Chen, Veronica Czastkiewicz, Lacey Bradley, and Tim Harrington.