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Attenuators Terminations Resistors Nikkohm Capability Brochure, Microwave 012e Attenuators Terminations Resistors Nikkohm SMD Terminations SMD Attenuators SMD Resistors Flanged Terminations Power Chip Attenuators Flanged Resistors Coaxial Attenuators Flanged Attenuators Through-hole Attenuators 1. Direct Current (dc) and Alternative Current (ac) the transmission line and the impedance elements are not In the world of electricity and electronics energy and negligible with respect to the wavelength of the alternating signals are transmitted from one location to another in current, in other words, at high frequencies of the applications ranging from large-energy power distribution alternating current, the impedance elements and the to small-signal transmission. In terms of the signal transmission line are considered as distributed constant variation over time when observed at a fixed position, elements and a distributed constant line. The ratio of the there is the case of the direct current (dc), with which the voltage to the current in each part of the distributed amplitude does not change in time, and there is the constant elements is called the characteristic impedance alternating current (ac), with which the amplitude changes (Z0). In the same way, the ratio between the electric field sinusoidally. In the case of ac, it may be represented by and the magnetic field of the distributed constant line is a diagram with a time axis as well as by a diagram with a also called the characteristic impedance (Z0). frequency axis. If the direct-current resistance, the series inductance, the parallel conductance and the parallel capacitance of the transmission line per unit length are RLGC, the source line lord source line lord characteristic impedance (Z ) of the transmission line is dc current ac current 0 expressed by the following equation: energy energy R + jωL Z = 0 + ω G j C amplitude amplitude For a loss-less transmission line, this can be expressed as follows: time time L Z = 0 C Representative transmission lines are shown in Fig.2. amplitude amplitude The characteristic impedance of a parallel two-wire line in vacuum (air) is determined by its dimensions as in the following equation: frequency 1kHz frequency 2D FIG１．dc and ac transmitting in the line. Z = 277log .....(ohm) 0 10 d 2. Impedance and Characteristic Impedance The characteristic impedance of the coaxial line shown in In the case of the alternating current, for the case of a Fig.2 is determined by its dimensions and the relative purely resistive load (R), the relationship between the dielectric constant of the insulator: voltage (E) and the current (I) applied to the load is such 138 D Z = log .....(ohm) that their amplitudes are proportional to each other and 0 ε 10 d their phases are in phase with each other. For the case r of a load with a reactive component (Z), the phases of the voltage and the current are out of phase with each other. In the case of a sinusoidal alternating current, the sine wave is represented as follows in terms of complex exponential functions: e jωt = cosωt + j sinωt d −ωt e = cosωt − j sinωt D The relationship between the voltage and the current supplied to the load is represented by the following equations: ε r E I = R d Z = R + jX D e E sin(ωt +θ ) i = = + Z R jX FIG 2．Characteristic impedance Z, the lumped-element impedance, can be expressed with of a parallel wire line and a coaxial line. circuit elements such as resistance (R), inductance (L) and capacitance (C). In the case that the dimensions of 3 Impedance Matching As shown in Fig.3, when a signal source is connected to a source impedance load through a transmission line to supply the signal power without loss to the load, the signal is reflected at the junction between the transmission line and the load if moving there is a difference in impedance between the source probe lord transmission line and the load. The means of minimizing this reflection is called impedance matching. The reflected wave is also similarly reflected at the signal detect output VSWR=V2/V1 source. The degree of impedance matching is represented by the V1 magnitude of the reflection. The ratio of the reflected V2 wave to the travelling wave is defined as the voltage reflection coefficient ρ. Further, the degree of matching is sometimes expressed as the voltage standing wave FIG 4．Characteristic impedance of a parallel wire line and a coaxial line. ratio VSWR. When the voltage of the travelling wave is Vi, the voltage of the reflected wave is Vr, the load impedance is Z and Rs=50 ohm the characteristic impedance of the transmission line is Z0, 50 ohm line RL=50 ohm the voltage reflection coefficient (ρ) and the voltage standing wave ratio (VSWR) are expressed as follows. Rs=50 ohm − Vr Z Z 0 R =100 ohm ρ = = 50 ohm line L Vi Z + Z 0 1+ | ρ | Rs=50 ohm VSWR = − ρ 1 | | 50 ohm line RL=10 ohm It is possible to determine the standing wave ratio VSWR by inserting a probe in the line and measuring the input volt current power in RL variation in the RMS value of the electric field with position, 100V 1A 50W as shown in Fig.4. This principle is used in the 100V 0.67A 44W 100V 0.17A 28W measurement of the load impedance Z0. Impedance matching is required for efficient power FIG 5．Example of power transfer efficiency. transmission from the signal source to the load. As illustrated in Fig.5, the problem of efficiently supplying the 4. Transmission Line and Micro-Strip signal source power directly to the load and the problem With regard to transmission lines for pulses containing of supplying a signal to the load through a transmission frequency components in the microwave range or in a line with a particular characteristic impedance are similar broad range, losses are required to be small and the problems. electromagnetic radiation into the surrounding environment is required to be small. Parallel lines and twisted-pair lines are used in the low-frequency, not source impedance high-frequency range, because of their large incident electromagnetic radiation. The coaxial cable is an source characteristic impedance lord excellent transmission line, with the internal reflection electromagnetic field in the TEM mode, but has the disadvantage of inconvenience in implementation. The microstrip and the coplanar line, with configurations as reference shown in Fig.6, are used as transmission lines similar to FIG 3．Characteristic impedance of a parallel wire line and a coaxial line. the coaxial line. Their characteristic impedances are determined by the relative dielectric constant and the dimensions of the insulator. When a stub is formed at an intermediate position of a microstrip with a characteristic impedance of 50 ohms, and its length is L, if L is 1/4 of the wavelength in the microstrip, it acts capacitively in the case of an open stub, and inductively in the case of a short stub. If a small 50-ohm resistor is connected to the terminal end of a microstrip with a characteristic impedance of 50 ohms, it termination. In large power termination, the dimensions acts as a non-reflecting termination with little reflection. become large in order to dissipate power, and thus the (Fig.7) equivalent parallel capacitance or inductance becomes large, and since the structure is designed to conduct the heat generated by Joule losses for cooling, some form of an external cooling mechanism must be provided. t The cross-sectional structure of a typical power terminator is shown in Fig.8. In Fig.8, the heat generated by the resistive element #3 is conducted to the rear face by a ε r ceramic material with high thermal conductivity, and the heat is dissipated to the outside from the rear face. W The rear face of the terminator is cooled by either directly h joining to a metal plate with solder, or by conducting the heat to a metal heat sink through a printed circuit board. As power terminators there are, a product in the form of a chip as in Fig.8, as well as a flange terminator which is a chip mounted on a metal flange. Fig.9 shows methods of cooling the chip, and Table 1 shows the capacitive and inductive components of the chip. Fig. 10 shows methods of cooling the flange. As the heat conduction in power terminators is the same as the heat conduction in FIG 6．Micro strip (upper) and co-planer line (lower). power resistors, please refer to the separate brochure. For reference, the thermal resistances are shown in Table open ....capacitive....L < 1/ 4λ 2. No. substance material 1 conductor + Cu 2 passivation resin 3 resistor Ni-Cr 1 2 3 4 5 4 substrate ceramics short....inductive....L < 1/ 4λ 5 conductor - Cu FIG 8. Structure and material of power termination metal case direct joint FIG 7．Open stub, short stub and termination. metal case via hole cooling 5. Terminations A terminating component is used with such devices as directional couplers, filters, circulators, isolators and metal case inlay cooling antenna-coupling circuits. The termination is a resistor. It is required to be a pure resistor with little reactive FIG 9. Installation, termination chips. component. For 50-ohm termination of a signal circuit, a small chip resistor with a resistance of 50 ohms is suitable. However, if the signal to be terminated is of high power such as 5W to 800W, it is necessary to use power resistances Ra, Rb and Rc are obtained using the equations: k −1 Ra = Rb = Z ....ohm + k 1 metal case flange k Rc = 2Z ....ohm k 2 −1 And, in the case of aπI type attenuator, using the equations: + = = k 1 metal case flange Ra Rb Z 0 ....ohm k −1 Z k 2 −1 Rc = 0 ....ohm 2 k metal case flange α α attenuation.
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