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Abstract Meadows, Sarah Louise ABSTRACT MEADOWS, SARAH LOUISE TRUE. Monoecious Hydrilla Biology and Response to Selected Herbicides. (Under the direction of Drs. Robert J. Richardson and Fred H. Yelverton). Hydrilla is a federally listed noxious weed that has become one of the most expensive and difficult to manage aquatic weeds in the United States. Of the 14 aquatic herbicides labeled by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), only a portion are active on hydrilla. With these limited chemical control tools, and the ongoing threat of herbicide resistance, combinations of herbicides are continuing to be examined for aquatic weed control. Laboratory and field evaluations have shown that penoxsulam and endothall, when applied in combination, decreased exposure requirements for penoxsulam, reduced endothall use rates for reduction of hydrilla biomass, and increased duration of control compared to endothall alone. To further examine the penoxsulam-endothall combination, and to assess the effects of herbicide exposure on hydrilla, metabolic profiling was employed. Metabolite profiling is a relatively new, but fast-growing and useful diagnostic technique in herbicidal mode of action research, the goal of which is the identification of links between genotypes and phenotypes. Two mass spectrometry (MS) analytical platforms were utilized to provide comprehensive metabolite coverage. This study generated several statistically valid multivariate models describing the similarities and differences in the metabolic profiles produced from monoecious hydrilla treated with endothall, penoxsulam, and a combination of both herbicides. We found unique variations in the metabolome seen when hydrilla was created with both penoxsulam and endothall together, which were not seen with the treatments of either herbicide alone. © Copyright 2013 Sarah Meadows All Rights Reserved Monoecious Hydrilla Biology and Response to Selected Herbicides by Sarah Louise True Meadows A dissertation submitted to the Graduate Faculty of North Carolina State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Crop Science Raleigh, North Carolina 2013 APPROVED BY: _______________________________ ______________________________ Dr. Robert J. Richardson Dr. Fred H. Yelverton Committee Co-Chair Committee Co-Chair ________________________________ ________________________________ Dr. James D. Burton Dr. Michael D. Netherland BIOGRAPHY Sarah True Meadows grew up in Wilmington, North Carolina. She headed to NC State for college, hoping to go into a career in health care. While studying biological sciences, she became interested in environmental sciences and completed a summer internship studying the relationships between native and invasive plant species growing on coastal sand dunes. A new passion was born. She went on to study weed science under the direction of Dr. Rob Richardson at NC State, examining the biology and control of two coastal invasive plant species for her master’s project. Sarah continued to work with Dr. Richardson for her PhD studies, focusing on aquatic weed biology and management. Sarah is looking forward to a long and rewarding career in weed science. ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS It is with the omnipresent support of my family, friends, mentors, coworkers, and colleagues that this goal was achieved. Thank you all. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................................. vi LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................................. viii CHAPTER 1 Monoecious Hydrilla – A Review of the Literature ......................................1 Abstract ..................................................................................................................................1 Species Overview ...................................................................................................................1 Introduction and Spread .........................................................................................................4 Anatomy/Life Cycle ...............................................................................................................6 Control/Managment .............................................................................................................13 References ............................................................................................................................19 CHAPTER 2 Monoecious Hydrilla Phenology in Two North Carolina Lakes ................38 Introduction ..........................................................................................................................38 Materials and Methods .........................................................................................................40 Results and Discussion .........................................................................................................41 References ............................................................................................................................46 CHAPTER 3 Competition of Monoecious Hydrilla with Four Other Submersed Macrophytes ...........................................................................................................................58 Introduction ..........................................................................................................................58 Materials and Methods .........................................................................................................61 Results and Discussion .........................................................................................................62 References ............................................................................................................................69 CHAPTER 4 Penoxsulam Absorption and Translocation into Monoecious Hydrilla ...................................................................................................................................83 Introduction ..........................................................................................................................83 iv Materials and Methods .........................................................................................................85 Results and Discussion .........................................................................................................87 References ............................................................................................................................90 CHAPTER 5 Metabolic Profiles of Monoecious Hydrilla Treated with Penoxsulam and Endothall .........................................................................................................................94 Introduction ..........................................................................................................................94 Materials and Methods .........................................................................................................96 Data Processing ..................................................................................................................100 Results and Discussion .......................................................................................................102 References ..........................................................................................................................107 APPENDICES ......................................................................................................................129 v LIST OF TABLES CHAPTER 1 Monoecious Hydrilla – A Review of the Literature Table 1. Reported tuber weight for dioecious and monoecioius hydrilla ............................35 Table 2. Reported tuber densities for dioecious and monoecious hydrilla ..........................36 CHAPTER 2 Monoecious Hydrilla Phenology in Two North Carolina Lakes Table 1. Maximum PAR levels collected at four different life stages of monoecious hydrilla .................................................................................................................................56 Table 2. Mean, Minimum, and Maximum water temperatures collected at four different life stages of monoecious hydrilla .........................................................................56 CHAPTER 3 Competition of Monoecious Hydrilla with Four Other Submersed Macrophytes Table 1. 1Mean monoecious hydrilla tubers produced in one season, for hydrilla grown alone and in competition with four other submersed macrophytes. Values not followed by the same letter are significantly different. 2Mean total hydrilla biomass dry weight in grams for an early and late introduction of hydrilla, grown alone and in competition with each of four competitor species. Values not followed by the same letter are significantly different among species................................................81 Table 2. Mean P. crispus turions, and mean shoot biomass dry weight of P. crispus, E. canadensis, M. spicatum, and V. americana, with no introduction of hydrilla, compared to the early and late introduction of hydrilla. Values not followed by the same letter are significantly different, among species ...................................................82 Table 3. Mean root biomass dry weight of of P. crispus, E. canadensis, M. spicatum, and V. americana, with no introduction of hydrilla, compared to the early and late introduction of hydrilla. Values not followed
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