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%¤¶¼9¶³¶¶» -¶ » #¶¤· 2Àº³¶ » $¶Ç®¶À ¤¶»¶¶»¯ ¶¶¼ £9À½ÇX¶» xxxix #¤¶¼9¶³¶¢£ #X¶2¶¤·:¶»¤¶ º~»¶» ¤¶¤¶°·¶ J·P¶¤¶¶» -¶»9¶¶ #¥9À·¶À»º¶» ¶¤·:9¶±¶»Ë¶À $Ç9¶£ ·§¶Æ2¶ 2·¡dJd +PE>D2 )Çz ¶~·¶Ç¶¶ 2¶¥»» ¥§¶¦¶ ¶ËÀº2¶ ·2¶Ä~2¶ ¶·¶Æ9¶´Ç¶ #ǶÀ ¶¼ª¶9¶³¶» ¤¶Ä2¶¬9¶³¶» ¶§¶»9¶³¶» ¤¶»»ÇË·¶¤¶¼9¶´Ç¶ ¶~Ç˶9À½ÇX¶ ¤¶»½ ˶˶¦9¶³¶¶» ~´»»¤¶ ¶»Ë¶¤¶¶» ¤¶¸¶¤¶¶» ¤¶¸X¶Àº2À¶»Ë·À & ¶»Ë¶ 2¶··±Ë¶¶¢£ 5ÇY˶¤·:»½ ¶ ¶¶¤·:À»Ç¶» ·¶z°¶»¶» 2¶À9¶³¶» º~»¶» À½ºt ¶»¤¶¼¶Ç¶ º~À½º¶2¶ 2¶À9¶³¶½ °Â¶» ·`9¶³¶» ¤¶»°¶Ë¶¦¶ ·Ë¶¤¶¶»¤¶±®¶»¤¶¼¶Ç¶·`2¶À9¶³¶½°Â¶»¤¶»½ ˶"#¶¶» ¤¶»2¶4´9À ¤¶¸Y¶»¤¶ '¶Àº§¶¶ ·9¶¤·:¶»¤¶¼¶Ç¶ º~§·¶Ñ¤¶¾ °Â¶» ,R·TÀ °Àº³¶»¤¶¼·¶¢£ ¤·¶¤¶ I9¶~¶ °¶ ¤¶¼ °¶Ë¶» ¤¶»»59¶³¶¶» ¥¥¶ ˶˶¦¤¶¶» #»»¤¶¼¶2À4 & )¡·£ 9¶Ç¶9¶³¶½ 2ÀÁº¥9À»Ç~¤À xl Kathasahitya Popular Tales and Fables Introduction Like the records left behind by the various nations of ancient times, India too has given to us from ancient times a valuable record of literature; India‘s uniqueness lies in its wealth of poetic literature, the like of which has not been produced by any other ancient nation in the world. Fables and tales form an important part of the literature in Sanskrit and the type goes back to a very early stage in the history of Sanskrit literature. The Vedic literature is full of tales about men and gods and also about animals and birds. The Buddhistic literature is very rich in this sort of composition. The great Itihasas and Puranas contain most of the tales (katha grantha) and fables (pashupakshi katha). But tales and fables developed into a separate category of literary type at a later stage. We do not know when tales were written as independent works. They must have been current even in the time of the Rigveda, since xli there are indications of, and allusions to, such tales in the Rigvedic poetry; no one will make such an allusion unless the tales were well known to the people. It is said that such tales and fables migrated from India to the west. The origin of Indian fable literature must be traced back to the earliest times in the life of Vedic Indians. The tales current among the people were later on used for a definite purpose, and the didactic fable became a mode of inculcating useful knowledge. The Rigveda Samhita contains the most ancient suggestions regarding fables, available abundantly in the Brahmanas and the Upanishads. We can see animals represented as talking and behaving like men. Sarama, a bitch, preaches panis, the misers to give alms. Panis call sarama as friend and sister which alludes to the intimacy with the living beings. This is the root of story telling tradition. The Samvada sukta of the Rigveda is wellknown for containing amazing fables and narratives. The Pururava-Urvashi samvada, Yama-Yami samvada, Sarama-Pani samvada are among the popular hymns that allude xlii to the origin of fables and didactic narratives. Rigveda contains stories of man and fish, Indra’s metamorphoses into birds Marakata and Kapinjala. In the tenth mandala of the Rigveda, we come across how a monkey happens to become a favourite of Indra. In addition to these stray references, the general invocations, contained in various hymns, also put forth many sententious and amusing stories concerning different deities. Indications of such didactic fables are generally available in the Riksamhita. A detailed description of these narratives is available in the Nirukta of Yaska, Bruhaddevata of Shounaka, the commentary of Katyayanasarvanukramani composed by Sadgurushishya and accordingly in Sayana’s expositions of the vedas. After Sayana, Dyaadviveda a scholar from Gujarat studied all the narratives,scattered throughout the vedic corpus, composes a highly meritorious text, entitled Nitimanjari. This collection of vedic narratives and their teachings, as the original historic source of kathanaka , is a great achievement in the literary arena. xliii The Chandogya upanishad, affiliated to the Samaveda, depicts some upakhyanas more vividly. In the first chapter, is related the beautiful narrative regarding dogs,reciting mantras and howling for food. Further, in the fourth chapter, two flamingos converse with each-other with the beginning of the narrative of the grandsons of Janashruta and sage Raikva, with his cart. The 5th,7th and 8th sections of this chapter deal with the young Satyakama, being instructed by a bull, a flamingo and an aquatic bird respectively. Such texts and dialogues may be taken as the precursors, so far as fables are concerned. The great classic Mahabharata is virtually an encyclopaedia of ancient India has several legends as episodes. Yayati upakhyana, legend of Chyavana and Sukanya, Nalopakhyana, Savitryupakhyana are some of them. As regards the fables, parables and moral and didactic stories, the Mahabharata can be said to be the repository of them. There are hundreds of fables and moral stories scattered throughout the Mahabharata. Stories like deceitful cat, the clever jackal, the gold-spitting birds, the xliv crow entering the flying race with swan etc. have animals and birds as characters in them. Later we can see fables and tales in Jaina and Buddhist literatures. Kathakosha and Jatakamala contain such stories. Later we can see collection of fables and tales in the works of Gunadhya, Somadeva, Vishnusharma, Narayanapandita and others. Famous works in Tales and Fables 1. aK¥+:P: The earliest work of the nature of a collection of tales/fables was Bruhatkatha (the great story book) . Gunadhya the royal priest of the Andhra king Satavahana, composed this text in the 1st century BC. But to us it is only the name that has survived. It must have been written in the early centuries of the Christian era. There is a story current that there was a king named Satavahana who was not very proficient in grammar, and that during a water-sport, the queens made fun of him on account of his ignorance. He decided to learn grammar in a short time and asked his favourite scholar named Gunadhya to teach him grammar in a very short time. The scholar said that it would be impossible and the king, being displeased, sent him xlv away. Another scholar taught him the whole of grammar in a short time by writing a new work on grammar now available as the Katantra. Gunadhya wandered about in the forest and he began to narrate the tales in such beautiful language that even the birds and beasts gave up their food. There was no flesh in their bodies when the king’s people went and killed them in the jungles and brought them to the palace kitchen. When the king knew of the cause of scarcity for meat, he sent for the poet who was singing those songs of tales, and it was found to be Gunadhya himself. He was called back. Only a small part of what he had actually composed was preserved even at that time, and now the whole work has been lost for a long time. That work must have been the storehouse of tales about heroes and kings and gods and demigods and also about animals and birds. Originally composed in Paishachi and presently translated into Sanskrit and Prakruta, Bruhatkathas three versions are available. This work was written in a dialect not commonly spoken by the people. Dandin calls it Bhootabhasha (A\9APIPBCW ºPKØf xlvi A\9P:PaK¥+:PB) and some scholars believe that it was the language of some tribal people living in the Vindhyan ranges. It is not possible to fix the exact date of Bruhatkatha. Since Bana and Dandin have paid high tributes to the work, it must have been written before the 6th century A.D. Budhaswami, Somadeva and Kshemendra who have provided us with abridged versions of Bruhatkatha in Sanskrit have given some information about Gunadhya based on legends. According to one legend, Shiva was once narrating a tale of seven Vidyadhara kings to Parvathi in private. Pushpadanta, one of the attendants of Shiva overheard the story and narrated it to his wife Jaya, who in turn, told the same to other maids of Parvathi. When Parvathi came to know of that she cursed Pushpadanta to be born as a mortal and return to Shiva after telling the tale to someone on earth. She also cursed Malyavan who pleaded on behalf of his brother Pushpadanta to become a mortal and return to kailasa after spreading the story on earth. Pushpadanta was born as Vararuchi who retired to the forest in his old age xlvii and after narrating the story of the Vidyadhara kings to a goblin called Kanabhuti, went back to Shiva. Malyavan was born as Gunadhya who became the minister of king Satavahana who ruled out Pratishtana. Gunadhya met Kanabhuti in the Vindhya forest, heard the seven stories of the Vidyadhara kings from him and wrote them in the same language known as Bhootabhasha or Paishachibhasha. King Satavahana rejected the work as it was written in the Paishachi language. In a fit of despair Gunadhya began to burn his work chapter by chapter but his disciples prevented him from burning the last book containing the story of the last Vidyadhara king and that book is Bruhatkatha now completely lost. The stories of Bruhatkatha have been handed down to us in three works of later origin. They are Nepalese version of Bruhatkathashlokasangraha, composed by Budhaswamin in 28 sargas, having 4539 verses.Composed in the 5th century AD this work is demonstrative of Bruhatkatha’s original garb. The Kashmirian version includes the popular translations of Kshmendra and Somadeva.It is xlviii interesting to note that both the scholars translated the same text, at the same time and same place. But, these translations of the 11th century are vastly different from the angles of style as well as content. The importance of the Bruhatkatha as the original source of Sanskrit narratives is timeless. Dhananjaya, while mentioning the sources of plays, has put the Bruhatkatha in the same pedestal as the great Indian classics- the Ramayana and the Mahabharata (Dasharupaka,1.68). Great poets like Banabhatta, Dandin and host of others really found a rich inheritance in Gunadhya. Specimens of the tales found in this are already noted in dramas and prose romances. The story of Udayana, the story of Kadambari and the story Dashakumaracharita are also found in these collections. Dhanapala , author of Tilakamanjari has called Bruhatkatha a great ocean of travelogues and amorous tales, from the each drop of which, host of strange tales was composed. J¥CaK¥+:P¿APR Banabhatta observed that Bruhatkatha, like the amouroussports of lord Shiva, bemuses all JBZ®U^Q9+·;QP +9-P}DºJP<=P KDEUERG=PR+ËC^GËBCPCaK¥+:P(Harshacharitham) 2. aK¥+:PÕEPR+J-Kf : The earliest version of Gunadhya’s Bruhatkatha must have been the Shlokasangraha of Bruhatkatha by Budhaswamin. Budhaswamin was a native of Nepal. His date is not known but he must have been earlier than Kshemendra and Somadeva who both belonged to the 11th century A.D. The whole work has not been found out. It is a poem of sargas meant obviousy to be an extensive book, but the fragment gets us only 28 cantos of about 4539 verses. Either the work was left incomplete or the manuscript has been lost to us. The poem begins with an encomium of Ujjayini and the death of Mahasena or Pradyota. Gopala, his son, succeeded him, but afflicted with the talk that he was a patricide he abdicated in favour of his brother Palaka. Warned as if by heavenly sign, he gaveup his throne and Gopala’s l son Avantivardhana ascended the throne. The 28th canto leaves us with Naravahanadatta son of Udayana king of the vatsas in the company of Bhagirathayashas. 3. aK¥+:PB2DU : Kshmendra, composer of this work was in the court of king Ananta of Kashmir(1029-1064 A.D). The work is in 18 Lambakas or chapters with 7500 verses. He belongs to the first half of 11 th century. Of the two translations, referred to above, the Bruhatkathamanjari of Kshmendra is older by some years as compared to the Kathasaritsagara of Somadeva. Kshmendra has presented the narrative in an ornate style that provides the text with unparalled beauty. The text contains 18 Lambakas or chapters where a large series of popular stories are boxed one within the other.These stories have not been composed only to entertain the masses, rather they have grand moral objectives too. 4. +:PJ>D¥JP-Df: Somadeva’s Kathasaritsagara is the most outstanding among the various collections of stories. As the title suggests, it contains the mass of stories of every conceivable li kind. It encompasses ‘the most ancient fables, wild legends af the Rigveda, harrowing tales of blood- sucking vampires, beautiful and poetic love-stories and vivid descriptions of battles between gods, men or demon”.(N.M.Penzer on the translation of C.H.Tawney, as quoted by M.Krishnamachariar, History of classical Sanskrit literature,pp.419) Kathasaritsagara has been termed as the store- house of romance. Composed in 11th centuryA.D. for the recreation of the queen Suryamati of the kashmirian king Anantha, this work is divided into 18books, comprising 124 Tarangas and 21688verses. Somadeva declares that his work is a condensed Sanskrit version of Gunadhya’s Paishachi Bruhatkatha The expansion or contraction whatever, is due to the difference in the language. C:PB\E9:}GR9;=B=P-¹C^9+Bf -·:^GË9DJMRQBP¦ APIP 0 ^A´9R Somadeva’s depictions encompass the whole Indian society. Wesern literature looks heavily indebted to the Kathasaritsagara. Penzer’s lii observations inthis regard are worthy of attention: ‘The Kathasaritsagara is, of course, a much older book than “The Thousand Nights and a Night,’ and is the origin of many tales in the Nights. Through them it has given ideas not only to Persian and Turkish authors, but, also to the western worlds through the pens of Boccacio, Chaucer, La Fontaine and their innumerable imitators’(K. Krishnamachariar,HSL, p.420) Somadeva’s power of telling a story in a clear, entertaining and absorbing way is only equalled by the richness and diversity of his subject-matter. His knowledge of human nature, the elegance of his style, the beauty and force of his descriptions and the wit and wisdom of his aphorisms, are masterly in their execution. 5. GR9PEQPTGH^9f : Vetalapanchavimshati is another collection of 25 tales narrated to king Vikramaditya by a Vetala or goblin, a variety of Evil Spirit. An ascetic used to present a king with a fruit annually and it was found that the fruit contained a gem. To show his gratitude, the king agreed to bring down a dead body that was hanging liii down from a tree in a burial ground; when the king ascended the tree, it was found that a Vetala, had taken possession of the body. The king was slightly frightened, and yet he persisted in his effort. Then the Vetala narrated a story ending with a question in the form of a verse. The moment the king answers the Vetala returns to the tree with the corpse. Everyday the incident is repeated, a new story is narrated and the question is answered.This continues for 24 days and on the 25th day in the end , the dead body falls off from the tree, returning to its original condition of a person. There is a small sequel in the form of the revelation that the ascetic who was giving the king a fruit meant to kill him by asking him to do such a mission.In a clever way, the king managed to chop off the head of the ascetic. The really interesting portion in this work relates to the tales. The tales are all found in the collections of Kshmendra and Somadeva. But the circumstances under which the tales were narrated and the way in which the tales are narrated give an originality to them and also a special interest. liv There are a few works of this name, but the Sanskrit version of shivadasa of 12th century A.D. is most popular. 6. HZ+J»^9f: (the seventy tales of a Parrot) The Shukasaptathihi is another interesting collection of stories in Sanskrit.The author and date of this work are not known. A merchant named Haradatta had a son named Madanasena,who was spent his whole time in the company of his youngwife. The merchant was able to secure a crow and a parrot, very wise beings, really gandharvas and gave to his son. Through their association, the young man changed his ways. He was one day sent out on a mission and then he entrusted his young wife to the care of the two birds. When the absence was becoming unbearably long, the young lady was thinking of finding company of others. The crow objected but was silenced with a threat of death. The Parrot was wiser and permitted her to go at night provided that she knew how to get out of a tight corner if she found herself in such a position in her adventure, which was quite possible as in the case of a certain lady, which was stated in a verse; then the young lady desired to hear the lv whole story and the parrot kept her at home by narrating the story till day-break. This continued day after day till the husband returned.There are seventystories like this. 7. TJKPJ=µP^¦^H+P : This is also another collection of 32 stories . There was a throne of the great emperor named Vikramaditya. It got buried under earth in course of time. Later, when a shepherd boy was following the sheep in the meadows, at a certain point, he began to talk like an elderly person of great wisdom. The matter was reported to king Bhoja who got the place dug out, and he found out the throne. When king Bhoja wanted to ascend the throne, one of the statues of young ladies on the edge of the throne started narrating a tale of the great Vikramaditya, and at the end of each story each statue flew off; there were 32 statues and there are the same number of stories narrated. The author and date of work are not known. The work is also called Dwatrimshatputtalika. 8. $G;P=H9+B - This is a collection of one hundred tales of Buddhistic origin. Each Avadana lvi (story of illustrious deeds) refers to some story of the past and draws a moral from it. This work was translated into chinese in the middle of the 3rd century A.D., hence it must have been composed in the first or second century A.D. 9. 2P9+BPEP - Jatakamala of Aryashura contains a collection of several interesting stories of the Buddhists. This work must have been written before 5th Century A.D., since it was translated into Chinese in the middle of the 5th century A.D. This work is mainly written in prose though interspersed with verses. It contains about 500 stories. There are various collections of such stories, some of them relating to the great emperor Vikramaditya. In each collection there is an originality in the way in which the stories are introduced and also in the way in which they are narrated. Besides what are called tales with a hero, there are also many fables in which animals and birds play their part as characters. lvii Ancient Indians lived close to nature and in their daily life they were always surrounded by birds and animals which gave them opportunities to study their behavior. This close association with nature has given rise to many didatic fables. The most important collection of fables are Q09·¦and ^K9PRQ;RH. 10. Q09·¦: The Panchatantra of Vishnusharma is a collection of fables, which has consistently found an avid readership all over the world ever since its coming into existence. It was written in the form of instruction given by a scholar named Vishnusharma to the princes so that they may became proficient in the art of Diplomacy and politics with its policies in a very short time. The stories or fables, contained in the Panchatantra, have very ancient roots in India. Various editions of this text have come out in different regions across India. The oldest of these editions is that of Kashmirian origin, popular as the Tantrakhyayika. Following are the four available editions of the Panchatantra. lviii 1. The Pehlavi translation, though is unavailable, but an introduction to the stories there, is found in their subsequent translations into Arabic and Syrian languages. 2. The second edition, subsumed in the Bruhatkatha of Gunadhya, is lost in original. But can be found in the obridgements of Bruhatkatha written by Kshemendra and Somadeva. 3. The third edition was the Tantrakhyayika and the Jain anthology of narratives related to it. The Panchatantra, prevalent presently, is the modern representative of the Tantrakhyayika. 4. The fourth edition is the southern original form of the Panchatantra. So, it is quite clear that Panchatantra is not an ordinary text but represents a colossal literary tradition. The author of this work Vishnusharma proclaims in the very beginning that, 'this Nitishastra, entitled Panchatantra, has been promulgated on the earth for the enlightenment or instruction of the young'. lix (9¥QP9·¦+=PB=U^9HP˦aPEP#GaPR<=P:A\9ER ºG¨PB He also proclaims in the prologue that whosoever always studies or hears this Nitishastra, never suffers a defeat even at the hands of Indra. $ The initial friendship between the two and subsequent enstrangement because of the crocodile’s betrayal and bad intention. The implied moral is that one should not trust those who all not trustworthy. There are 11 sub-stories in this section. $QDU^M9+PD+B- Ill considered action – The fifth section entitled Apareekshitakarakam deals with consequenses of taking action in a hurry, without knowing the details or the truth, which result in disaster. This section is distinct from the precious ones in the structure of the stories. There is no framing story as such just like in the previous sections. Each story appears independently composed for the teaching of some specific lesson, but, there is an inter-connection between the stories. There are 15 stories in it. Each tantra consists of a framing story with various overlapping auxiliary stories, woven around for the endorsement of it. Plain stories are narrated in prose while didactic maxims have been expressed through lxii verses, mostly quoted from the classics such as the Ramayana, the Mahabharata and the texts of polity. The construction of the stories is very interesting in Panchatantra. There are narrations of tales within narration of other tales, one tale leading on to another one. There is a complete unity in the way in which the stories are related to one another. Each story appearing in the various sections has its own individuality and each section has its own individuality. The material is in itself beautiful and the workmanship is excellent as high-class art. Truly speaking, Panchatantra is an unparalleled treasure of the world-literatures. 11. ^K9PRQ;RHf : The Hitopadesha of Narayana is another independent version of the Panchatantra and is as popular as the Panchatantra itself, a position which no other version has been able to secure. It is composed in Bengal in the 12th century A.D. Hitopadesha means Instruction in What is Beneficial. As Narayana himself has told this work is only a reconstructed edition of the lxiii original Panchatantra by omitting a few fables and adding some newones. ^B¦EPAfJZвR;PR^G-KfJS· * * * * *