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The Tuntian System in Xinjiang Under the Qing Dynasty: a Perspective from Environmental History1

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THE TUNTIAN SYSTEM IN XINJIANG UNDER THE QING DYNASTY: A PERSPECTIVE FROM ENVIRONMENTAL HISTORY1 TS’UI-JUNG LIU Institute of Taiwan History, Academia Sinica I-CHUN FAN Institute of History and Philology, Academia Sinica Abstract The aim of this paper is not to reinvestigate the Tuntian system (屯田制度, the system of land tilled by colonists), but rather to explore its significance as it developed in Xinjiang during the Qing Dynasty (1644–1911) from the perspective of environmental history. This paper consists of four sections. First, it applies a Geographical Information System (GIS) technique to demonstrate spatial and temporal changes brought about by the Tuntian system in Xinjiang, based on available studies. Second, it analyses this land system from the viewpoint of property rights. Third, it discusses the landscape as shaped by colonists of various statuses, and finally, it traces the environmental changes in Xinjiang through the observations of Lin Zexu in 1842 and Xie Bin in 1917. Key words: Tuntian System, Xinjiang, property right, landscape, environmental changes Introduction The Tuntian system (屯田制度, the system of land tilled by colonists) in China was first set up in the Western Han Dynasty (206 BC – AD 8); its nature and scale varied in later periods. It is not necessary to trace all studies here; however, it should be noted that more than 20 years ago, Lanzhou University gathered 1 The Chinese version of this article is included in Chen Yung-fa 陳永發, ed., Ming Qing diguo jiqi jinxiandai zhuangxing 明清帝國及其近現代轉型 [The Ming-Qing Empire and its Modern Transformation] (Taipei: Yunchen wenhua, 2011), 203–65. This English version incorporates some revisions. 99 International Review of Environmental History • Volume 2, 2016 many scholars to research this system and published a series of studies.2 This collective effort undoubtedly provided novel comprehensive knowledge regarding the Tuntian system in north-west China. Moreover, in recent years there have been at least three books on this subject. One focuses on the relationship between the land tilled by colonists and agricultural development in Xinjiang.3 The other two provide important findings regarding environmental changes in the region.4 The only deficiency of these books is that they do not have maps for helping readers to conceive the spatial distribution of land tilled by colonists. The aim of this paper is not to reinvestigate the Tuntian system in Xinjiang during the Qing Dynasty (1644–1911), but rather to explore the significance of this land system, making use of previous studies, from the perspective of environmental history; in other words, the emphasis is on understanding the interaction between the Tuntian and the environment. Wang Xilong’s book is the major reference of this paper and we acknowledge our thanks to him here. This article first presents the distribution of the Tuntian established in Xinjiang, based on the materials assembled by Wang Xilong, and applies a Geographical Information System (GIS) technique to illustrate the spatial and temporal dimensions of this system. The second section will analyse this land system from the viewpoint of property rights. The third section will discuss the landscape shaped by the colonists’ activities. Finally, the fourth section will try to trace environmental changes from observations by Lin Zexu 林則徐 (1785–1850) in 1842 and Xie Bin謝彬 (1887–1948) in 1917. 1. The Tuntian system developed in Xinjiang This section will discuss briefly the Tuntian system as it developed in Xinjiang and present some maps to illustrate its changing overall spatial and temporal distribution (Maps 1–5) and the situations at different localities (Maps 6–11). These maps use the administrative divisions of 1820 as a basis and the digital system of ‘Chinese Civilization in Time and Space’ (中華文明之時空基礎架構) 2 Liu Guanghua 劉光華, Handai xibei tuntian yanjiu 漢代西北屯田研究 [Study on the Land tilled by Colonists in Northwest China in the Han Dynasty] (Lanzhou: Lanzhou University Press, 1988). Wang Xilong 王 希隆, Qingdai xibei tuntian yanjiu 清代西北屯田研究 [Study on the Land tilled by Colonists in Northwest China in the Qing Dynasty] (Lanzhou: Lanzhou University Press, 1990). Zhao Lisheng 趙儷生, ed., Gudai xibei tuntian kaifashi 古代西北屯田開發史 [History of Exploiting the Land tilled by Colonists in Northwest in Ancient China] (Lanzhou: Gansu Culture Press, 1997). Some findings of the first two books are also included in the third one. 3 Hua Li 華立, Qingdai Xinjiang nongyeh kaifashi 清代新疆農業開發史 [History of Agricultural Exploitation in Xinjiang during the Qing Dynasty] (Haerbin: Heilongjiang Education Press, 1998). 4 Huang Shengzhang 黃盛璋, ed., Lüzhou yanjiu 綠洲研究 [The Oasis Study] (Beijing: The Science Press, 2003); Zhao Zhen 趙珍, Qingdai xibei shengtai bianqian yanjiu 清代西北生態變遷研究 [Study on Northwest Ecological Changes in the Qing Dynasty] (Beijing: The People’s Press, 2005). 100 The Tuntian system in Xinjiang under the Qing Dynasty created by the GIS team of Academia Sinica, based on The Chinese Historical Atlas (中國歷史地圖集) edited by Tan Qixiang 譚其驤.5 Laid on top of each map is the NASA Landsat 7 satellite image. In addition, this section uses The Map of the Western Region made by Imperial Order (欽定皇輿西域圖志) and The Draft Local Gazette of Xinjiang (新疆鄉土志稿) to identify the distribution of the Tuntian.6 The Tuntian system that developed in north-west China during Qing Dynasty included five categories: Bingtun (兵屯, land tilled by soldiers), Qitun (旗屯, land tilled by soldiers of the Banners), Qiantun (遣屯, land tilled by exiled criminals), Mintun (民屯, land tilled by civilians), and Huitun (回屯, land tilled by the Uyghur 維吾爾人). Each category had different institutional arrangements.7 In the Qing period, there were 127,000 colonists in Xinjiang; of them 22,200 were soldiers of the Green Standard Army (綠營兵屯), 14,800 were soldiers of the Eight Banners (八旗兵屯), 37,500 were civilians, 4,300 were Uyghur, and 9,200 were exiled criminals. The total land area tilled by the colonists measured 3,020,000 mou (畝, 2,012.83 million m2), of which 64 per cent was in northern Xinjiang where the agricultural oases existing today were formed mostly during the Qing period.8 (See Map 1.) The Bingtun system in north-west China was established in response to the war against the Dzungar (or Zhungar 準噶爾), who occupied Hami (哈密) in 1715.9 The Qing Government sent armies to fight against the Dzungar and set up Bingtun in western Mongolia, to the east of Jiayuguan (嘉峪關), and to the west of Turfan (吐魯番) for supplying military grain.10 From 1716, Bingtun were set up in Xinjiang consecutively at Balikun (巴里坤), Turfan and Hami. In the 1730s, Bingtun was interrupted when the Qing Government negotiated peace with the Dzungar. Later, the Qing Army entered Xinjiang to pacify rebellions and re-establish Bingtun. In 1757, three Bingtun of the Green Standard Army were established at the Gan (甘), Liang (涼) and Su (肅) garrisons. Until 1765, there were 18 Bingtun of various scales.11 5 This database, available at ccts.ascc.net/index.php?lang=zh-tw, was created by the GIS team of Academia Sinica under the leadership of I-chun Fan, co-author of this paper. We would like to thank Miss Pai Pi-ling 白璧玲 of the GIS team in helping to draw maps included in this paper. There is no conflict of property rights. 6 Fu Heng 傅恒 et al., comps, Qinting huangyu xiyu tuzhi 欽定皇輿西域圖志 [The Map of the Western Region made by Imperial Order] (Lanzhou: The Lanzhou Ancient Bookstore, 1990). Ma Dazheng 馬大正 and Hua Li 華立, eds, Xinjiang xiangtuzhi gao新疆鄉土志稿 [The Draft Local Gazette of Xinjiang] (Beijing: China National Microfilming Center for Library Resources, 1990). 7 Wang, Qingdai xibei tuntian yanjiu, 9. 8 Huang, Lüzhou yanjiu, 30. 9 Peter C. Perdue, China Marches West: The Qing Conquest of Central Eurasia (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2005), chaps 5, 6, and 7 for details of conflict between the Qing and the Dzungar; chap. 9 for military colonies (based mostly on Wang Xilong’s work). 10 Wang, Qingdai xibei tuntian yanjiu, 38–41, 44–45. 11 Wang, Qingdai xibei tuntian yanjiu, 47–51. 101 International Review of Environmental History • Volume 2, 2016 Map 1: The overall distribution of Tuntian in Qing Xinjiang. The peak period of developing Bingtun in Xinjiang was from 1736 to 1820. From 1821 onward, the Qing Government managed to develop agriculture in areas both to the north and to the south of the Tianshan (天山) Mountain; however, some Bingtun were withdrawn one after the other. In 1840, seven Bingtun at Turfan were withdrawn. In 1843, Bingtun at Altishahr (哈喇沙爾) and Wushi (烏什, i.e. Uchturpan) were also withdrawn. In 1853, the soldiers at Yili (伊犁) were withdrawn and 210 soldiers at Tarbahatai (塔爾巴哈台) were also removed. In 1863, Bingtun at the Middle, Left and Right garrisons of Urumqi (烏魯木齊), as well as those at Balikun, Mulei (木壘), Gucheng (古城), Kucha (庫車), and Jingho (精河), divided the land among soldiers, whose salaries were paid with agricultural produce. The labour of Bingtun comprised two categories: ‘shifting’ or migrant soldiers (換班屯兵) and soldiers with families (攜眷屯兵). In the beginning, the lands of Bingtun were cultivated mainly by migrant soldiers. In 1762, Balikun started to introduce soldiers with families, and then this practice was adopted at other localities. By 1850, there were more than 6,100 soldiers with families (71 per cent) and 2,517 migrant soldiers (29 per cent).12 12 Wang, Qingdai xibei tuntian yanjiu, 60–5. At Khobdo (科布多), the Bingtun had 100 migrant soldiers which are not included here as the locality is in Mongolia. 102 The Tuntian system in Xinjiang under the Qing Dynasty After the Dzungar were pacified, the Qitun in Xinjiang was managed by garrisons of the Eight Banners.
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    Report Title - p. 1 Report Title 16. Jahrhundert 1597 Geschichte : China - Europa : Deutschland Dresser, Matthaeus. Historien und Bericht, von dem newlicher Zeit erfundenen Königreich China, wie es nach umbstenden, so zu rechtmessigen Beschreibung gehören, darumb beschaffen. Item, von dem auch new erfundenen Lande Virginia. Jetzund auffs newe ubersehen, und mit einem Zusatz vermehret, nemlich : Wie es umb die Religion in Perser und Mohren land unter Priester Johan bewand sey. (Leipzig : Franz Schnellboltz, 1597). [Als Quelle dienten die ersten drei Bücher von Juan Gonzáles de Mendoza]. http://reader.digitale-sammlungen.de/de/fs1/object/display/bsb11211530_00005.html. [Wal 1] 17. Jahrhundert 1615-1618 Geschichte : China - Europa : Belgien / Geschichte : China - Europa : Deutschland / Mathematik und Geometrie / Naturwissenschaften / Religion : Christentum Nicolas Trigault wird von Nicolo Longobardi nach Europa geschickt, um für die chinesische Mission zu sammeln. Johannes Schreck und Nicolas Trigault reisen durch Europa um für mathematische Instrumente, naturwissenschaftliche, theologische und technische Bücher und finanzielle Hilfe für China zu werben. Deutsche Fürsten und Geistliche hatten viele Uhren gespendet. [Schu5:S. 183-184,Schre2] 1617 Geschichte : China - Europa : Deutschland Briefe von Maximilian I. und Elisabeth Herzogin von Bayern an den chinesischen Kaiser. Maximilians I. Brief enthält die christliche Heilsgeschichte und betrifft die Missionstätigkeit der Jesuiten. Elisabeth von Bayerns Brief an die Kaiserin von China betrifft die Marienverehrung in Bayern und die Rolle der Mutter Gottes. [Eike1] 1619 Geschichte : China - Europa : Deutschland Johann Adam Schall von Bell, der wegen seinen Kenntnissen in Mathematik und Astronomie nach China geschickt wird, kommt mit Nicolas Trigault, Johannes Schreck, Giacomo Rho, Francisco Furtado, Wenzel Pantaleon Kirwitzer und weiteren Jesuiten in Macao an.