72 ZNUV 2018;61(4);72-81

Tomasz Dziubecki Politechnika Białostocka

Progeny of Tholoses in the of . Part I

Summary

The paper presents analyses of antique tholos tradition in the English architecture in the 18th century, in context of the antique tradition perceived via the Bramante’s Tempietto as well as icono- graphical sources in prints, drawings and paintings.

Key words: tholos, English architecture, antique and renaissance tradition.

Tholos type buildings were not common in European architecture in the 18th century, except for two countries: England and . In 1729 an eminent English architect, Nicolas Hawksmoor (ca. 1661-1736), known for his unique of the palace Blenheim, in another residence – the Howard in North Yorkshire – created, as a gar- den pavilion, the mausoleum for 3rd Earl of Carlisle (who died in 1738). Question of what idea influenced Howksmoor, was widely discussed: in the correspond- ence to Lord Carlisle can be seen and archeological approach manifested by the archi- tect. The clasicist style of the Castle Howard Mausoleum reflects the basic influence of Bramante’s Tempietto in Rome (Summerson 1955, p. 167-168). [illustration 1-2] Its widely known image could be found in book IV, chapter XVII of the Palladio’s treatise, as well as in Sebastiano Serlio’s Il Terzo Libro di Sebastiano Serlio Bolognese (ed. Venetia 1544), where the Tempietto is presented under no. XLIII . There should be mentioned also an important – and above all local – paradigm, which evidently was the dome for London St. Paul’s designed in 1675 by Christopher Wren [illustration 3] The brilliant construction of the 3 layers dome, completed in 1710, has outside shape similar to the Tempietto – the basic difference is the size. Another example of use of the Bramante concept in a dome composition was the church of Ste Geneviève (1764-1790, since 1791 Pantheon) in , designed by Jacques Germain Sufflot. The resemblance was already noticed by Nicolaus Pevsner, who indicated the relation between them, saying that it was Soufflot who followed the Wren›s design (Pevsner 1972, p. 363; von Kalnein, Levey 1972, p. 321). The Castle Howard Mausoleum was criticized by Lord Burlington: in a letter to Lord Carlisle he expressed opinion on the proportions of the colonnade which in his opinion had no precedents in antiquity. Hawksmoor, who was Secretary to the Board of Works at Whitehall, was generally criticized for his architecture (as well as his master Sir Christopher Wren), because it was to be ”influenced by French and Italian architects” and character- TOMASZ DZIUBECKI 73

Illustration 1 Tempietto

 Source: photo M. Królikowska-Dziubecka.

Illustration 2 Tempietto, by Andrea Palladio

 Source: Palladio (1955). 74 PROGENY OF THOLOSES IN THE ARCHITECTURE OF CLASSICISM. PART I ized by “extravagance of Baroque Counter-Reformation architecture of Catholic Europe” (Cruickshank, Burton 1990; Parisien 2000, p. 60). One of the features of the Castle Howard tholos is number and size of windows, which – what is relatively rare – were located on the drum. This was against the classical tradition but here its purpose was to maximize enlight- enment of the interior.

Illustration 3 St. Paul’s Cathedral, London

 Source: as in Illustration 1.

Next example of the popularity of the model in English garden architecture was the Temple of Virtue in Stowe built in 1737, created by William Kent (1685-1748). [illustration 4] Kent travelled to Italy 1709-1719, when Richard Boyle, Third Lord of Burlington (1694- 1753) brought him back to England (see also Sicca 1986, p. 134-147, who underlined that his architecture was influenced also by antique Rome and not only by Palladio, what has been a prevailing idea – see Parisien op. cit. p. 89). His architectural activity started in the thirties. This temple is a tholos of 16 Ionic (number equal to the Tempietto), with 2 entrances (without doors), in the interior between the entrances there are 4 niches where statues of Homer, Socrates, Lycrotas and Epaminodas. The above described three architectural masterpieces: St. Paul’s Cathedral dome and two garden pavilions – the Lord’s Carlisle mausoleum in Castle Howard and the Temple of Virtue in Stowe – were created in the first decades of the 18th. century in England following TOMASZ DZIUBECKI 75 the paradigm of the Tempietto. In Hanoverian United Kingdom the atmosphere of research- ing new architectural language, the Bramante’s masterpiece was the answer, filtrated by the Palladianism (Honour 1972, p. 14; see also S. Parisien op. cit., p. 37-46).

Illustration 4 Stowe, Temple of Virtue 

Source: photo from the author’s collection.

The Tempietto played the pivotal rôle in the architectural tradition of tholos type build- ing in the early modern period architecture within a net of variety influences and traditions. Furthermore, the following statement of Vasari must have been of value, as he described the Tempietto „del quale non puó di proporzione, ordine e varietà imaginarsi...” (Vasari 1879, p. 160). The direct sample for Bramante was the Sybil (Vesta) temple in Tivoli. The architect visited the place personally, as stated by Vasari (Freiberg 2014, p. 71). We should remember the Tivoli temple was destroyed, just a fragment of Corinthian colonnade, part of the cella and no roof have been preserved. Tempietto furthermore belongs to a long tradition of an- tique and post antique tholos type structures, known to the architect›s circle. There should be indicated as the sources of inspiration two buildings, which were visited prior to erecting the Tempietto by cardinal Bernardino López da Carvajal (1455-1523), who was governor of Rome, member of the Roman Curia and representative of King Ferdinand of Aragon and Queen Isabela of Castilla to the Holy See. Cardinal Carvajal was entrusted by the king 76 PROGENY OF THOLOSES IN THE ARCHITECTURE OF CLASSICISM. PART I

Ferdinand with supervising the construction by Bramante the mausoleum dedicated to Peter on the Ianiculum Hill (eadem, p. 37). Thus visiting the Mausoleum of Theodoric in Ravenna, erected in 520-526, was of importance, as well as seeing the mausoleum of San Lorenzo Maggiore (dated 355-372) in Milan. It is worth mentioning that saint Lorenzo was a martyr coming from Spain. The Theodoric mausoleum in Ravenna, built on a ground plan of decagon, was covered with monolithic dome weighing ca. 300 tons of 10 m. diameter while the interior dome has a Greek cross plan of two crossed rib vaults. The inspiration for Bramante, confirmed by a drawing made in his circle, was only the external shape of the building consisting of a cylinder circled with arcades on pillars. San Lorenzo in Milan was visited by Bramante between August of 1496 and 1497, when he met cardinal Carvajal for the first time (ibid.). Architect could have studied then the cir- cular central structure, discussing its shape with the cardinal. The tholos tradition was developed also in drawing studies in the epoch of Italian Renaissance. Here we should indicate drawings by Francesco di Giorgio Martini (1439- 1502). The artist processed reconstructions of architecture in his drawings (Waters 2014, pp. 27-28 and 38). He showed also domed monuments in Rome he assumed were antique (Freiberg op. cit., 89-90). One was Vatican mausoleum of St. Petronilla, legendary daughter of St.Peter, where her relics were translated by pope Stephen II (752-757) from catacombs to the mausoleum of Emperor Honorius built in the 4th c. That chapel was then the burial place of the French kings and was demolished as the new was built (Mackie 2003, p. 59). The drawing of di Giorgio is precise and on the same plan as St. Andrew (Vatican Rotunda) dating 3rd century, demolished in 1777, which originally was a Severan mausoleum, con- verted by Pope Symmachus (498-514) into a church of St. Andrew the Apostle, drawn not only by Marten van Heemskerck, but also by Giovanni Battista Piranesi. Another sample coming from antique architecture was the Temple of Hercules Victor at the Piazza Bocca della Verità at Forum Boarium in Rome, existing until today.[illustration 5] Since the 16th c. it was widely known from drawing by Giovanni Antonio Dosio (1533-1611) and in the eighteen century above all via the print of Giovanni Battista Piranesi Veduta del Tempio di Cibele a Piazza della Veritá included in the serie Vedute di Roma. These prints were being executed from the 1740 onward and sold as individual sheets and the set of 135 eachings was edited in 1778. The temple bared various names, besides the name used by Piranesi, more common was of Hercules Victor or Vesta (notabene name used by Palladio). When the temple was converted into a Christian church, in 1132 obtained the name of S. Stefano alle Carrozze and finally since the 17th c. – S. Maria del Sole. Analysis of this building directs to the problem of roofing: the temple at Forum Boarium has not hemispherical dome but the conical roof type (on morphology of dome structure forms see Mirski 2002). We do not know what type of roof was covering it in antiquity, however we should analyse the tholoses of ancient Greek architecture (actually unknown TOMASZ DZIUBECKI 77 in Renaissance). There should be indicated the temple in Epidauros (ca. 360-320 B.C.) de- signed, as Pausanias stated, by Polykleitos the Younger. Exterior colonnade consisting of 26 Doric columns on stylobate of diameter ca.21 m. However it was destroyed in the 4th c. and the excavations started only in 1881, so its shape was unknown to early modern architects. Also the rotunda (not tholos, as there was no external colonnade) of Arsinoe in Samothraca (289-281 B.C.), large – diameter of 21 m. – was also unknown until 19th C. excavations. Nevertheless the two buildings were covered with a conical type roof of timber construction (McCredie et al. 1992; MacDonald 1976, p. 49).

Illustration 5 Temple of Hercules, Boarium Forum, Rome

 Source: as in Illustration 1.

One of the tholoses which could serve as a sample (a ruin today) was the Apollo temple in Delphi (IV c.B.C.), attributed by Vitruvius to Theodorus of Phokaia. During over the location of this antique place there was a village Kastri, which after an earthquake was moved way, so after 1893 excavation were begun. In the edition of 1545 of Nikolao Sophianos’s Totius Graeciae Descriptio (first edition 1540 – Tolias 2001, p. 1-22), Nicholas Gerbel Gerbellius, a German humanist (ca. 1485-1560), besides the pref- ace, included 21 woodcuts of some of the locations, including Delphi as a fortified city. Another visual source could be the one of the pictures by Claude Lorrain, painted in 1673 (The Art Institute of Chicago, Art Resource, Robert A. Waller Fund collection), showing 78 PROGENY OF THOLOSES IN THE ARCHITECTURE OF CLASSICISM. PART I the temple in Delphi in a Tempietto like shape located on a top of a hill. The painter was aquainted with antique paintings being discovered in the 1640-ties in Rome (Pace 2015, p. 308-315, the author writes it is resembling the Temple of Jupiter Feretrius on Capitol, however it was a peripteros type). However the most important source were the publica- tions of two travellers visiting Delphi: an English gentleman, sir George Wheleer (1650- 1723) graduate of Lincoln College of Oxford and Canon of Durham and a learned French Hellenist, dr. Jacop Spon (1647-1685). Spon published in three volumes in 1678 Voyage d’Italie, de Dalmatie, de Grèce et du levant and Wheler Journey to in 1682. They belonged to a group of travellers who „opened up Greece to Western inquiry” (Mordaunt Crook 1995, p. 4-5). The discussed temple of Hercules in Rome could actually follow the antique practice: such a roof could be seen also on the Vespasian aureus. The development of domed struc- tures in Roman architecture can be observed in public buildings like baths and market build- ings (MacDonald op. cit., p. 49-50). However it was the Sybil temple in Tivoli which was the most important sample. Pedigree of Tivoli Sybil temple was already indicated by Andrea Fulvio, antiquarian- scholar in 1527 in Antiquitates Urbis per Andream Fulvium antiquarium Ro. Nuperrime aeditae, Roma 1527 with drawing studies by van Heemskerck (Freiberg op. cit., p. 74). The question of tholos roofing should not avoid a research on the 15th century archi- tecture. At the beginning of Italian Renaissance there could be observed constructions like Brunelleschi’s Old Sacrity (1419-1429), as well as Pazzi Chapel (1429-1469) in . The two buildings have construction of a hemispherical solid domes inside and covered by a conical timber roofs outside. Tradition of such construction (internal hemispherical shape, exernal conical) can be seen in antique Roman architecture, for example in the temple of Mercury in Baie or, in late antique, S. Constanza (MacDonald op. cit., p. 50 and 106). The question arouses why in S. Constanza and in Florence the external part of the dome was not left as hemispherical but covered with a conical roof of timber construction. Such construction practice seems obvious – regardless any calculations were eventually made – that architects could have been afraid of the weight and quality of the material (concrete or brick) dome. The prevailing practice in medieval architecture was to construct double „shells” of internal groin or rib vaults and external timber roofs. Actually, that practice originating in antique and followed in medieval and early Renaissance construction edification, had been developed in a sophisticated way by Brunelleschi, who in 1419 created double shell dome of S. Maria del Fiore. The brunelleschi- an tradition influenced the early modern domes, just to mention the one by Michelangelo for S. Pietro in Vatican. It seems that the conical roof over tholoses was a practice of ancient Greeks and Italian Renaissance architects up to Bramante probably due to the construction TOMASZ DZIUBECKI 79 problem, while the Romans created (having mastered a proper quality of the concrete used) the hemispherical solid monolithic domes, with the eminent example of the Pantheon. Its progeny developed another way of construction. Alberti did not specify any detailed principles of constructions of domes, just writing: „The Cupola in its Nature is never placed but upon Walls that rise from a circular Platform; whether long or short, as we see in all sub erroneous Porticoes.”(The Architecture... 1755). This phrase clearly indicated that a dome can be edified over the solid wall, that is of a cella. Clearly seen hemispherical dome of the tholos was nobilitating the Ianiculum temple dedicated to St. Peter, referring to the famous Pantheon as well as to the symbolic visualisa- tion of Heavens (Fabiański 1984, p. 123). In the 17th c. the question of tholoses’ tradition was being developed in prints rather that in actual buildings. There were for example of sources like drawn studies by Giovanni Battista Montano (1534-1621) in Scielta di varii tempietti antichi con le piante et alzatte..., edited in 1624 (Knight 2008), or prints by Jacopo (Giacomo) Lauro in Antique Urbis splen- dor edited in Rome in 1612 and 1625. Montano drawn a number of tholos type structures. However, within Montano’s drawings (kept in the Soane Museum collection), there can be indicated more reconstructed temples and tombs, which could have also influenced early modern architects with an idea of tholos type structures, that is a cylinder crowned with hemispherical dome and exterior colonnade. Another example of English architecture there should be indicated is the Temple of Aeolus in Kew Gardens designed by sir William Chambers. The original non existing structure was a timber construction, which was rebuilt in 1845. It was an eight columns monopteros in Tuscan order (see Temple of Victory of 1759 or Temple of Bellona of 1760 in Kew, designed also by Chambers, non-existing but can be seen on a series of Twenty-Four Drawings on Stone, engraved by Charles Hullmandel (1789-1850); also Kwiatkowski 1971, p. 359). In 1765 in Coleen Campbell’s Stourhead Park Henry Flitcroft designed Apollo Temple. This one beside of Tempietto shape got some features of the Temple of Venus in Baalbec. The interesting feature of the undulating entablature was used by Francesco Borromini in the lantern of Sant’ Ivo alla Sapienza in Rome (1642-1660). The question of use by Borromini the sample of the Baalbec temple was discussed, together with the general problem of knowl- edge of the ruins of the Middle East antique architecture. However there should be indicated that already the baroque architects, as well as those of the 18th c. posesed knowledge on some buildings in Petra, Palmyra or Baalbec via various drawings and prints, also written descrip- tions (Dziubecki 2014, p. 216-218). It is unique that in Stourhead the architects used the high renaissance Tempietto com- bined with the high baroque Borrominesque feature, both related to antiquity. Such an eclec- ticism became popular in the 2nd half of the 18th c. (see Tatarkiewicz 1972, p. 78). 80 PROGENY OF THOLOSES IN THE ARCHITECTURE OF CLASSICISM. PART I

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Dziedzictwo tolosu w architekturze klasycyzmu. Część I

Streszczenie

W artykule dokonano analizy architektury tolosów w architekturze osiemnastowiecznej Anglii w kontekście tradycji antycznej oraz nowożytnych przekazów ikonograficznych w grafice, rysunkach i malarstwie. Podejmuje także kwestię konstrukcji ich zwieńczenia w formie stożków bądź kopuł. Tolosy występowały przede wszystkim jako pawilony ogrodowe, natomiast ich kluczowym wzorem było Tempietto Bramantego.

Słowa kluczowe: tolos, architektura Anglii, tradycja antyczna i renesansowa.

Artykuł zaakceptowany do druku w 2018 r.

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Afiliacja: dr Tomasz Dziubecki Politechnika Białostocka Wydział Architektury Pracownia Historii Architektury i Konserwacji Zabytków ul. Oskara Sosnowskiego 11 15-893 Białystok e-mail: [email protected]