Global

histories a student journal

Envisioning (In)dependent Filastin: Agrochemicals and the Synthetic Age in British-Ruled Omri Polatsek

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.17169/GHSJ.2021.423

Source: Global Histories, Vol. 7, No. 1 (May 2021), pp. 78-110. ISSN: 2366-780X

Copyright © 2021 Omri Polatsek

License URL: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

Publisher information: ‘Global Histories: A Student Journal’ is an open-access bi-annual journal founded in 2015 by students of the M.A. program Global History at Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin. ‘Global Histories’ is published by an editorial board of Global History students in association with the Freie Universität Berlin.

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Contact information: For more information, please consult our website www.globalhistories.com or contact the editor at: [email protected]. Envisioning (In)dependent Filastin: Agrochemicals and the Synthetic Age in British-Ruled Palestine

by OMRI POLATSEK

78 Global Histories: a student journal | VII - 1 - 2021 O m r i P ABSTRACT o l a t s e k

By reconstructing the history of Imperial Chemical Industries

|

Levant activities and examining Husni al-Miqdadi’s writings (one E n v i s o g ( I ) d e p t F l a of ICI Levant’s agents), this article explores the crystallization of the Synthetic Age in British-ruled Palestine. As ICI Levant was the leading local importer of agrochemicals to Palestine, it held a significant position for Zionist-Jews and Arab-Palestinians, both seeking to transform the economic basis of the land in order to materialize a future national economy that would be based on agriculture. After describing the interdependence between the Synthetic Age and British Imperialism in the first section, the article depicts the company’s local and regional activity and explores Arab-Palestinians reaction to its expansion in the second and third sections. In the last section, it studies the activities and writings of one of the company’s agents, Reconstructing al-Miqdadi’s work .(المقدادي) Husni al-Miqdadi vis-à-vis ICI’s local and regional activity reveals the material and social entanglements between the national-local and imperial- global, resulting from the new ‘chemical possibilities’ generated by British Imperialism. This article argues that al-Miqdadi's specific expertise as a fertilizer expert was a product of a substantial change that took place during the interwar period– the rising flow of synthetic agrochemicals to Palestine and the Middle East. As the Synthetic Age was set into motion by imperial infrastructure and colonial mindsets, its material and conceptual aspects shaped the interactions between local and imperial actors and enabled experts like al-Miqdadi to join in and expand the discourse of Arab-Palestinian nahda.

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Omri Polatsek is an MA student at the Middle Eastern and African History department at University. Currently, he is a visiting student at the Global History Department at Freie Universität Berlin. Omri’s master thesis explores the history of synthetic agrochemicals in British-ruled Palestine, focusing on the role of ‘chemical agents’ (companies, chemists, and double- potential chemical substances) in shaping changing ideas and material transformations.

Global Histories: a student journal | VII - 1 - 2021 79 INTRODUCTION Filastin, a based Arab- Palestinian newspaper, that “the On an early morning in agent of the department gave this January 1946, eight armed men huge quantity [of sodium nitrate] to and women broke into the offices this Jewish man, while [previously] he of Imperial Chemical Industries did not want to give the officials from Levant at Salame Road, Tel Aviv. Hebron Municipality 150 kilograms The single guard was no match of sodium nitrate without a police for this trained group. As he was escort?”3 Typically, the transportation E n v i s o g ( I ) d e p t F l a |

chloroformed and tied, other team of hazardous chemical substances in members spread pepper across the Palestine was accompanied by police

o l a t s e k floor in order to prevent the police or army forces. The writer explained dogs from tracing their scent. The that previously, when representatives

O m r i P group quickly left, carrying ten tons of Hebron municipality picked up of sodium nitrate in two unidentified sodium nitrate from the harbor, trucks.1 This meticulously planned they had to wait until the arrival robbery was not the only one taking of 11 armed soldiers to escort place after the Second World War them back to Hebron. The Filastin in British-ruled Palestine, however. correspondent was dumbfounded A more peculiar case happened a by the company’s naiveté and few months earlier at Haifa, when speculated whether there were any in November 1945, an unknown other motives beyond it.4 man arrived at the warehouses of This article will set out to Imperial Chemical Industries Levant explore Imperial Chemical Industries enquiring about goods he claimed Levant, the company that lost dozens he had to transport. After presenting of synthetic chemicals in 1946, and himself as a representative of Hebron one of its Arab-Palestinian agents.5 municipality and showing the guard During the interwar period, Imperial his certificates, the local official gave Chemical Industries was working on him five tons of sodium nitrate.2 a global scale, setting up branches “How is it possible?” all over the and selling wondered a correspondent from its products worldwide.6 In the Middle East, the company’s main branches were in British-ruled Palestine. The 1 “Jews Raid Store,” The Scotsman, 16 January 1946; “Shod 10 ton natran hankati” [“Ten Tons of Sodium Nitrate 3 “Al-’irhabyun al-yahud yakhtalasun Stolen”] Ha’aretz, 16 January 1946. 5 atnan mutafajjirat” [“The Jewish 2 “5 ton homrey-nefets huts’au Terrorist Stole Five Tons of bemirma?” [“Five Tons of Explosives Explosives”] Filastin, 02 December Taken in Deceit?”] Ha’aretz, 03 1945. December 1945; “Mehapsim 5 ton 4 Filastin, 02 December 1945. homrey-nefets” [“Searching for Five 5 Hereafter: ICI Levant. Tons of Explosives”] LaHayal, 04 6 Hereafter: ICI (referring to the mother December 1945. company in London).

80 Global Histories: a student journal | VII - 1 - 2021 O m r i P company’s personnel, products, and local and imperial-global, which ideas were prevalent in Palestine resulted from the new ‘chemical o l a t s e k during a specific historical moment possibilities’ generated by British

| when synthetic chemicals became imperialism between both world E n v i s o g ( I ) d e p t F l a common both for domestic and wars. industrial usages. In the agricultural While in the case of these realm, this moment during the two robberies, the synthetic fertilizers interwar period marked a shift were most likely used by the Jewish towards a mounting application anti-imperial forces to blow up British of synthetically made fertilizers, infrastructure, their original role was pesticides, and herbicides.7 to nourish various fields and orchards As this article will seek to in Palestine. In 1946, at the time of demonstrate, Husni al-Miqdadi these robberies, synthetic fertilizers who was working for the were often employed in intensive ,(المقدادي) company as a consultant and sales ‘modern’ agriculture schemes agent, was well-aware of the and used in various cultivation possibilities generated from ICI’s fields in British-ruled Palestine, chemical products. As a fertilizer the British empire, and around the specialist, he was informed of the world.8 While the consumption of potential for agrochemicals to synthetic agrochemicals outside enhance the economic value of Europe and North America was extracted from orange cultivation— gradually spreading through the Palestine’s most lucrative export crop. interwar period, the history of this From his ‘expert’ position, al-Miqdadi agricultural-industrial transformation sought to contribute to the prevalent remains unresearched. Historical national economic-awakening accounts on synthetic fertilizers discourse. By focusing on al- and pesticides are centered around Miqdadi’s work vis-à-vis the North America and Western Europe.9 company’s regional activity, this study will highlight the material and social entanglements between the national- 8 Corey Ross, Ecology and Power in the Age of Empire: Europe and the Transformation of the Tropical World (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 7 Edward Melillo, “The First Green 2017). Revolution: Debt Peonage and the 9 Vaclav Smil, Enriching the Earth: Making of the Nitrogen Fertilizers Fritz Haber, Carl Bosch, and the Trade, 1840-1930,” The American Transformation of World Food Historical Review 117, no. 4 (2012): Production (Cambridge, MA: The MIT 1053-56, https://doi.org/10.1093/ Press, 2000); David Kinkela, DDT ahr/117.4.1028; Edmund Russell, War & The American Century: Global and Nature: Fighting Humans and Health, Environmental Politics and Insects with chemicals from World the Pesticide that Change the to Silent Spring (Cambridge: (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Cambridge University Press, 2001), Carolina Press, 2011); Russell, War 53-73. and Nature. Historical scholarship on

Global Histories: a student journal | VII - 1 - 2021 81 Likewise, conventional histories while the emerging ties between of chemical infrastructure were imperial states and chemical written solemnly through nation- companies during the interwar centered and comparative national period has been accounted for, the history paradigms, dealing primarily consequences of this collaboration with industries located in the Euro- overseas has been completely American metropoles.10 As a result, neglected.11 The historiography on chemical companies and synthetic agrochemicals do not consider E n v i s o g ( I ) d e p t F l a |

organic fertilizers focuses on Latin the fact that the global change in America. For example, see Melillo, production, circulation, and usages of

o l a t s e k “The First Green Revolution”; Gregory synthetic substances was also based Cushman, Guano and the Opening of on imperial infrastructure and colonial the Pacific World: A Global Ecological O m r i P History (Cambridge: Cambridge networks. Who were the actors University Press, 2013). behind the flow of agrochemicals 10 Monica J. Casper, “Introduction: from the laboratory to the field and Chemical Matters,” in Synthetic from the factory to the orchard? How Planet: Chemical Politics and the did chemical companies interweave Hazards of Modern Life (New York: Routledge, 2003), xv-xvi; on the their overseas activities into the chemical industry in North America imperial apparatus? How did the and its relations to nationalism possibilities generated by synthetic see Kathryn Steen, The American chemicals and imperial infrastructure Synthetic Organic Chemicals Industry: shape local agents’ visions and War and Politics, 1910-1930 (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina imaginations? This article will attempt Press, 2014); on the German chemical to fill this historiographical gap by industry and its relationship with the answering these questions, focusing state (and to two world wars) see on ICI Levant’s operations and Diarmuid Jeffreys, Hell’s Cartel: IG personnel in British-ruled Palestine. Farben and the Making of Hitler’s War Machine (London: Bloomsbury, 2009); for the British government’s close ties with the chemical industry see Arnaud Page, “’The Greatest example, see Robert Vitalis, America’s Victory which the Chemist had Won Kingdom: Mythmaking on the Saudi in the Fight (…) Against Nature’: Oil Frontier (Stanford, CA: Stanford Nitrogenous Fertilizers in Great University Press, 2006); Katayoun Britain and the British Empire, Shafiee, Machineries of Oil: An 1910s-1950s,” History of Science, Infrastructural History of BP in Iran 54, no. 4 (2016): 383-398, https:// (Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, doi.org/10.1177/0073275316681801; 2018); Timothy Mitchell, Carbon on the British chemical industry Democracy: Political Power in the Age see W.J. Reader, Imperial Chemical of Oil (New York: Verso, 2011). Industries: A History Vol. II (London: 11 For examples in Germany and the Oxford University Press, 1970), 32- British Empire, see Jeffreys, Hell’s 46, 318-364. Middle East historians Cartel; Page, “Nitrogenous Fertilizers who research chemical industries in Great Britain and the British are mostly focused on oil. For Empire“.

82 Global Histories: a student journal | VII - 1 - 2021 O m r i P Starting from the 1920s, a structural framework it will also

Western experts had started to serve here as a first step to revealing o l a t s e k address this industrial transformation the synthetic-chemical dependent

| and applauded the potential of agricultural-industrial transformation E n v i s o g ( I ) d e p t F l a ‘unlimited’ usage of man-made that was taking place in Palestine chemical substances by articulating during the interwar period more their current era as the Synthetic broadly. Thus, the Synthetic Age Age.12 This expression has been will point to the cross-fertilization used in the context of various between the intellectual and interactions between humans and material dimensions of the mass synthetics ever since.13 Recently, production, circulation, and usages the term has been remodeled by of synthetic chemicals around the Mortiz von Brescius as a conceptual British empire. By focusing on ICI as framework. He employs the term an ‘intermediate’ between the local to explore the expectations and and the global, this article intends anticipations stimulated by chemical to demonstrate that the Synthetic science and synthetic substances Age was gradually materializing from the 1830s onwards.14 Exploring outside of the ‘West’ as it was set al-Miqdadi’s professional life and into motion by imperial infrastructure writings, this article will extend and colonial mindsets. In this von Brescius’ conceptualization of historical moment, the company the Synthetic Age, not in time but took an active part in the industrial- in space, in order to include non- agricultural transformation in British- Western “horizons of expectations” ruled Palestine. The material and conceived from the new potentials conceptual aspects of the Synthetic of synthetic chemistry.15 Furthermore, Age enabled experts like al-Miqdadi this spatial sway from previous to join in and expand the discourse of and contemporary articulations of national economic Arab-Palestinian the Synthetic Age will allow me to independence. inject it with new analytical vigor. As This article has four sections. In the first part, I will provide an account of the Synthetic Age’s global 12 Edward D. Melillo, “Global dimensions and highlight the British Entomologies: Insects, Empires, and the ‘Synthetic Age’ in World History,” empire’s role in setting the Synthetic Past and Present 223 (May 2014): Age into motion outside of Europe 257-260, https://doi.org/10.1093/pastj/ and North America. Against this gtt026. structural backdrop, the second 13 Melillo, “Global Entomologies,” 257- section will demonstrate that Imperial 260. 14 Universität Bern, Historisches Institut, Chemical Industries Levant, ICI’s Dr. Moritz von Brescius, accessed 03 regional sub-company, served as an May 2021, https://www.hist.unibe.ch/ intermediate by connecting British ueber_uns/personen/von_brescius_ chemical factories and laboratories to moritz/index_ger.html. Palestinian and regional cultivation 15 This term is taken from von Brescius.

Global Histories: a student journal | VII - 1 - 2021 83 fields. By focusing on the company’s Nonetheless, those works, which activity, I suggest that the Synthetic mainly focus on pesticides and Age materialized in relation to, and as other toxic chemicals, are limited a consequence of, British imperialism chronologically to the 1960s onwards. in the Middle East. In the third As Timothy Mitchell has shown, the section, I will zoom in on the excessive consumption of synthetics relationship between ICI Levant and had caused troubles much earlier. In the Arab-Palestinian middle-class by Mitchell’s famous account Can the analyzing newspaper coverage on Mosquito Speak?, the mosquitoes E n v i s o g ( I ) d e p t F l a |

the company’s activities. In doing so, I were only one aspect leading to will demonstrate that this the death of tens of thousands of 16 o l a t s e k conversation was part of a broader Egyptians in 1944. As the Nile discussion taking place in British- Valley could not quench its thirst for

O m r i P ruled Palestine about ‘economy- ammonium nitrate, the dependence making’ and national independence. of Egypt’s agricultural cultivation on In the fourth and last section, I will synthetic fertilizers caused a major focus on al-Miqdadi’s work. As food crisis when the import of these mentioned before, al-Miqdadi sought fertilizers came to a halt during World to contribute to the prevalent War II.17 This ‘chemical addiction’ was discourse of Arab-Palestinian a symptom of a growing dependency ‘economy-making’ with his specific on synthetic chemicals outside of chemical-agricultural expertise. Europe and North America. This Furthermore, his writings reveal points to the spatial expansion of another aspect of this economic the global Synthetic Age outside of vision, as they were part of a broader the chemical metropolises, which intellectual discourse which sought to were located in the US, Britain, and animate an Arab economic nahda Germany. ,Since the interwar period .(النهضة) the mass-production of synthetic chemical substances18 came to THE SYNTHETIC AGE OUTSIDE play a major role in the making OF THE ‘WEST’ of economies and nations.19 As

In hindsight, one cannot think about synthetic chemicals without 16 Timothy Mitchell, Rule of Experts: addressing the hazardous aftermaths Egypt, Techno-politics, Modernity generated by their mass production (Berkeley, CA: University of California and worldwide usage. The global Press, 2002), 19-53. 17 Mitchell, Rule of Experts, 25. environmental movement, which 18 Pharmaceuticals, dyes, fertilizers, and materialized during the 1960s, led explosives. to historical research scrutinizing 19 David Edgerton, The Shock of the the dangerous outcomes of mass Old: Technology and Global History application of synthetic chemicals. since 1900 (London: Profile Books, 2006), 119-122.

84 Global Histories: a student journal | VII - 1 - 2021 O m r i P noted earlier, the emerging ties British development policy around between imperial states and the empire. o l a t s e k chemical companies led to the The Synthetic Age overseas,

| growing importance of chemists however, was not limited to the E n v i s o g ( I ) d e p t F l a and chemistry as a part of the establishment of new chemical state apparatus.20 From an imperial factories alone. As the colonial perspective, establishing various spaces served as a captive market for chemical industries outside of the British manufactured goods, British- British islands was considered a made chemicals flowed throughout project equally as crucial as other the globe, arriving at the various infrastructural schemes of ‘high- colonies and protectorates. Outside modernism’, such as ports, train rails, of the British isles, the British empire’s dams, and electrical systems.21 As infrastructure and its preferential the Synthetic Age took shape in the tariffs contributed to the circulation of colonial space, functioning (Petro-) synthetic chemicals. New industrial chemical industries increasingly technologies developed during became an imperative for executing the First World War had made chemical substances available and necessary to various industrial mass- 22 20 In this context Fritz Haber and Carl productions. In the colonial space, Bosch, the German chemists and this translated both to a growing industrialists, come to mind. Their dependency on synthetic (agro) mutual work on nitrogen fixation led chemicals and the establishment to the mass production of ammonia during WWI. This chemical technique of chemical factories. For example, is mostly known today as the the two main development projects Haber-Bosch process. After the war, of British rule in Palestine, the Haifa industrialists and chemists were in Harbor and the Dead Sea industries, a close relationship with the state, were, in fact, dependent on imported which culminated once again with IG Farben’s intimate collaboration with chemical substances. The explosives the Nazi regime. In the British-Jewish that were reshaping the harbor context, Alfred Mond and Chaim were ignited by chemicals made in Weizmann, who will be introduced Britain, and the mass production of in the next sections, were both potash, bromine, and other chemical chemists and industrialists. Both also held prominent social and economic substances at the Dead Sea was positions between London and dependent on the importation of . other chemicals.23 Furthermore, 21 Robert Vitalis, When Capitalists Collide: Business Conflict and the End of Empire in Egypt (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 22 Roy MacLeod and Jeffrey Johnson, 1995), 78-80; Jacob Norris, Land of eds., Frontline and Factory: Progress: Palestine in the Age of Comparative Perspectives on the Colonial Development, 1905-1948 Chemical Industry at War 1914- 1924 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, (New York: Springer, 2006). 2013), 100-110, 139-142. 23 For the British manufactured

Global Histories: a student journal | VII - 1 - 2021 85 during the interwar period, the minerals).24 Therefore, there is reason continuous distribution of synthetic to argue that the global history of the chemicals was fundamental to the Synthetic Age was set into motion by mechanization and industrialization of imperial infrastructure and colonial the colonized states (cultivating more mindsets. crops, fighting pesticides, producing British-ruled Palestine provides a suitable case for this local unfolding of a global phenomenon. During this period E n v i s o g ( I ) d e p t F l a |

explosives, see letter from Chillik British policymakers, Arab-Palestinian Weizmann to , capitalists, and Jewish experts

o l a t s e k 28/01/1930, 14-1363, Weizmann sought to transform the economic Archives (hereafter: WA); the basis of the land and to ‘develop’ the Chemical industry at the Dead Sea O m r i P imported chlorine from France and Palestinian economy via agriculture, Britain until the eruption of WWI. It industry, and commerce. While was used for bromine production, the British colonial administrators which had strategic importance were guided by imperial economic for the British during the war. See interests, the Arab-Palestinians and Moshe Novomeysky, “Palestine Potash LTD: A Potential Producer Zionist-Jews strove to create and of Some Chemicals Needed by bolster their own national economies Palestine, Dominions, and/or while linking them to the regional Israel State and imperial markets based on the ,-5061/16מ ,”.The U.K Archives (hereafter: ISA). During empire’s infrastructure.25 For these the war chlorine was produced at a new factory, which was funded various actors, Palestine offered by the British government, at the an economy that would be based Dead Sea industrial complex. Most on agriculture and minerals.26 As of the sulfur used for chlorine production came from Gaza sulfur quarries. The massive production of chlorine during the war might have 24 Ross, Ecology and Power in the Age caused the depletion of the sulfur of Empire, 282-291. from Gaza, as the ‘Gaza Quarries 25 For British interest in Palestine see Ltd’ did not last long after the war Jacob Norris, Land of Progress; had ended. In addition, as Moshe Sherene Seikaly’s ‘men of capital’ Novomeysky, entrepreneur of the used their economic journal to Dead Sea industries, mentioned in conceptualize a regional economy. the memorandum quoted above, the Sherene Seikaly, Men of Capital: chlorine could be used as ‘military Scarcity and Economy in Mandate poison gas’. While usually WWI is Palestine (Stanford, CA: Stanford remembered as the war where University Press, 2016); for the Jewish chemical warfare was most prevalent articulation of regional economy see in the battlefield, articles from that the many issues of Palestine and period mention a “British poison gas Middle East: Economic Magazine, Tel made in Palestine” that was used Aviv, Mishar veta’asia co., 1926-1945. to attack Nazi soldiers. See “British 26 This conception was shared by Poison Gas Made in Palestine,” The the British, Zionist-Jews, and Arab- Sunday Post, 17 December 1939. Palestinians, and also by other

86 Global Histories: a student journal | VII - 1 - 2021 O m r i P agrochemicals became synonymous and its preferential tariffs helped the with ‘modern agriculture,’27 and company to expand its operations o l a t s e k chemical industries became an to most of the British colonies

30 | imperative in the colonies, global overseas. If Barclays Bank was the E n v i s o g ( I ) d e p t F l a chemical companies thus used the bank of the empire, supplying capital novel global order after World War I for undertakings in the colonies, to expand their operations.28 then ICI can be conceptualized as the chemical company of the empire, supplying various industries overseas A CHEMICAL IMPERIAL with synthetic and organic chemical INDUSTRY IN BRITISH-RULED substances. In fact, ICI was one of the PALESTINE biggest companies for chemicals on earth until it began to sell its assets One major chemical actor, in the late 1990s to early 2000s, and operating both on local and global was finally taken over by another scales, was Imperial Chemical major chemical company in 2008.31 Industries. The company was Following the British established in Great Britain in occupation of new territories after 1926, when four British chemical World War I, and after the formation companies joined their business and ratification of the mandates operations with the support of system, the company established the British government in order several branches in the Middle East. to establish synthetic nitrogen For this purpose, two sub-companies factories.29 Through the years, ICI were founded– ICI Egypt and ICI absorbed other chemical companies Levant. Whereas the first branch and expanded its production to operated only in Egypt, the second, various chemical products. The which was established in 1928, infrastructure of the British empire administered the company’s activities in Palestine, Syria, Iraq, Lebanon, Turkey, and Cyprus.32 These commentators. For an American example see Frank Adams, “Palestine Agriculture,” The Annals of the 30 D.W.F Hardie, A History of the Modern American Academy of Political and British Chemical Industry (Oxford: Social Science 164 (1932): 72-83, Pergamon Press, 1966), 300. https://doi.org/10.1177/000271623216 31 “Unsticking ICI,” The Economist, 11 400111. August 2007, accessed: 03 May 27 Edward Melillo, “The First Green 2021, https://www.economist.com/ Revolution,” 1031-1034. business/2007/08/09/unsticking-ici. 28 W.J. Reader, Imperial Chemical 32 Page, “Nitrogenous Fertilizers in Industries: A History. Vol. I: The Great Britain and the British Empire,” Forerunners 1870-1926 (London: 391; on the Egyptian branch see Oxford University Press, 1970), 317- Robert Vitalis, When Capitalists 328, 394-413. Collide: Business Conflict and the 29 Reader, Imperial Chemical Industries: End of Empire in Egypt (Berkeley, A History. Vol. II, 1-12. CA: University of California Press,

Global Histories: a student journal | VII - 1 - 2021 87 branches worked together under the inauguration ceremony, Mackie gave mother company of ICI in London.33 a speech in which he articulated the By 1931, the Jewish press celebrated newly local industrial dependence the company’s early success both in on the flow of global chemical Palestine and throughout the region, substances to Palestine. While and highlighted Chillik Weizmann’s it is safe to assume that he was crucial role in it.34 Yechiel (Chillik) advocating for the usage of his own Weizmann was the first manager of company’s products, Mackie was ICI Levant and the younger brother also pinpointing the transformation in E n v i s o g ( I ) d e p t F l a |

of Chaim Weizmann, who headed the global industrial consumption of the World Zionist Organization.35 In synthetic chemical substances:

o l a t s e k Palestine, Chillik Weizmann was the trusted right hand man for Alfred “It is a truism that chemicals

O m r i P Mond, who was himself the head of form the foundation of modern ICI’s mother branch in London. industry. There is scarcely any Weizmann was replaced form of industrial activity that is in 1936 by J. B. Mackie. At his not dependent on a very large extent in an assured supply of chemicals on whose quality and 1995), 78-80. Vitalis reviews the reliability complete confidence Egyptian government and Egyptian can be placed.”36 capitalists’ negotiations with ICI on the establishment of a new This change was also hydroelectrical powerplant which would produce fertilizers. noticed a few years before. In 33 Letter from I. Melamed to Chief 1933, the Sheffield Independent, a Secretary, Government of Palestine, northern England daily newspaper, ‘Telephone Facilities – Baghdad and was astonished by the ‘striking development’ of Palestine’s ,-114/32מ ,Cairo’, 22 December 1942 ISA. 34 “I.C.I Be’erets-israel” [“ICI in Eretz industries, linking it to ICI’s products Israel”] Doar Hayom, 01 May 1931. and to the British chemical colonial 35 Like Alfred Mond, who will be enterprise.37 Reporting from ICI introduced shortly, Chaim Weizmann Levant’s pavilion at the Anglo- was also an industrial chemist. He Palestinian Expo at Tel Aviv, the gained his fame and capital helping the British during WWI with the paper elaborated on the local usages mass production of war chemicals of British manufactured chemicals: from starch. One American-Jewish newspaper even remarked that “[t] “There are shown specimens he 1917 derived of wheat grown with English partly from Weizmann’s science.” See “A Scientist-Statesman,” The Reform Advocate, 26 January 1940. This goes to further highlight the role of 36 “British Chemicals in Our Industry,” chemists in the service of the state/ The Palestine Post, 29 May 1936. imperial apparatus during the interwar 37 “Striking Example of I.C.I.’s Enterprise,” period. Sheffield Independent, 09 June 1933.

88 Global Histories: a student journal | VII - 1 - 2021 O m r i P o l a t s e k

| E n v i s o g ( I ) d e p t F l a

FIGURE 1: CI Levant’s brochure at the Levant Fair (between 1932-36). “Levant Fair. Official Publications,” V 3090/43, The National Library of Israel.

Global Histories: a student journal | VII - 1 - 2021 89 FIGURE 2: “Great Britain consumes 85% percent of your oranges- buy British fertilizers.” “Be sure that the British fertilizers are the finest.” Al-Iqtisadat al- ‘arabiyya I(14), 15 July 1935. Jrayed Collection: Arabic Newspapers of Ottoman and , jrayed. nli.org.il, founded by the National Library of Israel.

fertilizers by Syrian Sheiks; the Three years later at the King David Hotel at Jerusalem Levant Fair (another commercial decorated with the paints made exhibition), Palestine Post’s at Slough; different qualities of correspondent also pointed to the soap made in Palestine with many usages of British chemicals English chemicals […]; buses in in the local economy as he was Tel Aviv upholstered in Rexine; reporting from the ICI Levant pavilion. where, also, baking powder is From his account, the large degree already being made from English to which chemical substances played ingredients.”38 a crucial role in agricultural and industrial schemes is evident. As he described:

38 Ibid.

90 Global Histories: a student journal | VII - 1 - 2021 O m r i P “A striking colored chart in the marked with dollar signs. While they

center of the exhibit shows are not visible, we can speculate that o l a t s e k the industrial uses to which ICI these boxes are filled with packed

41 |

chemicals are put in Palestine. oranges. This advertisement hints E n v i s o g ( I ) d e p t F l a They play a prominent part at the novelty of synthetic chemicals in the making of food, drink, in Palestine, as it captures a historical tabaco products, textiles, metals, moment in which the Synthetic Age engineering and electrical came into materialization in the equipment, leather, chemicals Middle East and vividly illustrates the and dyes, paint and paper, imperial flow of synthetic chemicals. bricks, pottery and glass, and Here ICI Levant serves as an oils and soap, as well as in ‘intermediate,’ which drew British- agricultural production.”39 ruled Palestine into global-imperial chemical networks. Right from its onset, ICI In addition to the products Levant published commercials in mentioned above, ICI Levant sold Hebrew, English, and Arabic, urging other chemical novelties. During the readers to buy the company’s 1930s, the company was importing products.40 In addition to plain various chemical substances to text boxes describing its wares Palestine, including different kinds as shown in Figure 1, other lively of fertilizers, weapons, explosives, advertisements displayed the new and dyes.42 In the early 1940s, one relationship between British synthetic could find ICI Levant’s pesticides and chemicals and the agriculture of herbicides at various Arab-Palestinian Palestine. Figure 2 is taken from the dealers in Haifa, Jerusalem, Ramallah, front page of Al-Iqtisadat al-‘arabiyya Gaza, Jenin, Acre, Nazareth, (The Arab Economic Journal), an Bethlehem, Jaffa, and Tiberias and Arab-Palestinian economic periodical. Tulkarem.43 In addition, during the Portrayed on the left side is the Second World War, the Palestinian British industrialist who loads the government appointed it almost ship with British fertilizers, which exclusively to be in charge of the travel to Haifa’s harbor. Returning to importation of chemical fertilizers the British isles are marching boxes to the country,44 thus making the

39 “At the Levant Fair,” The Palestine 41 Al-Iqtisadat al-‘arabiyya I (14), 15 July Post 01 June 1936. 1935. 40 For English, see The Palestine Post, 42 Ta‘asiyot Himi’yot Mamlahti’yot 10 January 1945; The Palestine Post, (Levant ba‘am), Yafo: Dfus M. Shoham, 21 June 1935; Al-Carmel, 31 August unknown year. 1932; Al-Carmel, 11 November 1933. 43 Plant Protection Services, Jerusalem, .ISA ,-634/9מ ,And many more in the following 02 March 1942 newspapers: Filastin, Al-Sirat, Al- 44 Letter from Controller of Agricultural Carmel, Al-Jami’a al-’arabiyya and Production to Chief Secretary, Al-Iqtisadat al-‘arabiyya. Government of Palestine, 24/02/1945,

Global Histories: a student journal | VII - 1 - 2021 91 company the largest importer of field experiment station or during agrochemicals to Palestine.45 a committee meeting discussing ICI Levant did not only sell plant protection,49 the company held various chemical substances– intimate ties with both Jewish and its experts were also involved British agricultural experts. with the local field of agricultural Since synthetic fertilizers and experimentation. Fertilizers other chemicals were relatively new produced by ICI were used in various and were in constant development, agricultural stations all over Palestine, ICI Levant took it upon itself to E n v i s o g ( I ) d e p t F l a |

and its synthetic pesticides were ‘educate’ local farmers on using used to control different pests. For its products. As mentioned in its

o l a t s e k instance, Jewish farmers reported brochure, it was in fact the company’s back to ICI Levant on the results of trademark to provide free expert

O m r i P their fumigation efforts against black assistance.50 For example, experts scales and hornets,46 and locust sent by the company to Tulkarem in attacks in Palestine were pushed 1930 had demonstrated to the local back with synthetic pesticides farmers how to use the fertilizers.51 produced by ICI.47 The massive Furthermore, one of the first actions campaign against locusts held all taken by the company right after over the Middle East during the hiring sales representatives was to Second World War was dependent schedule expert lectures, as indicated on a new pesticide, Gammaxene, by its agent visit to Jenin in 1931.52 which was invented in ICI laboratories ICI Levant’s agrarian methods in in England.48 In short, whether in the Palestine corresponded with similar attempts of ICI’s Indian branch to ‘educate’ farmers in the provinces of ISA. Bombay, Bihar, and Sind on synthetic ,-68.44מ 45 ‘Agricultural Chemicals and Fertilizers- Monthly Report of Stocks,’ 1942, .ISA ,-4894/3מ 46 See various letters in folder number Imperial Chemical Industries, Plant J15-13330-3, Zionist Archives. Protection Division, 1978), 6. 47 ‘Locust Campaign – 1947: Situation, 49 Minutes of the 11th Meeting of the Measures Taken and Preparations in Plant Protection Committee held on 13 .ISA ,-664/6מ .ISA. April 1938, -18/37מ .Hand,’ 17/02/1947 48 The Palestine Post, 19/10/1945; an 50 Ta‘asiyot Himi’yot Mamlahti’yot ICI publication about its chemical (Levant ba‘am), Yafo: Dfus M. Shoham, inventions that took place in Jealott’s unknown year. Hill in North England mentioned 51 “Al-sana’at al-kimawiyya al- Gammaxene together with DDT ‘imbartaturiyya w’al-da’wa al- as sharing the same “credit for the sahyunyya” [“Imperial Chemical dawn of a new era of insect control Industries and the Zionist in agriculture, horticulture, stored Propaganda”] Filastin, 30 December products, timber preservations and 1930. public health.” F. C. Peacock, Jealott’s 52 “Asabi’a miltshit fi jenin” [“The Fingers Hill: Fifty Years of Agricultural of Meltchett in Jenin”] Filastin, 14 Research, 1928-1978 (Bracknell: January 1931.

92 Global Histories: a student journal | VII - 1 - 2021 O m r i P chemical usages.53 These agricultural be seen as a catalyst for the spread policies reflect the close relationship of synthetic chemicals into colonial o l a t s e k between the imperial apparatus and spaces. In Palestine, the Synthetic

| the empire’s chemical industries. In Age materialized in relation to, and as E n v i s o g ( I ) d e p t F l a the case of agrochemicals, British a consequence of, British imperialism imperial initiatives to ‘develop’ the in the Middle East. indigenous rural community via modern agricultural schemes, and private (imperial) business aiming at VISIONS OF A ROUND GOLDEN selling its products, were animating FUTURE each other. Thus, the Synthetic Age cannot be understood without At the start of 1930, Isa Al- both forces, which attempted to Isa, the editor in chief of Filastin, provoke a global change in synthetic was sued by ICI Levant managers agrochemical consumption. and the Palestinian government for The links between colonial “slanderous and false accusations.”55 agricultural policies and ICI The paper accused the company activities in the field of agriculture of smuggling weapons. More reveal a staggering connectivity specifically, the paper proclaimed between chemical industries, that “[s]ince ICI handed over the imperial infrastructure, and colonial- business of explosives to Chillik agricultural science.54 Exposing Weizmann […], the Zionists are these connections, however, is only well supplied with bombs and possible by focusing on the company the government does nothing to and its chemical substances. control it.”56 While in this specific Unpacking the cross-fertilization case, the company was accused between synthetic chemicals and of arming Zionist-Jews, usually the colonial spaces reveals the close allegations against ICI Levant were ties between chemical industries and set towards what (some of) the Arab- colonial sovereignty in a historical Palestinian writers believed to be its moment that was characterized by key ambition–the “extension of the the rise of synthetic chemicals. Under Jewish colonization.”57 The following the global context of the Synthetic Age, ICI Levant’s imperial activity can 55 “Mishpatam shel itonim aravim hane’aeshamim be’hafatsat diba” 53 Page, “Nitrogenous Fertilizers in Great [“The Trail of Arab Newspapers which Britain and the British Empire,” 392. are Accused of Defamation”] Doar 54 For colonial efforts around the empire Hayom, 05 March 1930. see Ross, Ecology and Power in the 56 Letter from Chillik Weizmann to Chaim Age of Empire; for British efforts in Weizmann, 28 January 1930, 14-1316, British-ruled Palestine see Roza El- WA. Eini, Mandated Landscapes: British 57 “Al-lurd miltshit w’aghradhu” [“Lord Imperial Rule in Palestine 1929-1948 Meltchett and his Goals”] Filastin, 12 (London: Routledge, 2006). December 1930.

Global Histories: a student journal | VII - 1 - 2021 93 section will explore the Arab- instance, the Filastin correspondent Palestinian public debate regarding noted that “[t]he company opened ICI Levant’s position in Palestine branches in Syria […] despite the and will describe the unique role presence of a local Arab agent, who the company had in supporting or have been conducting business hampering the perceived economic- with other British companies.”61 national development. Arriving at the heart of the matter, As two prominent Jewish the writer warned that “if we will not figures and the leaders of ICI pay attention to [ICI Levant’s] broad E n v i s o g ( I ) d e p t F l a |

in Britain and Palestine, Chillik and extensive operations, which are Weizmann and Alfred Mond were taking place around us according

o l a t s e k often targeted by the press. The to their economic plan, they will media was concerned that Mond and take over the economy and the

O m r i P his son, Henry Mond (the second industries. Thus, our financial and Lord Meltchett) would assist the economic life, which are the basis “Zionist colonialization” as they for our independence, will be under held close connections to British their influence; by not being aware circles in Jerusalem and London.58 [of their activities], we will help to Thus, the press established a link create the national Jewish homeland between the Monds’ other economic unintentionally.”62 endeavors in Palestine with ICI Another theme that emerged Levant‘s undertakings in the region. from these articles was the lack of Consequently, the articles warned ICI Levant’s Arab agents and officials against “the economic Jewish in its operations. “If the company’s colonialization”59 of Palestine and wishes to serve the country and its the company’s place in it. Under commerce were true,” wrote Filastin this light, the company’s expansion in 1930, “it would have appointed attempts via its agents to other parts Arab officials; however, its actions [in of Palestine and east of the Jordan the local market] are testifying for its were observed under suspicion.60 For [real intentions].”63 The newspapers saw the lack of ‘Arab hands’ in the company lines as another indicator 58 “Al-sana’at al-kimawiyya al- of its “real purposes” mentioned ‘imbartaturiyya: shariqa yusaytiru alayha al-sahyunyyun ” [“Imperial before. While in the aforementioned Chemical Industries: A Company trial, the company’s representative Controlled by Zionists”] Al-Sirat, 23 November 1930. 59 “Al-sana’at al-kimawiyya al- 61 “Al-sana’at al-kimawiyya al- ‘imbartaturiyya w’shariqat shel: ‘imbartaturiyya: shariqa yusaytiru radd w’bayan” [“Imperial Chemical alayha al-sahyunyyun II ” [“Imperial Industries and Shell Company: Chemical Industries: A Company Response and Clarification”] Filastin, Controlled by Zionists II ”] Filastin, 29 25 December 1930. Novermber 1930. 60 Filastin, 12 December 1930; Filastin, 14 62 Ibid. January 1931. 63 Filastin, 25 December 1930.

94 Global Histories: a student journal | VII - 1 - 2021 O m r i P testified that “half of the company’s of the land and debated about the officials in Palestine and Syria are means to ‘unlock’ it. In addition to o l a t s e k Arabs,”64 other documents from that agricultural transformation, during

| period attest differently. In a private the age of colonial development, E n v i s o g ( I ) d e p t F l a correspondence between Chaim and infrastructural projects were Chillik Weizmann in the same year, considered significant economic the latter informed his brother: “Since benefits.68 For example, the ICI had established in Palestine all importance of the new electricity grid work, sales, agencies, etc. have been and the Dead Sea mineral potential done by Jews and through Jews only received much media attention and and it is, therefore, that to all intents was popularized by newspapers and and purposes, ICI in Palestine acts by national leaders, both in Arabic like a Jewish Company.”65 It remains and Hebrew.69 However, British unclear whom Chillik Weizmann colonial administrators, viewing Jews preferred to deceive: his unrelenting as agents of development, gave them brother, or the British court. However, the most infrastructural concessions, the rest of this correspondence leaving Arab-Palestinians mostly demonstrates that with Chillik empty-handed. As early as 1923, the Weizmann as its manager, the young Jamal Al-Husseini, then the company preferred Jewish labor.66 secretray to the Executive Committee The broader context to these of the Palestine Arab Congress, accusations must be understood addressed the High Commissioner in light of British economic policy of Palestine, lamenting on the Arab in Palestine, which hindered non- loss of economic opportunities Jews.67 Like the British and the by referring to the governmental Zionists, the Arab-Palestinians ‘favoritism’ for giving various envisioned the economic potential concessions to Zionist-Jews.70 Although some of Al-Husseini’s arguments were inaccurate, it 64 Doar Hayom, 05 March 1930. nevertheless demonstrates the 65 Letter from Chillik Weizmann to Chaim economic importance of these Weizmann, 28 January 1930, 14-1316, WA. 66 This notion was part of a broader ideological movement of Jewish- 68 Norris, Land of Progress, 5-18. Zionist actors, who called for the 69 Norris, 181; Fredrick Meiton, Electrical ‘conquest of labor’ (kibush ha‘avoda). Palestine: Capital and Technology See Zachary Lockman, Comrades and from Empire to Nation (Berkeley, CA: Enemies: Arab and Jewish Workers University of California Press, 2019), in Palestine, 1906-1948 (Berkeley, CA: 81-82. University of California Press, 1996), 70 “Report on the State of Palestine 47-48. Submitted to his Excellency the 67 Barbara Smith, The Roots of High Commissioner for Palestine by Separation in Palestine: British the Executive Committee Palestine Economic Policy, 1920-1929 (London: Arab Congress,“ 13 October 1923, .ISA ,-4908/24מ .(I. B. Tauris, 1993

Global Histories: a student journal | VII - 1 - 2021 95 development projects for Arab- the company’s potential in offering Palestinians as well. Thus, the solutions to the agricultural problems criticism of ICI Levant must be of Palestine using pesticides and understood in light of these historical fertilizers. More importantly, the writer events and the continuous Arab- emphasized the neutral character Palestinian dissatisfaction with the of the company’s activities by British (colonial) development policy referring to the activity of Weizmann in Palestine.71 as ‘apolitical’ and emphasizing the Nevertheless, not all of mutual gains of Arabs and Jews E n v i s o g ( I ) d e p t F l a |

the articles about ICI Levant were from the company’s success in negative. Other articles celebrated Palestine. The article concluded by

o l a t s e k the company and its activities in the paraphrasing the words of Weizmann local agricultural field. 72 During the himself, and connected the future

O m r i P British rule in Palestine, the black of ICI Levant with the future of and red scale pest were a constant Palestine’s economy and agriculture: threat to Arab-Palestinian and Jewish orange cultivation.73 In 1933, the “The manager [Weizmann] was Jerusalem based newspaper Mir’at right when he said: ‘The future of al-Sharq published an article praising ICI is the future of Palestine,’ and ICI Levant’s help and specifically its what is the future of Palestine if head, Chillik Weizmann, in fighting not the future of its orange trees; this bug in the northern district.74 the future of the orange trees is The article began by describing the extermination of the harming the problem, emphasizing the diseases.”76 government’s insufficient help and inadequate solutions to exterminating As noted before, orange the pest.75 It then introduced the cultivation was, until the Second company and Weizmann, explaining World War, Palestine’s most lucrative industry. According to government records, the orange export grew 71 Norris, Land of Progress, 168-204; from 830,959 boxes in 1920-21 to Meiton, Electrical Palestine, 81-82. 2,590,861 boxes in 1929-30 and 72 For example, Al-Sirat, 15 December further expanded to 13,055,770 1930; Al-Difa’, 20 February 1936. 73 Roza El-Eini, Mandated Landscapes, boxes in 1938-39. The Second World 144-145. War marked a stop to the orange 74 “Majhudat sharikat al-sana’at al- industry’s prosperity, as the number kimawiyya” [“The Endeavors of the of exported boxes had dropped by Chemical Industries Company”] Mir’at half.77 Due to financial difficulties and al-Sharq, 23 September 1933. 75 These included uprooting unyielding trees and introducing a ‘black scale tax’ on orange cultivators. Both moves 76 Mir’at al-Sharq, 23 September 1933. encountered vast opposition. The 77 A : Prepared in Palestine Post, 03 March 1933; The December 1945 and January 1946 Palestine Post, 22 December 1932. for the Information of the Anglo-

96 Global Histories: a student journal | VII - 1 - 2021 O m r i P lack of pesticides, orange growers As such, just as during the 1930s, witnessed the black scale returning ICI Levant again assisted the o l a t s e k to their cultivation plots during the government and the orange growers

78 | war. In contrast to the plague of the with its personnel and chemical E n v i s o g ( I ) d e p t F l a 1930s, which was mainly limited to substances.82 northern Palestine, the black scale The interaction between had now spread west and south, ICI Levant and the Arab-Palestinian threatening the entire “citrus belt.”79 press thus reveals a complicated In 1944 the number of orchards relationship. While critics perceived infected by the black scale had the company as an extension of reached between a quarter and a Jewish colonization, other articles fifth of the total orange cultivation sought to neutralize the company’s area in the country.80 Like Mir’at Al- role in Palestine and to emphasize Sharq’s reporter ten years before, its benefits to the local cultivation the Palestine Joint Citrus Growers plots and orchards. Seemingly, these Committee realized the threats on two sets of opinions hold contrary the prominent place the orange explanations for ICI Levant’s goals in economy had in Palestine. Sending Palestine and its means to achieve an urgent warning to the government, them. However, the epistemological the committee alerted, “we wish world in which these writers and herewith respectively to call to their interactions with the company your attention the most serious and existed was in relation to their pressing problem that is now facing economic future. In other words, the Palestine citrus industry, namely, they both criticized or praised ICI the black scale, and to request that Levant as a part of a discourse that immediate steps be taken by the envisioned a national economy government to help save the industry upon which the future nation would from this threat to its existence.”81 be based. At this specific historical moment, the company’s strength and capital based on imperial reach, as American Committee of Inquiry: well as its ‘chemical agency,’ which Volume I (Palestine: Government generated a global flow of expert Printer, 1946), 341-344. knowledge and synthetic chemicals, 78 Palestine Joint Citrus Growers Committee to Chief Secretary, “Black were negotiated in the public arena. Here ICI Levant had a unique position ,-669.5מ .Scale on Citrus,” 26/04/1944 ISA. in assisting or hindering the arrival 79 G. E. Bodkin, “The Fumigation of Citrus Trees in Palestine,” Bulletin of Entomological Research 16 no.2 (1925): 143-149. Committee to Chief Secretary, “Black 80 Palestine Joint Citrus Growers Scale on Citrus“. Committee to Chief Secretary, “Black 82 For example, see A. Baroai to ,Acting Chief Plant Protection Officer ,-669.5מ .Scale on Citrus,” 26/04/1944 ISA. “Government Grant for Black Scale .ISA ,-679.23מ .Palestine Joint Citrus Growers Control,” 21 March 1947 81

Global Histories: a student journal | VII - 1 - 2021 97 (يدادقملا) of the transformation of agricultural Husni al-Miqdadi and industrial production. As the was born in 1903 in Tulkarem .in Ottoman-ruled Palestine (مركلوط) Synthetic Age was crystalizing in British-ruled Palestine, the means As a native of the city, al-Miqdadi to establish the economy and the was educated in the local primary national space were, in this case, school. Later, he received his middle anchored in an imperial context, school and high school education in in which ICI Levant, as a chemical Jerusalem. In 1921, al-Miqdadi joined company, played a prominent part. the Land Surveying Department of E n v i s o g ( I ) d e p t F l a |

the British administration in Palestine, and after two years of governmental o l a t s e k AGENT ORANGE: AN ARAB- service moved to study agricultural PALESTINIAN EXPERT IN THE engineering in France. In 1926, he

O m r i P SYNTHETIC AGE returned to Palestine and served as the principal of the agricultural school ICI Levant had a complex and in his hometown of Tulkarem, which multifaceted relationship with Arab- was one of the dozen educational Palestinians in British-ruled Palestine. centers of British agricultural At the heart of this relationship stood policy in Palestine. The last stop the notion of Palestine’s economic in his documented career was as potential and the company’s role in a company official for ICI Levant. enhancing or hampering its Starting from 1928, he travelled materialization. In this section, one of between its regional branches in the advocates for Palestine’s Palestine, Lebanon, and Iraq.83 economic potential, Husni al-Miqdadi, Throughout his career, al- who was working for ICI Levant in Miqdadi published many articles and Palestine and the region, will be essays on various subjects. As an introduced. As al-Miqdadi agriculture expert, he mostly wrote participated in this public discussion, about different modes of fruit tree he contributed to it from his own field cultivation, plant diseases, and of expertise as a ‘citrus expert.’ various fertilization methods. By 1930 Furthermore, al-Miqdadi’s writing he published a book entitled “The األسمدة) ”reveals his vision of ‘economy- Fertilizers and Their Usages presenting himself on the ,(واستعمالها making’ in Palestine as a part of a broader contemporaneous vision of cover as an advisor to ICI Levant and thanking some of its officials for their .(النهصة – an Arabic awakening (nahda Al-Miqdadi’s vision of economic help in publishing the book.84 nahda was entangled with British imperial-chemical networks and infrastructures in the Middle East and 83 Y‘aqub al-‘awdat, Min A‘alam Al-fikr was profoundly related to the w’al-’adb fi Filastin (Al-Quds: Dar al- ongoing transformation brought by asraa’, 1992), 33-34. the Synthetic Age in the region. 84 Husni al-Miqdadi, Al-’asmida w’isti‘amalha w’fiha fusul w’idahat

98 Global Histories: a student journal | VII - 1 - 2021 O m r i P o l a t s e k

| E n v i s o g ( I ) d e p t F l a

FIGURE 3: Fumigation efforts Reviewing his writings, it is obvious at Jaffa aimed at exterminating citrus pests. The Orange Trees that al-Miqdadi’s area of expertise our covered in tarpaulins. was citrus cultivation. For example, Approximately 1930-1933. Eric during the 1930s-1940s, he translated and Edith Matson Photograph Collection, Library of Congress. for Filastin several lectures about citrus and other fruit trees’ fertilization methods, and published with another Jaffa based newspaper, Al-Difa’, articles about citrus tree fertilizations and pests, in addition to other accounts on citrus diseases and how to prevent them.85 As Palestine’s

‘an al-nabat w’al-turba w’an al-zibl w’isti‘amalhu (Tulkarm: Maktab suriya w’filastin, 1930), 3-4. 85 Filastin, 25 October 1931; Filastin, 07

Global Histories: a student journal | VII - 1 - 2021 99 E n v i s o g ( I ) d e p t F l a | o l a t s e k O m r i P

most significant export until 1939 was FIGURE 4: Measuring the quantities of cyanide and acid oranges, it becomes clear why al- before the fumigation of the Miqdadi chose to specialize in citrus trees. In the center stands the cultivation and their fertilization government Entomologist. Around him are other foremen and modes. laborers. Approximately 1922- Al-Miqdadi also edited 1925. In later years, ICI Levant two agricultural journals, one imported hydrogen cyanide and employed its agent to help the based in Lebanon and the other in local orange cultivators. G. E. Palestine. The Palestinian journal Bodkin, “The Fumigation of Citrus was published by ICI Levant and Trees in Palestine,” Bulletin of Entomological Research 16 no.2 distributed locally and regionally. In (1925): 153. Cambridge University Al-Majalla al-zira’iyya al-‘arabiyya Press. (Journal of Arab Agriculture), the expertise of al-Miqdadi with citrus trees and fertilizers, and the company’s interests in assisting to the agricultural transformation with its chemical products, interlaced as the journal published scientific

October 1931; Filastin, 13 June 1931; Al-Difa’, 02 March 1938; Al-Difa’, 02 December 1942; Al-Difa’, 01 August 1945.

100 Global Histories: a student journal | VII - 1 - 2021 O m r i P agricultural articles by Arab and philosophies to craft economic foreign experts. As a citrus expert, thought and envisioned an economic o l a t s e k al-Miqdadi contributed articles on nahda as part of a broader Arabic

87 | fruit tree fertilization and orange enlightenment project. Nahda, E n v i s o g ( I ) d e p t F l a tree diseases. In addition, the meaning awakening, resurgence, journal published other economic- or revival, is a distinct term for Arab agricultural news, a ‘questions to the cultural or intellectual ‘revival’ that editor’ section, where agriculturalists first appeared at the onset of the from Palestine and the region would nineteenth century, popularized send their inquiries to the journal, somewhere in the last third of the and an agricultural calendar, which same century.88 During the interwar advised the readers of the proper period, the nahda linked a nationally times for fertilization and watering.86 specific and a broader pan-Arab When al-Miqdadi wrote about framework together. In addition, different modes of cultivation and it served to bridge an historical various types of fertilizers, he wrote gap between the past of the ‘Arab from his field of expertise. As the civilization’ and modern-day issues previously mentioned writings are and concerns. As Peter Hill notes, mostly technical, they provide little the nahda must be understood vis- historical access to al-Miqdadi’s á-vis the contemporary changes world of thought. Luckily, al-Miqdadi and projects that its advocates lived left other writings, giving a better through.89 The British rule in Palestine picture of how he understood himself was a period of empire-building in relation to current-day issues, and national crafting in the Middle how he imagined the past, and how East. Thus, creating an adequate he envisioned the future. In the economic basis was a crucial concern remaining part of this section, al- for people who sought to animate Miqdadi’s additional writings will be the future state. As noted before, explored in order to position him in Arab-Palestinians understood the the context of Arab-Palestinian nahda economic potential of Palestine as discourse in British-ruled Palestine. derived from infrastructure projects In her remarkable research and crop cultivation. on economy-making in British-ruled Al-Miqdadi realized the Palestine, Sherene Seikaly describes economic potential of Palestine as a group of men that articulated their well. In his essay “The Economic اإلصالح) ”own vision of national economy. Development of Palestine he explored the ,(االقتصادي في فلسطين Over the pages of their journal Al-Iqtisadat al-‘arabiyya, these ‘men of capital’ drew from diverse 87 Seikaly, Men of Capital. 88 Peter Hill, Utopia and Civilization 86 Al-Majalla al-zira’iyya al-’arabiyya, in the Arab Nahda (Cambridge: 01 April 1947, 01 July 1947, 01 January Cambridge University Press, 2019), 3. 1948. 89 Hill, Utopia and Civilization, 3.

Global Histories: a student journal | VII - 1 - 2021 101 economic conditions of the Arab the nation was founded not only on world and Palestine’s place in it. material economic potential, but also Similar to other Arab writers and on the proper education of the youth authors during the interwar period, to think economically and rationally: al-Miqdadi called for an ‘Arab “In order to improve we are in a dire awakening’ or nahda. Unlike many need for a strong foundation upon who advocated for the renaissance of which we will build our national the political and cultural spheres, awakening that will disperse this however, al-Miqdadi insisted that this blessed economic spirit to our sons E n v i s o g ( I ) d e p t F l a

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”.(الروح االقتصادية المباركة) awakening must first be grounded on a firm economic basis: The science of the economy

o l a t s e k was vital to this awakening project. “It “The value of the civilized nation is miserable that our daily

O m r i P is depended on the value of its newspapers are not interested in wealth. [Therefore], we must economic researches,” lamented al- take care of our economy to our Miqdadi, “as they were and still are best extent since the progress of the best way to establish the the nation is based on its capital strongest of civilizations.”94 Here, he development methods and on echoes the rationale of Al-Jami’a al- the wealth of its individuals.”90 ’arabiyya’s editor to publish al- Miqdadi’s “valuable and useful Situating himself and his [research] topic for the economic epistemological world on a linear revival of the country.”95 Later in the path of historical progress, al-Miqdadi article, al-Miqdadi moved to review was concerned that “most of the the economic potential of Palestine eastern nations had neglected this based on a categorization of the ‘five issue [economy-making] to such a primary industries’– production ;(تحويلية) manufacturing ;(استخراجية) degree that currently they are unable ;(نقلية) transport ;(زراعية) to progress along with the other agriculture In these .(تجارية) civilized nations.”91 According to him, and commerce a proper economic revival would not sections, he elaborated on the take place by the “chattering of various minerals found in Palestine politicians” but by the practical and the region, the new education of youth about “economic transportation road from Palestine to and industrial issues.”92 The future of Iraq, and the new commerce opportunities from Haifa’s harbor. Here, al-Miqdadi’s account on the future economic potential of 90 “Al-‘islah al-iqtisadi fi filastin” [“The Economic Development of Palestine”] Palestine was firmly based on (re) Al-Jamia al-‘arabiyya, 15 September 1927. 91 Al-Jamia al-‘arabiyya, 15 September 93 Ibid. 1927. 94 Ibid. 92 Ibid. 95 Ibid.

102 Global Histories: a student journal | VII - 1 - 2021 O m r i P new(ed) imperial infrastructure period in the region. designed to produce, extract, and Like other nahda writers, o l a t s e k deliver ‘raw materials’ in and out of al-Miqdadi understood himself as a

| the region. part of the Arab civilization, which E n v i s o g ( I ) d e p t F l a The agricultural industry was trying to march forward on the remained the last to be reviewed due track of ‘progress.’99 Simultaneously, to its fundamental importance to he used his knowledge to design a Palestine, “the foundation upon local economic nahda with his own which we must build our economic professional expertise.100 In a later is the article, al-Miqdadi wrote at length (نظامنا االقتصادي) regime agriculture since our country was on his vision for the future of citrus always an agrarian country, which cultivation in Palestine. He started by exported wheat, olives, cotton, wines emphasizing the essential place of and figs for the last 3000 years.”96 orange cultivation for the economy However, al-Miqdadi understood this of Palestine: “Most of the people longue durée of ‘agrarian expertise’ know that the citrus agriculture is as not exclusive to Palestinians. In tremendously important in Palestine. another essay, he highlighted the There is no doubt that this agriculture Arab civilization’s specific experience concerns every individual from the and proficiency as agriculturalists, inhabitants of the country, as the which went back to Middle Ages general economy of the state is Spain. According to al-Miqdadi, “it will based in its essence on the success not be an overstatement to say that or failure of this agriculture.”101 Al- some of the European countries are Miqdadi continued by reviewing the basing their agricultural progress on past expansion of the cultivation the knowledge of the Arab area and the yearly export of orange agriculturalists in Andalusia.”97 Like boxes. As he preached ten years Seikaly’s ‘men of capital,’ al-Miqdadi ago, and as a part of the scientific followed the nahda narrative research endeavors the ‘men of structure to reveal another “Arab capital’ advocated and praised, civilizational secret.”98 Here he al-Miqdadi continued to offer his returned to the Andalusian past to predictions on future agricultural- harmonize the Arab-Palestinians’ economic citrus trends based on the ‘civilizational’ skills with the new economic potentials of the interwar 99 Ibid. 100 Seikaly argues that the economic nahda can only be fully understood 96 ‎“Al-‘islah al-iqtisadi fi filastin: II” in the relations between its local [“The Economic Development of manifestations and its broader Palestine: II”] Al-Jamia al-‘arabiyya, 19 ideological logic. Ibid, 21. September 1927. 101 “Mustaqbal zira’at al-‘athmar al- 97 Al-Jamia al-‘arabiyya, 19 September hamdiyya” [“The Future of Fruit Tree 1927. Cultivation”] Al-Difa’, 25 December 98 Seikaly, Men of Capital, 45-48. 1938.

Global Histories: a student journal | VII - 1 - 2021 103 numbers he examined beforehand.102 specializing in chemical fertilizers and It is no wonder, then, to find pesticides, he was writing both on the an article about the economic technical side of his vision and on its potential of oranges in Palestine, political aspects. The orange growing written by al-Miqdadi, in the first industry in Palestine stood at the core published issue of Al-Iqtisadat al- of his future plans for the economy of ’arabiyya, which was advocating an Palestine. This vision was informed by economic nahda project.103 With this his intellectual roots embedded in the article and other writings, al-Miqdadi interwar nahda movement and by his E n v i s o g ( I ) d e p t F l a |

thus united economic achievement practical chemical expertise, which with national independence. More was itself a product of a structural

o l a t s e k specifically, he used his particular shift towards an agricultural industrial expertise as an agriculturalist to dependency on chemical substances.

O m r i P contribute to the discourse of As mentioned before, ICI Levant had economic nahda in Palestine, and to a significant impact on this process in articulate the economic foundations British-ruled Palestine. of the national future: “Our economic Finally, examining ICI and our financial Levant’s journal can provide further (حياتنا االقتصادية) life are both insight into the entanglements (نشاطنا المالي) activities founded to a certain extent on between the Synthetic Age as a orange cultivation. That is to say that global phenomenon and the local the future of the country is tied to the Palestinian agency inscribed in al- future of this agriculture.”104 Miqdadi’s economic nahda vision. Simultaneous to publishing Like other agents of the company, his writings, al-Miqdadi worked as al-Miqdadi was traveling between ICI a selling agent and consultant to Levant’s branches in Palestine and ICI Levant. As a fertilizer expert, al- the area.105 The spatial boundaries Miqdadi’s specific expertise was a of these regional travels could be product of a substantial change that possibly traced back by considering was happening during the onset Figure 5, taken from the Al-Majalla of the Synthetic Age and the rising al-zira’iyya al-’arabiyya. An ICI Levant flow of synthetic agrochemicals publication edited by al-Miqdadi to Palestine and the Middle East. himself, this journal advocated for the During the 1930s-1940s, chemical company’s products all around the substances and chemical industries region. On the journal’s front pages, were becoming prevalent in the the agricultural-economical space was region. As an agent of the company, assembled according to ICI Levant’s operations in the region (ICI Egypt was a different sub-company). As its name 102 Seikaly, 42-44; Al-Difa’, 25 December 1938. 103 Al-Iqtisadat al-‘arabiyya I(1), 01 105 Letter from District Commissioner, January 1935. Lydda District to Chief Secretary, 24 .ISA ,-248/43מ ,Al-Difa’, 25 December 1938. April 1947 104

104 Global Histories: a student journal | VII - 1 - 2021 O m r i P suggests, it highlighted the region’s (Mecca and Jerusalem) but mainly agricultural aspects that were best through its economical-agricultural- o l a t s e k suited to consume the company’s industrial prospects. One can see,

| products. Consequently, the dates of for example, the oil field in Iraq (right E n v i s o g ( I ) d e p t F l a Basra, the grain fields of East Jordan, side) and the sugar cane factory in and the oranges of Palestine are Egypt (left side). Connecting these prominently displayed as the main nation-state economies with the attractions on the cover page.106 infrastructure of the British empire, During the interwar period, the harbors of Haifa and Alexandria this spatial reorganization of the serve as the main entry and leaving region was, of course, not only points for commodities, while trains, conceptualized by ICI Levant and trucks, and airplanes highlight non- al-Miqdadi. In an area that later maritime trade routes.108 became known as the Middle East, This comparison reveals various colonial development policies the entanglements between the encouraged British administrations intellectual aspects of the Palestinian- to (re)establish communications, Arabic nahda and the material travel, and trade infrastructure in dimensions of British imperial- the region. Jacob Norris shows chemical networks. The economy how this infrastructure, economic envisioned and advocated by the development, and the extraction of ‘men of capital’ was to be based on resources played a significant role in various economic enterprises, as constructing British-ruled Palestine al-Miqdadi eloquently articulated as physically and conceptually linked above. Cash-crop cultivation and raw to the Mashriq.107 Thus, from their material extraction were major pillars vantage point in Palestine, al-Miqdadi in this scheme. As Norris and Seikaly and the other ‘men of capital’ show, these ‘economic potentials’ conceptualized their local economic drove British actions and Arab- nahda vis-à-vis the region’s spatial Palestinian intellectual thought in the metamorphosis. region.109 What both miss, however, Juxtaposing the Al-Majalla is what al-Miqdadi’s agency and his front cover with Seikaly’s ‘men position with ICI make it possible of capital’ journal, Al-Iqtisadat for us to see–during the interwar al-’arabiyya, reveals the similar period, and especially during the geo-economic logic behind the 1930s-1940s, a subtle transformation Arab economic nahda. In Figure emerged. Agricultural and industrial 6, Palestine is characterized by production was becoming ever more its oranges. The Arab region is dependent on the mass-production illustrated with its religious features

108 Al-Iqtisadat al-‘arabiyya I(2), 15 106 Al-Majalla al-ziraiyya al-‘arabiyya, 01 January 1935. April 1947. 109 Norris, Land of Progress; Seikaly, Men 107 Norris, Land of Progress. of Capital.

Global Histories: a student journal | VII - 1 - 2021 105 E n v i s o g ( I ) d e p t F l a | o l a t s e k O m r i P

FIGURE 5: Cover page of Al-Majalla al-ziraiyya al-‘arabiyya, 01 April 1947. Jrayed Collection: Arabic Newspapers of Ottoman and Mandatory Palestine, jrayed.nli.org.il, founded by the National Library of Israel.

106 Global Histories: a student journal | VII - 1 - 2021 O m r i P and circulation of chemical order to materialize their national substances. economies. o l a t s e k In British-ruled Palestine,

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Arab-Palestinians envisioned an E n v i s o g ( I ) d e p t F l a economic development that would CONCLUSION culminate in national independence. However, this economic nahda By reconstructing the was not limited spatially to history of ICI Levant activities and the colonial states, as it was in examining Husni al-Miqdadi’s constant relationship with a broader writings, this article has sought intellectual world of an Arab to explore the crystallization of ‘civilizational’ awakening. Writers the Synthetic Age in British-ruled like al-Miqdadi devoted themselves Palestine. In the first section, the to the agricultural-economical global dimensions of the Synthetic aspects of this project. Al-Miqdadi’s Age were outlined, demonstrating specific expertise revolved around how imperial infrastructure and Palestine’s most lucrative agricultural colonial mindsets played a crucial crop, oranges, and was informed role in its manifestation outside by the potential to enhance of Europe and North America. its economic value with British Analyzing the various activities of agrochemicals. From his ‘expert’ ICI Levant and its relations to the position, al-Miqdadi contributed swelling global flow of chemicals, to the prevalent discourse of the infrastructure of synthetics national economic awakening. As circulation was further illuminated, the two front pages of the journals contributing to an understanding exhibit, this agricultural-economic of the company as one of the transformation depended on British ‘intermediaries’ between the global imperial regional infrastructure and Synthetic Age and local actors in imperial goods. Al-Miqdadi’s national British-ruled Palestine. Arriving in the vision was intrinsically based on British colony, the company drew the new possibilities generated close links with prominent Zionist by British imperial networks, and figures and other local agents. The more specifically, on the potential of company also worked intimately applying agrochemicals (produced with the British government and with by the British Empire) in the Jewish research institutes to assist materialization of this economic them in their scientific endeavors. nahda. His world of thought reveals This was a part of an imperial effort, the historical traces of the Synthetic as ICI operated in other colonies with Age outside of the ‘West.’ Thus, his similar methods. account shows that the social and As a giant global chemical material prospects inscribed in the company, ICI Levant’s products global Synthetic Age met local forces were necessary for executing the which were inspired to use them in various colonial development

Global Histories: a student journal | VII - 1 - 2021 107 FIGURE 6: Cover page of Al-Iqtisadat al-‘arabiyya I(2), 15 January 1935. Jrayed Collection: Arabic Newspapers of Ottoman and Mandatory Palestine, jrayed.nli.org.il, founded by the National Library of Israel.

108 Global Histories: a student journal | VII - 1 - 2021 O m r i P projects around the British empire. In and was fundamentally related to the

Palestine, as the major local importer changes brought by the Synthetic o l a t s e k of agrochemicals, it held a significant Age. Thus, al-Miqdadi’s case shows

| position for Zionist-Jews and how the Synthetic Age and the E n v i s o g ( I ) d e p t F l a Arab-Palestinians, both seeking to prospected potential inscribed in its transform the economic basis of the ideas and materials met local forces land in order to materialize a future that sought to use them for their own national economy that would be advantage. based on agriculture. The company had a complex relationship with the Following al-Miqdadi’s Arab-Palestinian middle-class, which historical agency, the realization of either argued against the company or national independence in Palestine celebrated its agrarian contributions. during the interwar period was This multifaceted interaction was conditioned on the imperial flow of part of a broader discussion taking agrochemicals that would materialize place in British-ruled Palestine about it. However, this notion holds within economy-making and national it a sharp contrast, as the aspiration independence. Together with to achieve independence from infrastructural projects, the economic Britain created a dependence on its potential of Palestine was conceived products. This seeming paradox can through its agricultural prospects. leave us with more potential inquiries ICI Levant had a significant role, as about the interdependencies its chemical products were used by between agrochemicals, imperial capitalists and agricultural experts to industries, and colonial spaces. support different visions to ‘develop’ More importantly, it highlights Palestine. the role of British imperialism in One of these visionaries was setting into motion the Synthetic Husni al-Miqdadi, who, with his own Age—an historical process that expertise as a citrus authority and contributed to our contemporary as an agrochemical expert, was able global ‘addiction’ to synthetic to ‘join in’ on the conversation of chemicals. Modern industrial economic awakening in Palestine. As agriculture, which relies heavily al-Miqdadi was working for ICI Levant, on synthetic chemicals, is playing he sought to promote its ‘addictive’ a significant role in our current agrochemicals. Simultaneously, predicament of ecological crises he was also advocating for a while functioning as a catalyst to national independence based global warming.110 In addition to on local industry, commerce, and modern agriculture. Al-Miqdadi’s vision of a national economic Arab 110 As of 2014, it generates about 14 nahda was entangled with British percent of the world’s greenhouse imperial-chemical networks and emissions. Climate Change 2014 infrastructures in the Middle East Synthesis Report, IPPC 2014, 88, accessed 03 May 2021, https://www.

Global Histories: a student journal | VII - 1 - 2021 109 interferences with biochemical cycles, industrialized agriculture’s intensive usage of pesticides and herbicides have become an environmental hazard, which pollutes waters, soils, and living organisms.111 In light of our current global cascading disaster, conceptualizations of victorious E n v i s o g ( I ) d e p t F l a |

(Western) innovation overcoming Malthusian future nightmares are not

o l a t s e k sufficient in explaining the origins of our global chemical addiction.112 Nor

O m r i P do accounts of Green Revolution(s) and nitrogen and phosphorus cycles help us reveal the deep and entangled historical roots of our chemical dependencies.113 Revealing the entanglements between al- Miqdadi’s vision, ICI Levant’s actions in British-ruled Palestine and British imperialism in the Middle East might help us to start unpacking the history of our synthetic chemical obsession.

ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2018/02/ SYR_AR5_FINAL_full.pdf. 111 Sharma, A., Kumar, V., Shahzad, B. et al. Worldwide Pesticide Usage and its Impacts on Ecosystem. SN Appl. Sci. 1, no. 1446 (2019), accessed 03 May 2021: https://doi.org/10.1007/ s42452-019-1485-1. 112 Melillo, “The First Green Revolution,” 1056-1060. 113 Ibid; Smil, Enriching the Earth; Dana Cordell, Jan-Olof Drangert and Stuart White, “The Story of Phosphorus: Global Food Security and Food for Thought,” Global Environmental Change 19 (2009): 292-305, https://doi.org/10.1016/j. gloenvcha.2008.10.009.

110 Global Histories: a student journal | VII - 1 - 2021