♯10 primer semestre 2017 : 1-17 ISSN 2313-9242

Sonia Ocaña Universidad Juárez Autónoma de Tabasco

Enconchados: Japanese Appropriations, Ornamentation and Light Symbolism in

Enconchados: Japanese Appropriations, Ornamentation and Light Symbolism in New Spain / Sonia Ocaña ♯10 primer semestre 2017

Enconchados: Japanese Appropriations, Ornamentation and Light Symbolism in New Spain

Sonia Ocaña Universidad Juárez Autónoma de Tabasco

Introduction

In the 1776 volume of his work Journey Around Spain, the eminent scholar Antonio Ponz recorded two anonymous series of enconchados (mother-of-pearl inlaid paintings)1 depicting the Conquest of and the Battles of Alexandre Farnese (Figs.1 and 2). These Fig. 1. Anonymous, “Battle of Cempoala”, Conquest of works were in the House of the Dukes of Mexico, late 17th century, Oil and tempera on wood inlaid Infantado and Ponz referred to them as two with mother-of-pearl, 6-panel series, 163 x 110 cm, Franz series of medium colored paintings, inlaid with Mayer Museum. mother-of-pearl, worth seeing.2 By the time Ponz saw these enconchados, over 70 years had Interestingly, albeit mother-of-pearl inlays were passed since they had been shipped from New essential to enconchados’ particular effects, in- Spain, so the fact that they were still in depth research on the use of this material is yet exhibition and caught Ponz’ attention is itself to be done. The main quality of mother-of-pearl significant. The paintings mentioned by Ponz is shine, which suffuses the most outstanding have been preserved to this day,3 and it can be enconchados with a sumptuous surface. affirmed that the reason why he found them so Mother-of-pearl is found in the inner walls of appealing relates to their materiality. the shells of certain bivalves, such as oysters and mussels -both sea and freshwater species. In fact, enconchados aroused interest of This material consists of a number of members of different social groups in New translucent layers made of very fine calcium Spain between ca. 1660 and 1750 because of carbonate crystals and conchiolin, an animal their very use of mother-of-pearl, bright colors, protein that acts as a bonding agent. Shine is and elaborate ornamentation. The review of the result of light reflection over the crystalline many enconchados –either those signed by surface and iridiscence results from the light different artists or the anonymous ones- refaction and difraction over the different suggests the existence of a shared aesthetic, that layers. However, most shells have an opaque allows affirming that shine and light were covering which makes them unsuitable for important for the audience.4 That is to say, inlay.5 although not all succeeded at depicting light, the spectators shared a conception of what they This text will first of all describe enconchados, should look like. as well as their relationship with both New Spanish painting and certain Asian .

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Secondly, it will discuss the use of shell – Namban lacquerware includes objects for namely the problems that arose when acquiring Catholic worship, such as lecterns, book stands, pearl shells in around 1700. This Communion vessels and triptychs objects, as text will also examine the possibility that both well as others destined for household use, such luminosity and ornamentation suffused as chests and desks (Fig. 3).11 These works have enconchados with a sense of luxury, which black grounds filled with native species of might have been essential for both their flowers, birds and grape clusters, as well as function and acceptance at the highest social geometric motifs. The images are outlined with levels in New Spain. powdered gold or silver, with the occasional detail in color. The main substance used for Namban lacquerware is a resin called Toxicodendron vernicifluum (formerly Rhus verniciflua), indigenous to Asia.12

Fig. 3. Anonymous, round box, black lacquer and mother- of-pearl inlaid, Japan, late 16th century. From Oliver Impey and Christiaan Jörg, Japanese Export Lacquer 1580-1850, Amsterdam, Hotei Publishing, 2005.

Although the resemblance to Namban lacquerware is remarkable, enconchados are paintings technically unrelated to Asian lacquerware. Furthermore, the aesthetics of Fig. 2. Anonymous, “Triumphal Feasts for Alexander in mother-of-pearl in Namban lacquerware are Paris”, Battles of Alexander Farnese, late 17th-early 18th century, Oil and tempera on wood inlaid with mother-of- complex, and could not have been emulated by pearl, 6-panel series, private collection. Mexico City painters, since it is unlikely that they were familiar with mother-of-pearl before Enconchados share many of their they began the experimentations that led to characteristics with other viceregal paintings, enconchados. In other words, Japanese including production techniques and materials.6 production was a mere starting point for New In the early 20th century, some scholars Spanish works, which were developed misunderstood the use of mother-of-pearl as separately. harkening back to Pre-Columbian times;7 others realized its use reflects Asian art.8 In 1997, it Enconchados used Namban lacquerware as a was pointed out that they were related to source of inspiration to introduce their own Japanese Namban lacquerware (ca. 1570-1630), variations into New Spain painting techniques primarily exported to Europe.9 The resemblance inherited from Europe. The shifting shine of is more obvious on enconchado frames (Figs. enconchados challenges spectators in different 1, 6 and 7), which make use of mother-of- ways: they are still open to different gazes, and pearl, as well as ornamentation from Japanese reveal that this deceptively simple artistic works.10 phenomenon has an elusive allure, made possible through a transient -yet very significant- technical adaptation.

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Fig. 6. Anonymous, Ecce Homo, (Life of Christ), late 17th century, Oil and tempera on wood inlaid with mother-of- pearl, 24-panel series, 69 x 102 cm, Museo de América.

Fig. 4. Set of shells used in Tenochtitlan, early 16th century.

Fig. 7. Juan González, Saint Francis Xavier Embarking for Asia, 1703, Oil and tempera on wood inlaid with mother-of-pearl, 113 x 91.75 cm, private collection.

Fig. 5. Anonymous, Saint Joseph with the Baby, late 17th- early 18th century, Oil and tempera on wood inlaid with mother-of-pearl, 64 x 42.5 cm, Monastery of Descalzas Reales, Madrid.

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Enconchados and their relationship with Sometimes the shell is broken into random Japanese Namban lacquerware shapes to form a mosaic. Both lacquer and mother-of-pearl inlays tend to be thick, and While the inlay of mother-of-pearl gives lacquer is applied with a coarse brush -also used enconchados a unique, dazzling light (Fig. 4, 7 for the decoration- which consists of shades of and 8), they owe part of their beauty to their gold lacquer painted onto the black lacquer meticulously crafted frames (Figs. 5, 6, 8 and ground, and sometimes onto the inlaid shell. 9), most of which have black grounds, filled Since Namban lacquerware is very sticky, no with golden figures (sometimes a bit of red or adhesives are required to affix the sheets of other colors is added); figures such as birds, mother-of-pearl.13 flowers, as well as leaves and grape clusters. Motifs tend to be detailed, yet in most cases Some figures in enconchado frames show they cannot be identified, as they are not meant mother-of-pearl sheets, which have geometric to depict nature, but to embellish the works. shapes, but they are usually irregular and never The use of mother-of-pearl, as well as the form specific shapes. In enconchados layers of figures and the color palette of enconchado paint and varnish are applied over mother-of- frames take after Namban lacquerware, yet the pearl inlays. Namban lacquerware was very effects are very different. popular in both Portugal and the Spanish dominions -including New Spain.14 This production stopped in the 1630s, when Christianity was banned in Japan and the country closed itself off from the world. On the other hand, evidence suggests that the production of enconchados started around 1650 and reached its peak around 1690-1700.15 Little is known about the circulation of Namban lacquerware in New Spain: some pieces were likely imported via Manila.16 References to Namban lacquerware in Mexico City household inventories have been identified.17 Moreover, two groups of Japanese visitors arrived in New Spain in the early 1600s.18 While there is no record of the objects brought by these visitors, there is no doubt they brought Namban lacquerware with them, because of its excellent reputation.

Mother-of-pearl is the key to explaining the relationship between Namban lacquerware and New Spanish enconchados, as shine was used along with rich ornamentation to create dazzling, opulent surfaces that were highly prized on both sides of the Atlantic. While

Fig. 8. Anonymous, Virgin of Guadalupe, late 17th-early enconchados had an important domestic 18th century, Oil and tempera on wood inlaid with mother- market, many works were shipped across the of-pearl, 84 x 60 cm, Museo Catedralicio y Diocesano de Atlantic in the 1690s and 1700s.19 Both in New León. Spain and in Spain, the audience seems to have focused on their pictorial nature, while in a few In Namban lacquerware, native species of Spanish cases there seems to be a certain focus flowers, plants and birds are usually depicted. on the resemblance to lacquerware. Specific shapes can be cut out of mother-of- pearl, and sometimes pieces are cut to For instance, in a document itemizing Spanish representations of bigger foreign animals, like noblewoman Catalina de la Cueva's dowry from tigers. Many cut-out shapes are geometric and 1717, two are mentioned in her “lacquerware are arranged together to create a pattern, treasure”, along with a Chinese folding screen.20 predominantly on border decorations.

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Additionally, in the 1766 inventory of Isabella of eye-catching, tiger-print, blue, yellow, red, Farnese (the wife of Spain's King Phillip V), white and golden.24 there is record of a 24-panel series of enconchados depicting the Conquest of Mexico Shells were closely related to Aztec power (plate 2), listed with lacquerware, not with structures: research has found that different paintings.21 Enconchados, as well as Namban kinds of shells were offered to the Aztecs as a lacquerware, owe their success to both the shine tribute from cities in what is now . It is of mother-of-pearl and the sumptuous likely that shells were exchanged in different ornamentation, which will be discussed ports along the Gulf of Mexico, such as separately below. Coatzacoalcos River, and in Chontalpa, located in the mouth of the Grijalva River.25 Spondylus Shells in New Spain princeps shells could have been brought to Tenochtitlan from as far away as modern-day The shell species used in New Spanish Nicaragua. These shells would have been enconchados are yet to be identified. In carried via what are now Honduras and the enconchados the shell was polished, cut into Yucatan peninsula to the port of Xicalango in small sheets, pasted on wooden panels, painted Campeche, where they would have been and varnished, which makes their identification acquired by pochtecas, the Aztec long-distance extremely difficult. Nevertheless, there are some traders.26 possible discoveries from archaeological research about the use of shell in Mesoamerica, Archaeological research at the Templo Mayor as well as from historical accounts from New (the religious core of Tenochtitlan) has Spain and technical research on viceregal identified 141 shell species, including some from furniture. the Caribbean Sea (about 1600 kilometers from Tenochtitlan): Oliva scripta, Stombrus gigas As far as we know, Pre-Columbian art primarily and Turbinella angulate.27 As for the species used seashell species.22 Mexico is rich in such Olivella volutella, Pinctada mazatlanica, S. species: it has 11,000 kilometers of coastline, calcifer, Chama echinata, Oliva spicata and O. including four malacological regions incrassata, they must have been collected in the (Californian, Panamic, Carolinian and south Pacific coast, between modern-day Jalisco Caribbean). For this reason, it seems likely that and .28 Other species, like Oliva sayana domestic shells were used in enconchados, and O. reticularis, are common in the Gulf of though technical studies will be needed in order Mexico.29 All of these species are alluring for to confirm it. The artistic use of shell was very their beauty and shine, and in some cases for important throughout Pre-Columbian times for their large size. Because a lot of effort was religious and ecoomic reasons;23 their use seems required to carry them to Tenochtitlan in to have reached its peak in Tenochtitlan, the central Mexico, it is not surprising that they Aztec capital, around the time when the were used in objects related to important Spaniards first arrived in Mexico (Fig. 4). rituals. Furthermore, some of the most highly regarded species -such as Pinctada Interestingly, shells are mentioned by 16th mazatlanica, Spondylus americana, S. calcifer, century conquerors such as Hernán Cortés and S. princeps and Chama echinata- were Bernal Díaz del Castillo; as well as by especially hard to obtain, collected alive in rocky chroniclers of the West Indies, such as Pietro substrates, 10 to 40 meters below the surface.30 Martire d'Anghiera and Francisco Cervantes de Salazar, and Catholic chroniclers, such as Diego By the late 17th century the situation had Durán, Bernardino de Sahagún, Gerónimo de changed and the raw material was not Mendieta and José de Acosta. The fact that so necessarily expensive, since the New Spaniards, many authors mention shells proves their unlike the Aztecs, did not consider shells to have awareness of how important they were to the a strong symbolic or economic value. Aztecs. However, none of these sources offer Documentary information reveals that shells particular information about the species used, were used in New Spanish objects that varied in since they are limited to describing shells with price, including many inexpensive ones.31 Raw adjectives such as large, small, sumptuous and shells circulated in Mexico City, and evidence suggests that the ones used in enconchados

Enconchados: Japanese Appropriations, Ornamentation and Light Symbolism in New Spain / Sonia Ocaña 5 ♯10 primer semestre 2017 were processed in enconchados’ workshops. A pearl. However, the “perfect” and gorgeous good example of this is found in the 1704 asset mother-of-pearl remained abandoned on the inventory of Bentura de Paz, which included two beach, since there were no buyers for it in New boxes full of raw shells valued at the relatively Spain.39 Even though Barco is writing about 50 low price of 10 pesos (34v), so we can gather years after the height of enconchados, it is likely that shell supply was not a problem for artists that the beautiful Californian shells or the working in Mexico City. gorgeous pearl shell that so deeply impressed the Jesuit chronicler were not used in Although nothing is known about the origins of enconchados. the shells used in enconchados, it is known that there existed some old shell supply centers that Despite its beauty, abalone would hardly have apparently had already been abandoned. In been the best choice for enconchados, as its 1780 (about 30 years after the end of the iridescent shine would have partly been hidden documented production of enconchados) the under layers of paint and varnish. The well-known Jesuit chronicler Francisco Javier manufacturers seem to have preferred mother- Clavijero wrote that the Pacific Mexican coast of-pearl with a pearly, non-iridescent shine, harboured shells of singular beauty. Even probably because it worked better under the though Clavijero added that pearl fishing had layers of color. For this reason, it is probable been practiced all along this coast throughout that any medium or large shells with a pearly different times,32 the terms he used suggest that shine would have been considered suitable for by the 18th century both shells and pearls enconchados, and that painters would have stopped being commercialized.33 successfully used different species.

Similarly, Jesuit priest Eusebio Kino wrote that Technical studies conducted by Alejandra blue shells were highly prized by Pima Indians Quintanar Isaías in the Franz Mayer Museum in California around 1700.34 California shells (Mexico City) have found both fresh and sea also impressed another Jesuit priest, Miguel del water shells in Spanish American mother-of- Barco, whose historical account of California pearl inlaid objects. Some Mexican furniture (ca. 1750) mentions a large quantity of winkles pieces are inlaid with freshwater mussels of the and shells of different kinds, shapes, colors and genre Unia, while other pieces are inlaid with sizes, flooding the beaches. According to Barco, pearl oysters of the genre Pinctada, and the so some of these shells had a gorgeous, lace-like called “concha nácar” (oyster shell) from the Sea surface, and “may well be the most beautiful on of Cortés (Pteria sterna). The two main Latin Earth,” because a brightly hued blue covered American oyster shell species were Pinctada their shine, even more brilliant than that of the imbricata in the Caribbean Sea, and Pinctada finest mother-of-pearl, as fine as that of lapis Mazatlantica in the Pacific coast. It is likely that lazuli. This color looked like an extremely both species were used in some mother-of-pearl delicate and transparent varnish, and silver inlaid objects, as they were collected and grounds could easily be seen beneath it.35 While exported to Europe since the early 16th century Barco does not name this gorgeous shell, in the island of Cubagua in Venezuela.40 While scholar Enriqueta M. Olguín considers it must technical analysis will be needed in order to have been black, green or blue abalone (Haliotis determine if freshwater shells were ever used in cracherodii or Haliotis fulgens).36 According to enconchados, the case of the furniture in the Barco, if these shells had been common in Franz Mayer Museum suggests that this Europe, pearl shells would have lost possibility should not be discounted. appreciation.37 Barco’s words suggest that by the mid-18th century these shells were no longer As for the origins of the shells used in usually found in Mexico City as they had been in enconchados, there are many different Pre-Columbian times.38 possibilities. Due to the artistic use of mother- of-pearl in early modern times in the Americas, Pearl fishing was very important in California Asia and Europe, and because of the existence by the time Barco wrote his chronicles. He of large commercial networks, raw shells wrote that the inner part of pearl shells had the circulated throughout the world. For instance, same color as pearl itself, but because they were Blas Sierra Calle has mentioned the existence of flat and concave, they looked even shinier than some polished mother-of-pearls in Spain, which

Enconchados: Japanese Appropriations, Ornamentation and Light Symbolism in New Spain / Sonia Ocaña 6 ♯10 primer semestre 2017 he believes came from Canton or the species appear to have been used in the works in Philippines. According to Sierra Calle, this Descalzas Reales. In enconchados the use of delicate material was also inlaid in furniture shells must have been flexible, as it was based sold in both the domestic and the export upon their shine, providing the artists with a market. Furthermore, raw mother-of-pearls wide range of possibilities for the species’ were also shipped abroad, as many European selection. Nevertheless, for practical reasons it accounts, beginning in 1750, mention mother- is likely that most shells were supplied from of-pearls imported from China.41 domestic coasts -either from the Atlantic or the Pacific- as well as from freshwater sources. It has been suggested that Chinese shells circulated in New Spain,42 so it is not impossible Technique that some enconchados had Asian shells in them. Barco suggested that the beautiful Technically, enconchados are very similar to abalone shells from California were unknown in other paintings of their time. However, some Europe and regretted that not even Mexicans adaptations were required in order to were interested in them. However, in 1699 the successfully add mother-of-pearl to paintings. Italian traveler Francesco Gemelli Careri wrote Because of the weight of mother-of-pearl, the that the best purchases in the New World support base used was a wooden panel, to which included mother-of-pearl.43 It is likely that pieces of fabric were attached. Afterwards, “the enconchados used domestic shells, as importing first layer of ground was applied, upon which an material would have led to higher prices -which initial underdrawing was made (probably in would have been rejected by most consumers- ink) to outline the main features of the and many documents mention low-priced composition where the shells were to be placed. ones.44 If any customers required high quality This is the drawing that normally shows shells, it is likely that the artists made use of through the pieces of nacre”.46 The mother-of- highly regarded domestic species. pearl is part of both the support base and of the layer of paint, since it is painted and varnished; Nevertheless, it is unlikely that requirements yet, its shine plays an important role in the were made on the shell species used. A 1699 chromatic effect of the works. This is a unique contract has been published where Juan quality; regardless of the use of mother-of- González agrees to make some enconchados for pearl, painting skills were essential in the a buyer. The document refers several times to making of enconchados. the high quality expected from the (shell) inlay.45 However, it does not say anything about Enconchados would not use just any part of the the kind of shells used, or even about the size or shell, only mother-of-pearl: that is, a shiny shell shape of shell inlays. In other words, as long as layer. Raw shells must have been processed in the effect would be shiny and colorful, buyers enconchado workshops using hammers, knives, would not care about the kind of material coarse and fine files, tongues and sharpening employed. stones to obtain mother-of-pearl sheets and give them the shape and size required. Coarse files Regardless of their origin, the shells used in would remove thick, hard and rough layers of enconchados had to be supplied to Mexico City, shell while fine ones would be used to both where the works were made. While different polish mother-of-pearl and give it a smooth kinds of shells were likely used, the finest works finish, and to shape the pieces.47 As for sharp would utilize good-quality shells with a pearly knives, they would be used to thin shell stripes shine. Such is the case in an Immaculate when the material was too thick.48 Shell work Conception paired with a Joseph with Baby must have been similar to that of current Thai Jesus in the Monastery of the Descalzas Reales mother-of-pearl inlaid lacquerware, which has in Madrid (Fig. 5), whose frames show whole been described by Julathusana Byachrananda: pieces of shell and leave aside the use of painting, unlike most enconchado frames. This The shells [...] are first cleaned and the shell original solution suggests that some customers is smoothed using a small hammer and file made special requirements, which the artists to remove the brownish-green, rough outer were eager to satisfy. Although a precise surface, until the inner glossy white and pink identification is yet to be made, different shell part, used for the decoration, is reached. The shell is now about the size of a young

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coconut shell. The portion of the shell used would have been placed on the first layer of for the mother-of-pearl inlay work extends ground recently applied, the surface then from the mouth 75-130 mm further into the being leveled off with a new layer of gypsum body. This portion is thin and good for that would also affix the shells. […] cutting and making into designs. [...] The Regarding the arrangement of the shell portion cut from the mouth of the shell is areas, it should be noted that all the samples curved so it needs to be cut into smaller taken in these areas present, firstly, a thin pieces of 50 x 75 mm. Each shell can yield film (in all cases less than 5 µm) of between 5-6 small pieces of this size, or translucent brown. It consists mainly of a some 16 square inches in total. […] The mixture of linseed oil and a terpenic resin, opposite side is covered with a white film which also contains small amounts of earth formed by the saliva (namlai hoi) of the shell and carbon. The purpose of this film would animal. Each piece must be filed with a be to improve the adhesion of the whetstone to remove the filmy saliva and to subsequent paint layers and glazes applied, reduce the pieces to a thickness of 3 mm.49 being at the same time a fixer for the decorative features and lines in silver and This detailed description shows that the process gold.53 does not require sophisticated tools. In enconchados workshops, journeymen were Thin sheets of mother-of-pearl would be likely to do much of shell work. Evidence covered with a layer of paint that underwent a suggests that they were exclusively made in special process to make sure it would affix well painting workshops, and that the artists who on the shell. Mother-of-pearl would typically be made them were painters. In these works, inlaid in the characters’ clothes, as well as in mother-of-pearl is not only inlaid but also some details within the architecture and painted (and usually varnished), and the artists landscapes. The specific areas where mother-of- who did this part of the work were not pearl would be inlaid were carefully selected, to necessarily familiar with other mother-of-pearl make sure they would give the paintings an objects. Notable was the González family -Juan, appealing shine. The best enconchados usually Miguel and Tomás, who specialized in have thin layers of yellow, red, green and enconchados, and were members of the guild of sometimes blue paint, with a subtly changing painters.50 The painter Nicolás Correa, nephew luminosity because of the mother-of-pearl of Juan Correa -one the most prestigious inlays. Evidence suggests that both oil and painters of his time, made both traditional tempera paints were used.54 As for the paintings and enconchados.51 pigments, they would include lead white, white pipeclay, cinnabar, minium, yellow ochre, Both technical and documented evidences madder lake, bone black, carbon black, natural suggest enconchados were the result of umber, burnt umber, natural sienna and burnt pictorial experimentations: it is unlikely that sienna: all of which were common in the artists had a very sophisticated knowledge of painting of New Spain. As for the glue, more mother-of-pearl inlay since beginning. The technical analyses are required, but some earliest one known is a Nativity signed by the sources report that animal glue was used to renowned Juan González, who in this case was paste mother-of-pearl sheets over the panels.55 not able to match the shine of the shell with the pictorial work. This Nativity has little mother- The amount, shape, and size of mother-of-pearl of-pearl, inlaid in irregular shapes only into inlays vary considerably in different works, yet some parts of the characters’ clothes.52 they tend to stay constant in panels belonging to Nonetheless, over time, the best artists the same series. Shells have a laminar structure developed a skillful technique. Adelina Illán and that makes it hard to obtain square sheets from Rafael Romero analyzed the technique of an them, for they are easily broken when pressed, Adoration of the Magi, attributed to Juan so a very gentle and skillful touch is required.56 González, and pointed out that, For this reason, geometric tesserae of mother- of-pearl are always an evidence of given the transparency of the shell and the specialization. Not surprisingly, most works non-discoloration of a probably existing with regular sheets of mother-of-pearl have a intermediate material between the shell and fine, delicate layer of paint that reveals the shine the underlying layer of ground, perhaps an of the underlying nacre. adhesive was not used at all. The shells

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An example of this is a 24-panel series of the Enconchados are very fragile, given that over Life of Christ in Museo de América in Madrid, time mother-of-pearl inlays tend to come off, done by an anonymous artist (Fig. 6). Jesus’ since the rest of the elements in the painting clothing is rendered mosaic-like, entirety out of end up making a single, compact layer in which geometric sheets of mother-of-pearl that match the mother-of-pearl cannot fit. Moreover, the perfectly. Some sheets are as large as two inches coat of paint over the shell tends to fall off too. square. Interestingly, the sheets of mother-of- For these reasons, most -if not all- of the pearl used for the other characters, while being existing works have been restored many times. large, have irregular shapes. In other words, the As a result, many outstanding enconchados main character stands out because of the very have lost their shine under thick layers of paint, shape of the mother-of-pearl inlays. Jesus is the result of restoring techniques such as also accentuated through the use of color: he is rigattino. However, a rough coat of varnish, wearing a bright blue tunic, under which the which has sometimes believed to be original,58 sheets of mother-of-pearl maintain their shine, enhances the shine of some enconchados. which reveals real skill. According to the 17th century Spanish painter and author Francisco While this idea is appealing, technical evidence Pacheco, blue was the most difficult color to has been found that an outstanding Saint work with and many good painters could not Francis Xavier Embarking for Asia, signed in use it properly.57 1703 by Juan González does not have rough coats of varnish (Fig. 7).59 This evidence is In enconchados, the natural shine of mother-of- especially significant as it comes from a good pearl tends to be lost under deep colors, and for work made by a prestigious artist. Although this reason some works leave out colors like more technical analyses are necessary to make blue, brown and gray. Since this series is conclusions on this subject, this example should sumptuous and meticulously crafted, it is likely be taken into account before affirming that the that blue was partly used to show off the artist’s finish provided by rough coats of varnish was technical knowledge. While shell inlaids were essential to enconchados. In any case, the most originally taken from Japanese lacquer, appealing works suggest that technical painting enconchados use light resources to create their adaptations were mainly related to the need to own optical effects, which belong to artistic show the underlying shine of mother-of-pearl. tastes particular to New Spain –yet not exclusive to enconchados. More reflection Outstanding Works, Shine and should be made on New Spanish’ perception of Symbolism shine and color, and how they related to the meaning of the works. The most appealing enconchados are better appreciated up close. The subtle sheen of the Also impressive are the aforementioned underlying mother-of-pearl invites spectators to Immaculate Conception and Joseph with Baby move around them: their appearance varies Jesus (Fig. 5) in the Monastery of the with the light, and the spectator’s perspective. Descalzas Reales in Madrid. The characters’ In other words, to best appreciate the works, the clothes are painted over a real mosaic of spectator must engage them. Since New Spanish mother-of-pearl, as the edges of every fragment asset inventories suggest that most works were perfectly match the surrounding ones. The shine displayed in private households, it is likely that of the mother-of-pearl is enhanced by a light spectators would indeed get up close and move layer of paint: some black, golden and red around them. Little is known about how strokes are used to outline the folds of the robe, enconchados were originally exhibited, but as well as the delightful edge of the tunic and probably by day they would be seen under a the Virgin’s hands, which appear in praying natural soft light, filtered through windows, and gesture. While the paint is subtle, it has an after sunset they would be viewed by appealingly bright effect, suggesting a highly candlelight. The subtle differences derived from specialized adaptation by a very skillful artist. the variations of light were certainly an The shine given off by these works is very appealing invitation to revisit them again and noticeable, despite being kept in a poorly lit again. room.

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Enconchados were created with a strong will to Parish of Saint Joseph in Tlaxcala, Mexico. impress their audience, as it can be seen in the While almost the same, the one in Castellón is dazzling frames, with intricate designs made for even more splendorous: it has a sumptuous careful observation. The close link between frame painted and inlaid with mother-of- frames and paintings is taken to the extreme in pearl.64 The spectator is drawn immediately to some enconchados. The best example of this is the Virgin’s robes: the numerous layers of blue found on an anonymous Virgin of Guadalupe in and golden paint reveal the underlying shine of the Cathedral and Diocesan Museum of León, mother-of-pearl, set in a mosaic-like pattern. It Spain (Fig. 8). The black ground is full of is usually necessary to come up close to golden flowers, leaves and birds, all of which are enconchados in order to perceive their shine, meticulously crafted and enhanced by the but in these cases it is so intense, it can easily be mother-of-pearl shine. The ornamentation seen from 12 feet away. spreads out all over the surface -except for Guadalupe and the apparitionist medallions; it is assymetrical and has a certain rhythm that captures the spectator’s interest.

While attention is first caught by the sumptuous surface that surrounds the Virgin, it soon turns to Guadalupe herself: far the shiniest figure in the work. Guadalupe’s robe and tunic are only slightly painted with a few thick black lines that make the folds of the clothing. Both tunic and robe have a mosaic-like appearance derived from the superimposition of square pieces of mother-of-pearl, whose shine is especially remarkable. The artists left out the traditional blue robe of Guadalupe, yet the work has a shiny, dazzling effect that might have Christian connotations, as in the Bible both Jesus and his followers are identified with the Light.60 The ground is so sumptuous that, once the spectator has looked at Guadalupe, his attention is drawn back to it. There is no doubt that this work was meant to impress and dazzle spectators: the potential customer was likely very interested in both the ornamentation and the shine, which relate to the beauty and the Divine Light.61

Fig. 9. Anonymous, Virgin of Guadalupe, late 17th-early This Virgin of Guadalupe has been in Spain at 18th century, Oil and tempera on wood inlaid with mother- least since the early 20th century.62 It was likely of-pearl, 182 x 112 cm, convent of Capuchin Nuns, sent to Spain soon after it was made, as Castellón de la Plana. happened with many of the most impressive enconchados we have today.63 Numerous Good quality shells must have been used in enconchados were shipped to Spain, which these paintings but what is truly remarkable is suggests that they were considered appealing the skill, especially noticeable in the uniform enough to dazzle European spectators. These shape of the sheets, and the thorough layer of paintings were a strong physical evidence of blue paint, which succeeds in enhancing the both the Splendor of Faith and the wealth of the natural shine of mother-of-pearl.65 Obviously New World. the unknown artist was an experienced specialist, perhaps a member of the Gonzalez Also remarkable are two anonymous Virgins of family. These Guadalupes affirm that from a Guadalupe, one of which belongs to the convent technical standpoint, enconchados required of Capuchin nuns of Castellón de la Plana, Spain some skills unknown to European painting, and (Fig. 9), while the other one is kept in the to Asian and European mother-of-pearl inlay traditions. That is to say, they are a New Spain

Enconchados: Japanese Appropriations, Ornamentation and Light Symbolism in New Spain / Sonia Ocaña 10 ♯10 primer semestre 2017 contribution to painting techniques inherited The grape clusters were rendered taking from Europe. advantage of the natural purple tone of some mother-of-pearl sheets, but the vine shoots were The frame of the Virgin of Guadalupe in painted with golden strokes. These figures are Castellón is so full of grape clusters, flowers, especially interesting, for they likely have a leaves and birds that it takes careful observation Eucharistic meaning,66 which is enhanced by to recognize the figures. Attention is the shine of mother-of-pearl.67 It is deliberate immediately drawn to the different types of that shine lights the main figures, and that flowers, all of which are extremely detailed and special attention is paid to the shape of shell beautiful. Several types of birds in different inlaids and the color of those figures.68 presentations are also depicted. Realistic Sumptuous enconchados were displayed in depictions are seldom found on these frames; wealthy houses or sent to important Spanish nonetheless, one of the birds evokes the collections not just to look beautiful, and the Northern Cardinal. This frame is also tricks were not there because they made interesting because it shows a butterfly: a motif enconchados look good; they served a that is only found in two other frames, one of purpose.69 Far from being non-essential them being Saint Francis Xavier Embarking decoration, both shine and ornamentation were for Asia by Juan González (Fig. 7). The color necessary to impress spectators while palette is also appealing: some figures are light transmitting religious and economic values. red; others purple or light green, while others show the natural color of mother-of-pearl.

Fig. 11. Cristóbal de Villalpando, The Transfiguration, 1683, Oil on canvas, 865 x 550 cm, Puebla Cathedal.

Interestingly, enconchados shipped to Europe often depicted Mexican subjects, namely the Virgin of Guadalupe and the Conquest of Fig. 10. Anonymous, Saint Peter Bishop, Featherwork, 17th Mexico. The depiction of religious subjects is century, measures unavailable, Ochavo Chapel, Puebla not accidental, as Christianity has identified Cathedral. God with light since the early Middle Ages.70

New Spanish audience would hardly have

ignored the suitability of mother-of-pearl to

Enconchados: Japanese Appropriations, Ornamentation and Light Symbolism in New Spain / Sonia Ocaña 11 ♯10 primer semestre 2017 refer to the Divine Splendour,71 so it is likely also suggested on the following reference from that many enconchados depicting religious the asset inventory of the Cathedral of Puebla: subjects were used for devout contemplation. “An ebony bookstand inlaid with semi precious Society in New Spain was at the same time stones from Mixteca […] garnished with golden profoundly religious and aesthetes, as well as silver and a cross in between, made of the same being fond of luxury. Both luminosity and stone, to be used on the Holy Friday”.77 But sumptuousness made enconchados outstanding maybe the best example of taste for light related vehicles for all these ideals, hence their success. to both Christian faith and luxury is the Rosary Chapel in Puebla (1690) (Fig. 12).78 This chapel Little is known about New Spanish taste for has a complex iconographic program full of shine on art, and its possible relationship with symbols, which are reinforced by the dazzling Catholic beliefs. It is unknown if people knew and colorful beauty of the materials used: tecali texts that made explicit references to light and – a local type of alabaster--, gilded plasterwork, its Christian symbolism,72 or if refererences to tiles and sheets of gold. While little has been this topic were made at preaching, especially in written about the importance of light on this holidays such as the Purification of the Virgin, chapel, there is no doubt that bright and color popularly known as the Candelaria for the were considered essential to better express the blessing of candles. However, there are many splendor of faith of the wealthy people of evidences that in New Spain –like in Europe- Puebla. light was considered to be very important in the context of Catholicism, and that shine and bright were very appreciated in Catholic works of art.73

Fig. 13. Anonymous, “Joachim and Anne Meeting at the Golden Gate”, Life of the Virgin, late 17th-early 18th century, Oil and tempera on wood inlaid with mother-of- pearl, 11-panel series, 61 x 86 cm, Museo de América. Fig. 12. Rosary Chapel, Santo Domingo Church, Puebla, 1690. Not surprisingly, high-quality enconchados were expensive. For instance, the 1695 asset Evidence on this includes plumaria inventory of María Teresa Guadalupe Retes Paz (featherwork) (Fig. 10), as well as paintings Vera, marquise of San Jorge, mentions a 10- made by famous artists, like Cristóbal de panel enconchado series depicting the Life of Villalpando. Villalpando was active at the same the Virgin Mary, valued at 500 pesos. These times as the Gonzalezes, and his depictions of works were some of the most expensive subjects such as the Transfiguration (Fig. 11) paintings possessed by doña María Teresa, who or the Apocalyptic Virgin stand out for their was one of the wealthiest heiresses of the time.79 light effects.74 As Clara Bargellini has pointed The price must have been set due to the skill out, “Villalpando carefully considered the displayed, yet we can only speculate about this, problems of light representation, and the for the series is no longer available and the meaning of the divine presence”,75 so his and description in the inventory is not detailed others’ combinations of hues, bright, and enough: it only mentions the shell frames and shadows deserve more attention from those the height (104.5 cm). However, the series pretending to understand these works.76 owned by doña María Teresa was the same size and cost twice as the one that was The relationship between shine and devotion is commissioned in the aforementioned contract

Enconchados: Japanese Appropriations, Ornamentation and Light Symbolism in New Spain / Sonia Ocaña 12 ♯10 primer semestre 2017 of Juan González only three years later.80 The of the Virgin are based on similar models, the latter refers to new works, made to order by a shine is more noticeable in the latter, which also prestigious artist at the peak of the taste for shows more brilliant colors, including blue. As enconchados, so there is no doubt that the for the work by Correa, the shine effect is as works itemized in the 1695 document were of appealing as it is original because of the use of a highest quality. black ground. In this case, Correa paid very much attention to the depiction of the It is likely that this series was similar to another characters – especially Jesus and the Virgin with the same subject that belonged to the Mary on the foreground. That said, he was also Spanish King Phillip V and which is currently in very careful at depicting the frames on the wall, Museo de América in Madrid.81 Phillip V’s as well as the marble tiles of the floor, and the inventory does not mention any mother-of- porcelain dishes exhibited on the left. All of pearl inlays in the scenes depicted in the series, these figures show a beautiful shine, made but it does refer to “pearl frames inlaid with possible thanks to the use of pieces of shell of mother-of-pearl”.82 Interestingly, the frames different sizes. don’t have pearl, but plenty of mother-of-pearl inlays, thoroughly distributed in an appealing design (Fig. 13). The fact that the royal appraiser did not mention the mother-of-pearl in the scenes suggests that he was more impressed by the shine and the skillful work in the frames. That is to say, the success of enconchados was related to sumptuous frames as much as it was to shine.

Fig. 15. Nicolás Correa, Wedding at Cana, 1696. Oil and tempera on wood inlaid with mother-of-pearl, 57.6 × 74.8 cm. The Hispanic Society of America.

A similar sense of luxury is found on highest quality enconchados depicting historical subjects. Maybe the best-known ones are five

Fig. 14. Anonymous, “Joachim and Anne Meeting at the series about the Conquest of Mexico (Fig. 2). Golden Gate”, Life of the Virgin, late 17th-early 18th These series are closely linked to each other, century, Oil and tempera on wood inlaid with mother-of- and evidence suggests that one of them was pearl, 11-panel series, 97 x 68 cm, Museo de América. made especially for the Spanish King Charles II,

perhaps commissioned by the Viceroy José de However, shiny shell inlaids were used in Sarmiento y Valladares, Count of Moctezuma.84 some/certain enconchados to simulate gold, The other series are also likely to have been silver, precious stones, porcelain, and marble.83 made for being shipped to Spain.85 According to Such is the case in another anonymous series of Michael Schreffler the Life of the Virgin Mary also in Museo de

América (Fig. 14), as well as a Wedding at The materials and optical components of the Cana by Nicolás Correa now/currently in the panels suffused the works with a visual Hispanic Society of America (Fig. 15). While intensity and a sense of economic value that none of these paintings have enconchado reinforced the ideas about the Americas’ role frames, the scenes show a rich ornamentation, in the enrichment of the Crown. In addition, in which shine and color are combined to their sumptuous appearance attested in a enhance the architectural highlights, or other more subtle way to the labor–intensiveness details of the sumptouos rooms where the of the acquisition and manipulation of the scenes take place. Albeit both series of the Life materials used in their manufacturing [...] One of the king’s loyal subjects –perhaps the

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Count of Moctezuma himself- gave his whose importance had not been properly sovereign a set of glittering, golden paintings addressed until recent times.87 Furthermore, to depicting scenes from an episode in Spanish this day few studies have raised the importance imperial history. In this sense, the images that ornamentation may have had in New can be regarded as variations on the Spanish art in symbolic terms; hence the need phenomenon Victor Stoichita called the “self- awareness” of images, a condition of for further reflection on these phenomena. reflexive self-consciousness in visual imagery that emerged in concert with the development of mercantile capitalism in N0tas early modern Europe.86 1 In Spanish enconchado means, literally, something that However, the series depicting the Conquest of has seashell in it. The term is currently used to refer to Mexico given to the king seems not to have been different objects inlaid with mother-of-pearl. Since 1970, highly appreciated. That is to say, not all the term enconchado has been used extensively for New Spanish mother-of-pearl inlaid paintings and has also been viewers considered enconchados to have used in English. Michael J. Schreffler, The Art of economic or religious symbolism. Nonetheless, Allegiance: Visual Culture and Imperial Power in they were very appreciated in other contexts on New Spain, University Park, Pennsylvania State both sides of the Atlantic, as Ponz’ quote Univ. Pr., 2007, pp. 81-105; Gauvin A. Bailey, Art of suggests. Also, the fact that many enconchados Colonial America, London, Phaidon, 2000, pp. 350-351; Sonia I. Ocaña Ruiz, “Mother-of-Pearl Inlaid Frames: The stay in Spanish collections lets us think that Use of Japanese Ornamental Models in New Spanish some of their recipients developed a taste for Paintings”, in Donna Pierce and Ronald Otsuka (eds.), enconchados. Such a taste must belong to those Asia and Spanish America: Trans-Pacific Artistic and characteristics that made enconchados different Cultural Exchange 1500-1850, Denver, Denver Art Museum, 2009, pp. 129-149, and Clara Bargellini, “28. to other works –that is, shine and Saint Francis Xavier Embarking for Asia.” In Painting a ornamentation. How can we explain, then, that New World. and Life 1521-1821, Donna many of them have been preserved with hardly Pierce and Ronald Otsuka editors, 187-189. Denver: any shine or ornamentation? As these qualities Denver Art Museum, 2004, pp. 187-189. While “paintings were the raison d'être of enconchados, we can inlaid with mother-of-pearl” would be a more proper designation, in this text I have decided to use the term suppose that –regardless the cost of the work- enconchado as it is familiar to the English-speaking the aim of most artists, and buyers, was that audience. enconchados would be both shiny and 2 Antonio Ponz, Viaje de España. Seguido de los dos tomos decorated. Some of these qualities have been del viaje fuera de España, Madrid, Aguilar, 1947, p. 498. lost over time, which makes it hard to know 3 In the late 20th century, the panels of both series were what the original audience saw when they saw jointed to make folding screens. However, originally each an enconchados –not only because our visual series consisted of 6 separate panels. Ponz’ quote starts culture is not the same as theirs, but also with a reference to “a cabinet full of medium size because the works might look today very panels/paintings”. different than they originally did. 4 Liz James’ thoughs on Medieval mosaics shed some light on this topic. See “What Colours were Byzantine Conclusion Mosaics?”, in Eve Borsook, Fiorella Gioffredi Superbi and Giovanni Pagliarulo (eds.), Medieval Mosaics. Light, Color, Materials, Milan, Silvana, 2000, p. 43. New Spanish The aim of this article has been to suggest new sources from the 17th century do not say anything about paths for the study of enconchados, as well as the shine of enconchados. However, the proof that light contribute to demonstrate the importance of was intrinsically important in enconchados are the works light in New Spanish art. Further technical themselves. Something similar has been observed regarding Medieval mosaics as, despite their recognizable studies focusing on the kind of shells used in light properties, little was written about them. Ibidem, p. enconchados are necessary to better understand 37. the relationship between this kind of paintings 5 Jorge Rivas Pérez, “El mobiliario “enconchado” en el and other mother-of-pearl inlaid objetcs, as well virreinato del Perú”, in Memorias de las VI Jornadas as the relationship between the kind of shells Internacionales de Arte, Historia y Cultura Colonial “Asia used, the quality of the work of different artists En América”, Bogotá, Ministerio de Cultura, 2012, p. 75. and the economic appraisal of enconchados. 6 Adelina Illán y Rafael Romero, “La técnica pictórica de Also, approach the study of New Spanish art los enconchados mexicanos y la problemática de su from the standpoint of brightness will allow us restauración”, in Ciencia y Esencia. Cuadernos de to notice the relationship with sacredness, Conservación y Tecnología del Arte. Science & Essence

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Conservation and Art Technology Notebooks, no. 1, 2008, 21 Teresa Lavalle Cobo, “El coleccionismo oriental de Isabel pp. 31-40. de Farnesio”, in Oriente en Palacio: tesoros asiáticos en

7 las colecciones reales españolas, Madrid, Patrimonio Miguel Solá, Historia del arte Hispanoamericano, Nacional, 2003, pp. 213-214. Barcelona, Labor, 1935, pp. 99-100; Martin S. Soria, “Painting”, in Geroge Kubler & Martin S. Soria (eds.), Art 22 However, according to Lourdes Suárez Diez the shells and Architecture in Spain and Portugal and Their depicting the Florentine Codex include Lygunia recta esp. American Dominions, The Pelican History of Art, and Unionidae, both of which are fresh water species. Baltimore, Penguin Books, 1959, p. 313. Lourdes Suárez Diez, Conchas, caracoles y crónicas. El

8 material conquiológico en las fuentes escritas de los siglos Manuel Toussaint, “La pintura con incrustaciones de XVI y XVII en la cultura mexica, Mexico, Instituto concha nácar en la Nueva España”, Anales, V, no. 20, 1952, Nacional de Antropología e Historia, 2004, p. 55. p. 10. 23 9 Adrián Velázquez Castro, “La concha nácar en la época Rodrigo Rivero Lake, La visión de un anticuario, Mexico prehispánica”, in La concha nácar en México, Mexico City, City, Américo Arte, 1997, pp. 246-248. Grupo Gutsa, 1990, pp. 14-49. 10 Ocaña Ruiz, “Mother-of-Pearl…”, op. cit., pp. 19-36. 24 Suárez Diez, op. Cit., pp. 22-23. 11 Maria Helena Mendes Pinto, Lacas Namban em 25 Ibid, p. 33. Portugal. Lisbon: Ediçoes Inapa, 1990, pp.72-99. 26 12 Ibid, pp. 84-85. Spondylus, and especially Spondylus Oliver Impey & Christiaan Jörg, Japanese Export princeps, was very appreciated in the Andean world, not Lacquer 1580-1850, Amsterdam, Hotei Publishing, 2005, only for its ritual use, but also for its economic importance p. 75. in long-distance commerce. Recent research has found out 13 Ibid., p. 76. that Spondylus princeps was also very important for the Tarascos and Teotihuacanos, who had maritime trade 14 Mendes Pinto, op. cit., pp. 56-64; Laca Namban: brillo exchange with Ecuador. Patricia Carot and Marie-Areti de Japón en Navarra, Pamplona, Gobierno de Navarra, Hers, “De perros pelones, buzos y Spondylus. Una historia 2016, and Yayoi Kawamura, “La laca japonesa de continental”, Anales del Instituto de Investigaciones exportación en España. Del estilo Namban al pictórico”, Estéticas, Vol. XXXVIII, No. 108, 2016, pp. 9-50. Archivo español de arte 82, no. 325, 2009, pp. 87-93. 27 Adrián Velázquez Castro, Belem Zúñiga Arellano & 15 The earliest work is a Nativity housed in the Norma Valentín Maldonado, Ofrendas de concha, tesoros Smithsonian American Art Museum, signed by Juan de fertilidad, Mexico, Consejo Nacional para la Cultura y González in 1662. This artist was still active in 1703, when las Artes, Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia, he signed a Saint Francis Xavier Embarking for Asia 2004, p. 12. (private collection, Mexico). Many works are signed either by Miguel González or Juan González in the late 1690s or 28 Ibid, p. 16. early 1700s. See Sonia I. Ocaña Ruiz, “Nuevas reflexiones 29 Ibid, p. 17. sobre las pinturas incrustadas de concha y el trabajo de Juan y Miguel González”, Anales del Instituto de 30 Ibid, pp. 15-16. Investigaciones Estéticas, 35, no. 102, 2013, pp. 125-76. 31 Sonia I. Ocaña Ruiz, “Enconchados: gustos, estrategias y 16 Arte hispanoamericano en las Canarias Orientales precios en la Nueva España”, Anales del Instituto de siglos XVI-XIX, Gran Canaria, Casa de Colón, 2000, p. Investigaciones Estéticas, 37, no. 106, 2015, pp. 107-108. 184. 32 Francisco Javier Clavijero, Historia antigua de México, 17 Such identification is a true challenge, as descriptions Mexico, Porrúa, 1945, p. 150. tend to be vague and their origins are often omitted. 33 Adding to the confusion, works from different parts of Asia Ibid, p. 150. were often mistakenly thought to be Chinese. Gustavo 34 Eusebio Kino, Favores celestiales de Jesús y de María, Curiel, “Perception of the Other and the Language of Mexico, Publicaciones del AGN, 1922, pp. 68-69. “Chinese Mimicry” in the Decorative Arts of New Spain”, in Donna Pierce and Ronald Otsuka (eds.), Asia and Spanish 35 Miguel del Barco, Historia natural y crónica de la America: Trans-Pacific Artistic and Cultural Exchange antigua California, Miguel León Portilla (ed.), Mexico, 1500-1850, Denver, Denver Art Museum, 2009, p. 25. UNAM, Instituto de Investigaciones Históricas, 1973, p. 136. 18 Manuel Romero de Terreros, “Relación del Japón (1609)”, Anales del Museo Nacional de Arqueología, 36 Enriqueta M. Olguín, Nácar en manos otomíes, Mexico, Historia y Etnografía I, 5th Epoch, 1934, pp. 67-111. UNAM, Instituto de Investigaciones Estéticas, 2004, p. 108. 19 María Concepción García Sáiz, “La conquista militar y los enconchados. Las peculiaridades de un patrocinio 37 Ibídem, p. 136. indiano”, in Los pinceles de la historia. El origen del reino 38 Charles di Peso, Casas Grandes: A Fallen Trading de la Nueva España, Mexico City, Consejo Nacional para Center of the Gran Chichimeca, Vol. I, Flagstaff, The la Cultura y las Artes, Instituto Nacional de Bellas Artes, Amerind Foundation Inc. Dragoon Northland Press, 1974, 1999, pp. 111-114. p. 170. 20 Ibid., p. 113. 39 Barco, op. cit., pp. 143-144.

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40 Rivas Pérez, op. cit., pp. 75-76. 62 Manuel Gómez Moreno, Catálogo monumental de

41 España. Provincia de León (1906-1908), Vol. I, Madrid, Blas Sierra Calle, “190. Madreperlas talladas”, in Ministerio de Instrucción Pública y Bellas Artes, 1925, p. Filipinas. Puerta de Oriente: de Legazpi a Malaspina, 565. Madrid, Sociedad Estatal para la Acción Cultural Exterior, 2003, p. 307. 63 While enconchados had a very important domestic

42 market, about 100 of the 280 extant works have been in Roberto Hernández Hernández, “El comercio exterior de Spain since the 18th century. Many enconchados shipped China y su relación con Mexico. Una perspectiva histórica”, to Spain were better preserved than the ones that stayed in México y la Cuenca del Pacífico 8, no. 26, 2005, p. 124. Mexico. Not surprisingly, the largest collection of 43 Juan Francisco Gemelli Careri, Las cosas más enconchados in the world is in Museo de América in considerables vistas en la Nueva España, Mexico, Xóchitl, Madrid, whose works come from different old Spanish 1946, p. 24. collections. 44 Ocaña Ruiz, “Enconchados: gustos…”, op. cit., pp. 106- 64 It should be noted that the work in Tlaxcala might have 110. had an enconchado frame; many extant enconchados have lost their original frames. 45 Guillermo Tovar de Teresa, “Documentos sobre ‘enconchados’ y la familia mexicana de los González”, 65 Ocaña Ruiz, “Enconchados: gustos…”, op. cit., p. 85. Cuadernos de Arte Colonial, 1, 1986, p. 101. 66 While a number of viceregal paintings include fruits 46 Illán & Romero, op. cit., 2008, p. 34. without religious significance, grapes are usually the only fruits to appear in enconchado frames. 47 Olguín, op. cit., pp. 189, 197-198. 67 Jean-Claude Bonne has pointed out that ornament is 48 Ibídem, pp. 188-189. often used to heighten the aesthetic or para- aesthetic 49 Julathusana Byachrananda, Thai Mother-of-Pearl Inlay, value of works through such qualities as rarity, splendor, London, Thames and Hudson, 2001, p. 48. brilliance and subtlety of the effect produced, luxury, polychromy, skill and ingeniousness involved in 50 Tovar de Teresa 1986, pp. 100-101; Mues Orts 2008, p. production, even the sheer painstakingness involved in the 395. work’s execution, and the cost and weight of the precious materials used. Bonne, op. cit., p. 45. 51 Ocaña Ruiz, “Enconchados: gustos…”, op. cit., pp. 87-91. 68 These comments derive from James, op. cit., p. 46. 52 Ocaña Ruiz, “Nuevas reflexiones…”, op. cit., p. 139. 69 Ibídem. 53 Illán & Romero, op. cit., pp. 34-35, 37-38. 70 Gage, op. cit., p. 39; Liz James, “What Colours Were 54 Alejandro Huerta Carrillo, Análisis de la técnica y Byzantine Mosaics?”, in Eve Borsook, Fiorella Gioffredi material de dos colecciones de pinturas enconchadas, Superbi & Giovanni Pagliarulo (eds.), Medieval Mosaics: Mexico, Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia, Light, Color, Materials, Firenze, Silvana, 2000, p. 44. 1991, pp. 48-50. 71 Elena Isabel Estrada de Gerlero, “El tesoro perdido de la 55 José de Santiago Silva, Algunas consideraciones sobre catedral michoacana”, in Nelly Sigaut (ed.), La catedral de las pinturas enconchadas del Museo Nacional de Historia, Morelia. Zamora, El Colegio de Michoacán, Gobierno del Mexico, Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia, Estado de Michoacán, 1991, p. 148. 1976, p. 28; Agustín Espinosa et al., Los enconchados: conservación y restauración de pinturas con 72 In 1769, the Spanish priest Antonio Lobera y Albió got El incrustaciones de concha, , Gobierno del Estado porqué de todas las ceremonias de la Iglesia y sus de , 1986, p. 16; Huerta Carrillo, op. cit., p. 29. misterios. Cartilla de prelados y sacerdotes que enseña las ordenanzas eclesiásticas que deben saber todos los 56 Velázquez Castro, op. cit., p. 17. ministros de Dios published. This book discussed the 57 Franciso Pacheco, Arte de la pintura (3rd edition, Vol. meaning of light in the Bible, and made specific references II), Madrid, Instituto de Valencia de don Juan, 1990, pp. to the use of candles. David Carbajal López, “Velas, religión 84-85. y política en la Nueva España del Siglo de las Luces”, Temas americanistas, No. 33, 2014, pp. 2-3 58 Julieta Ávila, El influjo de la pintura china en los enconchados de Nueva España, Mexico, Instituto 73 However, it has been pointed out that the Catholic Nacional de Antropología e Historia, 1997, p. 52. hierarchy had opposing points of view on the appropriateness of exhibiting very much splendour in the 59 Bargellini, op. cit., pp. 187 and 293. Church. David Carbajal López, op. cit., and Janeth 60 Jn 8:12; Mt 5:14. Rodríguez Nóbrega, “El oro en la pintura de los reinos de la monarquía española. Técnica y simbolismo”, Pintura de 61 Jean-Claude Bonne, “Les ornaments de l'histoire (à los reinos: identidades compartidas, territorios del propos de l'ivoire carolingien de saint Remi)”, Annales mundo hispánico, siglos XVI – XVIII, V. IV, Juana HSS 51, no. 1, 1996, pp. 44-45; John Gage, Colour and Gutiérrez Haces (coord..), México, Fomento Cultural Culture, Practice and Meaning from Antiquity to Banamex, 2008 - 2009, pp. 1314-1375. Abstraction, London, Thames and Hudson, 1993, pp. 59, 74 124. Clara Bargellini, “Interrogantes sobre los colores del arte virreinal”, El color en el arte mexicano, México, UNAM, Instituto de Investigaciones Estéticas, 20-, pp. 22-223.

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75 Ibídem, p. 223. Author's translation. 76 Ibídem 77 Cathedral Archive, Puebla, Sacristy Inventory, 1734, f. 4. 78 The New Spanish taste for light in Catholic contexts is also easily noticeable in the insistence of some communities on lighting candles to make celebrations more splendorous. Carbajal López, op. cit. 79 Gustavo Curiel, “El efímero caudal de una joven noble. Inventario y aprecio de los bienes de la marquesa Doña Teresa Francisca María de Guadalupe Retes Paz Vera (Ciudad de México, 1695)”, Anales del Museo de América, no. 8, 2000, p. 77. 80 Tovar de Teresa, op. cit., p. 101. 81 Eight of the eleven panels of this series are in the aforementioned museum, while the whereabouts of the other three are unknown. 82 Ángel Aterido Fernández, Juan Martínez Cuesta & José Juan Pérez Preciado, Colecciones de pinturas de Felipe V e Isabel Farnesio: inventarios reales, Fundación de Apoyo a la Historia del Arte Hispánico, 2004, p. 120. 83 For a reflection on the depiction of gold in Viceregal painting, see Rodríguez Nóbrega, “El oro en la pintura…”, op. cit. 84 García Sáiz, op. cit., p. 113. 85 García Sáiz, op. cit., pp. 111-114. 86 Schreffler, op. cit., pp. 104-105. 87 Alessandra Russo, Gerhard Wolf & Diane Fane (eds.), Images Take Flight: Feather Art in Mexico and Europe (1400-1700), München, Hirmer Verlag, 2015.

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Ocaña, Sonia; “Enconchados: Japanese Appropriations, Ornamentation and Light Symbolism in New Spain”. En caiana. Revista de Historia del Arte y Cultura Visual del Centro Argentino de Investigadores de Arte (CAIA). No 10 | 1er. semestre 2017. Pp 1-17

URL: http://caiana.caia.org.ar/template/caiana.php?pa g=articles/article_2.php&obj=259&vol=10

Recibido: 10/08/2016 Aceptado: 23/03/2017

Enconchados: Japanese Appropriations, Ornamentation and Light Symbolism in New Spain / Sonia Ocaña 17