Number 1 The Marvelous Enconchado Paintings from New Spain

Publisher Jaime Eguiguren

Project Director Jaime Eguiguren

Authors Alejandro de Antuñano Maurer and Nuria Lázaro Milla

Translation Laura Beratti THE Floriana Beneditto MARVELOUS Design and Layout Laura Eguiluz de la Rica ENCONCHADO

Photography PAINTINGS Joaquín Cortés Noriega Román Lores Riesgo FROM

Printing & Binding Artes Gráficas Palermo NEW SPAIN

Special thanks Juan Ybarra Mendaro Rodrigo Rivero Lake Enrique Rivero Lake Adelina Illián Gutierrez Rafael Romero Asenjo Ángel Cebader Jesús Cebader Michel Zabé Thiriat

Alejandro de Antuñano Maurer Nuria Lázaro Milla

ISBN: 978-84-697-6146-5

© 2017 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any storage and retrieval system, without the prior permission in writing from the publisher. THE MARVELOUS ENCONCHADO PAINTINGS FROM NEW SPAIN

FOREWORD

The pair of paintings entitled The Virgin of Guadalupeand St John the Baptist, together with the Jewelry Chest, are living artistic expressions from the Americas at the time of the Viceroyalty. These wonderful pieces were crafted with the incredible technique called enconchado, that is, mother-of-pearl inlay on panel, used with great mastery and imagination by Mexican artists Juan and Miguel González as the leading exponents. This unique manifestation from New Spain combines European and Asian styles, imbuing them with a strong American character.

These works, which have remained unpublished until today, are a major contribution to Spanish American art, and this publication is the first of a series of studies of the captivating, magical art executed in the Americas during the Viceroyalty.

The research and cataloging work was undertaken by scholars Nuria Lázaro Milla and Alejandro Antuñano Maurer, whose superb know- how allowed them to unveil for us the late seventeenth-century Mexico and to locate these treasures within the historical context of that fascinating world.

Jaime Eguiguren THE MARVELOUS ENCONCHADO PAINTINGS FROM NEW SPAIN

CONTENTS

12 THE MARVELOUS ENCONCHADO PAINTINGS FROM NEW SPAIN BY THE PAINTERS GONZÁLEZ IN THE SEVENTEENTH AND EIGHTEEN CENTURIES

13 The artists named González

43 The technique of enconchado paintings in New Spain

50 JEWELRY CHEST PAINTED BY MIGUEL OR JUAN GONZÁLEZ (ATTRIBUTED). VICEROYALTY OF NEW SPAIN (MEXICO), LATE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY

70 Attribution hypothesis 10 THE MARVELOUS ENCONCHADO PAINTINGS FROM NEW SPAIN 11

The marvelous enconchado paintings from New Spain by the painters González in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries

Alejandro de Antuñano Maurer 12 THE MARVELOUS ENCONCHADO PAINTINGS FROM NEW SPAIN 13 Alejandro de Antuñano Maurer

Juan or Miguel Gonzalez (attributed) Mexico, 17th century Virgin of Guadalupe Enconchado, oil and mother of-pearl inlay on panel 26,5 x 35 cm. Frame: 45 x 53 cm

Juan or Miguel Gonzalez (attributed) Mexico, 17th century St. John the Baptist Enconchado, oil and mother of-pearl inlay on panel 26,5 x 35 cm. Frame: 45 x 53 cm

The artists named González In 1756, the remarkable Oaxacan painter Miguel Cabrera wrote a singular book to which he gave the baroque title Maravilla americana y conjunto de raras maravillas, observadas con la dirección de las reglas del Arte de la Pintura en la prodigiosa imagen de Nuestra Sra. de Guadalupe de México por Don Miguel Cabrera pintor del Ilmo. Sr. D. D. Manuel Joseph Rubio, y Salinas, Dignísimo Arzobispo de México, y del Consejo de su Magestad, &c. a quien se la consagra. Con licencia: En México en la Imprenta del Real, y más Antiguo Colegio de San Ildefonso Año de 1756.

The purpose of the book was to analyze the artistic characteristics of the painting of the Virgin of Guadalupe in his opinion, after the rigorous examination to which he submitted it while before his eyes; in fact, Maravilla americana (“American marvel”) was essentially based on the material analysis of the painting of this Virgin, which was, as it still is, in Mexico City, and which, according to Miguel Cabrera’s judgment, proved admirable “under the rules of the art of painting”. The theme of the Virgin was of great esteem to the Gonzálezes, as we will see below. 14 THE MARVELOUS ENCONCHADO PAINTINGS FROM NEW SPAIN 15

It should be remembered that, according to the New Spanish tradition, the testamentary documents of the inhabitants of Mexico City account for pieces painting of the Virgin of Guadalupe was shown in 1531 to the Bishop of Mexico, and enconchado works belonging to private collections. Fray Juan de Zumárraga, by Juan Diego, native of Coatitlan, a place adjoining Lake Texcoco in Mexico, who had it miraculously stamped on his ayate (cloth What follows is a short summary of this list: two mother-of-pearl panels with made from maguey fiber). By the way, when Pope John Paul II visited the their moldings; three mother-of-pearl inlay and lacquer panels showing different great Basilica of Guadalupe in Mexico, he beatified Juan Diego on May 6, saints with their frames in the same material; one mother-of-pearl inlay panel 1990. The aforementioned fact is relevant now because the brothers Juan and showing Our Lady of the Conception and one of Our Lady of Los Remedios; two Miguel González, residing in Mexico City –, then known as “lacquer and inlay mother-of-pearl inlay panels representing the Prayer in the Garden and Jesus of painters”, represent in our days, due to their unique use of mother-of-pearl and Nazareth; one mother-of-pearl figure of Our Lady of Guadalupe; one panel of Our the exquisite technique they applied in their many pieces, an American marvel, Lady of Guadalupe of three ‘quartas’ of mother-of-pearl, etc. paraphrasing the title of Miguel Cabrera’s book. In Toussaint’s opinion, the mother-of-pearl inlay paintings were made Their works were highly appreciated and demanded by a clientele willing to approximately between 1692 and 1752. However, this reference is inaccurate pay for them. because it is only based on the period of analysis of the Alcaldes Ordinarios Fig. 1 Facsimile of the cover of the book by archives, that is, from 1692 to 1752. painter Miguel Cabrera. Mexico, 1756. One of the earliest art researchers in Mexico to provide information about mother-of-pearl inlay (“enconchado”) painting in New Spain was Manuel It should be noted that works by the Gonzálezes are kept at the Museum of the Toussaint. Specifically, in 1952 he mentioned the painters named González, and Americas in Madrid, at the National History Museum, at the National Institute he even asserted, after giving it a lot of thought, the possibility that they may of Anthropology and History of Mexico (INAH), at the Franz Mayer Museum have been from New Spain. In his opinion, nevertheless, until documentary in Mexico City, at museums in the United States, as well as in private collections. evidence appeared proving the Mexican origin of the Gonzálezes, the issue would remain uncertain. Not all works made by Miguel and Juan González are signed. Those signed by Juan include, for example, the Virgin of Valvanera, preserved at the Museum of In his reference study, entitled La pintura con incrustaciones de concha nácar en the Americas, in Madrid, as well as a Nativity, signed in 1662, belonging to the Nueva España,* Toussaint had already noted the difficulty regarding the origin Smithsonian Institute in Washington. and study of these artists, Miguel and Juan González. He pointed out, however, that the Contemporáneos magazine had made known, through Alfonso Reyes, Juan González’ signed and dated works are from circa 1662-1703, and Miguel’s a series of panels signed by the first of these artists, Miguel, portraying many from circa 1692-1698. Both were members of the New Spanish Painters Episodes of the Conquest of Mexico, which is currently part of the collection of Union, which widely recognized the exceptional work and quality of the pieces the National Museum of Fine Arts in Buenos Aires. produced at their workshop in Mexico City.

Another very significant contribution by Manuel Toussaint was the information Some of the series of the Episodes of the Conquest of Mexico are signed, as we that he disclosed in his work, since he devoted part of it to spreading news mentioned above, only by Miguel González, and are kept at the National about the archives of the Alcaldes Ordinarios y Corregidores1 of Mexico City, Museum of Fine Arts in Buenos Aires and, in the case of the panel The Allegories in charge of hearing testamentary proceedings. This information allowed him of the Creed, at the National History Museum in Mexico. There are also works to review the inventory items of wills. This is how we have learned that the signed by both Miguel and Juan González (1698), for example, the historical 16 THE MARVELOUS ENCONCHADO PAINTINGS FROM NEW SPAIN 17

Fig. 2 Panel 4 / Scene 7: Cortés enters Fig. 3 Panel 10 / Scene 19: Motecuhzoma’s Cempoala and is welcomed by “Fat Chief”, welcome. Scene 20: Mexican Dances on who feeds and entertains all the Spaniards. Canoes in the Lagoon. Scene 8: He walks with Pánfilo de Narváez’ people. This scene represents the escort of emperor Moctezuma, who is going to welcome Hernán In its central part, this panel describes Cortés’ Cortés at the entrance of the city of Mexico- arrival in Cempoala and the Chief’s welcome, Tenochtitlan (the Aztec capital). As in the who offers him a great banquet, represented previous panel (no. 9), here at the top the on the top right-hand corner. Above the lagoon of Mexico is represented, sailed by banquet, the second scene represents Pánfilo bedecked boats welcoming Cortés, as in the de Narváez’ troops arriving in the same city. main scene. Emphasis is placed on the rich representation of the emperor’s entourage. Scenes of the Conquest of Mexico: Miguel and Juan González, 1698. Their description analyzes, on the top and bottom parts, the events of the Conquest. They are currently at the Museum of the Americas in Madrid, Spain, in an ensemble of 24 panels. 18 THE MARVELOUS ENCONCHADO PAINTINGS FROM NEW SPAIN 19

Episodes of the Conquest, which are reproduced here and preserved at the Museum of the Americas in Madrid.

As stated above, the signed and dated works by Juan González were made from 1662 to 1703 approximately, while those by Miguel González may date to circa 1692-1698. Both brothers signed works without dating them, or often left their jobs unsigned, which was very common due to the amount of work they were commissioned, either to be privately exhibited within a household, or publicly exhibited in some churches in Mexico, such as probably the one in Tlazoyaltepec, Oaxaca.

The same can be said of other paintings left unsigned by many artists from the colonial period in Mexico, most remarkably Miguel Cabrera in the eighteenth century.

Most probably, the chronology that covered the execution of mother-of-pearl inlay paintings did not exceed 100 years (ca. 1650-1750). However, Miguel González has always been linked to this art and, to a lesser extent, Juan as well. Manuel Toussaint, as already pointed out, argued that Miguel and Juan were probably colonial painters. The large number of such paintings found in Mexico proved that a genuine production of this type of work had existed in New Spain, and the Gonzálezes’ signatures on some paintings showed that they had been the most fruitful producers of this unusual painting genre in this territory. Genre and painters are described, as stated at the beginning of this article, as marvelous or as the American marvel. Fig. 4 Juan González, Nativity, 1662. 32.5 x 41 cm. Washington DC, Smithsonian American Art Museum. Other authors assume, without much evidence, that these artists might have been of Asian – Chinese or Japanese – descent!

Sonia I. Ocaña Ruiz also points out that these artists worked in Mexico City in the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries, and that their production was prolific, since taken together they signed nearly a third of the more than 250 works that are attributed to them. These artists were often inspired by the abundant European engravings of a marked Mannerist influence arriving in New Spain from the many print shops in the city of Frankfurt am Main, which frequently reproduced the engravings by Maerten de Vos or Raphael Sadeler. 20 THE MARVELOUS ENCONCHADO PAINTINGS FROM NEW SPAIN 21

The same document states that, at this workshop specialized in “painting and inlay panels”, pieces were made to be sold and taken to the Spanish peninsula by a factor or merchant. It should be noted that these contracts, whereby the Gonzálezes committed themselves to delivering their painted and inlay panels, specify a significant amount of work. Based on such document, only in 1699 they undertook to deliver all these works: “thirteen painting and inlay panels of a vara and cuarta of mother-of-pearl within a frame, of the same quality and inlaying technique as one of St Anthony, which was made as a sample and is Fig. 5 Facsimiles of the held by said Juan González, paid by said Factor, to serve as a guideline and rule signatures of the González family, which appear on for others to be made concerning such stories and images as may be asked of the documents published him. – And if so made, once finished their price is set at twenty-six pesos each, by historian Guillermo which said Factor will have to pay.– ... Also he has to make another fourteen Tovar de Teresa. medium-sized panels, of the same size and shape as another that was made as a sample of the image of Our Lady of the Conception…”.

Out of the approximately 160 anonymous works on mother-of-pearl inlays This document disclosed by historian Guillermo Tovar then concludes with the that are preserved to this day, some of them are very likely to be attributed to legal obligation for the parties: the Gonzálezes and their workshop. “And to the care and compliance by each party, and to what One of the best sources of reliable information about the González brothers each concerns, they bind their persons and goods owned and was fortunately provided in 1986 by the great Mexican historian Guillermo to be owned, and they submit to the law and jurisdiction of Tovar de Teresa (now deceased), who, based on documentary information, the Judges and Justices that might and shall hear the cases clarified the problem regarding the identities of the Gonzálezes, and how their of each one according to the law, so what is said compels works reached Spain in the late seventeenth century. The documents (3) he them and urges them as if pursuant to a sentence issued as disclosed, to which readers can refer, “categorically prove the Mexican origin res judicata. Mexico, December 14, 1699.” of the Gonzálezes”. Based on these documents, Tomás González de Villaverde would be the father of Juan González de Mier and Miguel González. The Gonzálezes lived in Mexico City, and their father, Tomás González de Villaverde, was also a lacquer master. They began to produce their works at the They had a family workshop in Mexico City specialized in the maque (lacquer) workshop in the capital of New Spain. The production of this type of work was and mother-of-pearl inlaying technique: the panels, as pointed out by the probably concentrated in Mexico City. historian, were lined with linen, a paste was applied on them, where the drawing was traced and the mother-of-pearl shells were inlaid, then the final The Gonzálezes’ workshop – specialized in this type of enconchado paintings in drawing was made, and delicate glazes of different colors were applied, and Mexico City – was highly preferred and enjoyed well-deserved fame. It produced finally the surfaces were polished and varnished until a smooth and shiny a myriad of commissions for the public and private worship of devotees when quality was achieved. The golden and yellowish effect may have been achieved it came to religious themes, and as testimony of historical events, as is the case using saffron.** of the very numerous series about the Conquest of Mexico mentioned above. 22 THE MARVELOUS ENCONCHADO PAINTINGS FROM NEW SPAIN 23

With or without signatures, their works were the dazzling testimony of New Spain and its conciliatory plurality.

In the Gonzálezes’ works, the East and New Spain are combined, a distant mirror of an emerging society that gained its independence in 1821. The Eastern influence on these works is remarkable in the technique of the paintings with mother-of-pearl inlays. Under Spanish control, the Philippines became (1573) a commercial hub, a point of trade where Chinese junks and Japanese vessels arrived loaded with merchandise, and from there, and for three centuries, the Manila Galleons, also known as China Ship, followed the route to Mexico, specifically to the port of Acapulco, carrying a myriad of Oriental objects that were widely distributed in New Spain.

The commercial exchange between New Spain and the East was so heavy that, for example, East India Company’s tableware, widely used in New Spain, was made in the East, specifically in the city of Jingdezhen. East India Company’s porcelain was mainly requested by New Spanish elites, following the European fashion of acquiring it. There is no doubt that this sumptuous art had a powerful influence on the taste of Mexican society at the time.

The plurality of their testimonies, the most significant of which are the historical ones – the series of the Conquest of Mexico –, allows us to appreciate today these wonderful works of art, which, as we have mentioned, are distant and close mirrors at the same time. The Gonzálezes’ art is the expression of a living past. As in the great workshops of the Renaissance and New Spain, other members of their workshop were involved in these works, or finished many of their pieces. This is the reason why many lack signatures or dates.

Due to the variety of enconchado paintings made by the Gonzálezes, we can see that the iconography in their works is very diverse. We can especially distinguish Fig. 6 Anonymus, Mexican the series representing historical events, as well as images with plentiful religious School, seventeenth century, themes: St Andrew, St James the Great, St John the Evangelist, St John the Saint Nicholas. Enconchado, oil and mothe-of-pearl inlay on Baptist, St Philip, St Bartholomew, St Matthew, St Thomas, St James the Less panel. Former Jaime Eguiguren (also known as James the Minor), etc. There are also scenes of the life of Christ Collection. Mexico DF. Soumaya and a series of isolated paintings, including the varied images of the Virgin of Museum. Guadalupe, which were commissioned to their workshop. 24 THE MARVELOUS ENCONCHADO PAINTINGS FROM NEW SPAIN 25

This paper deals with two mother-of-pearl inlay paintings without a signature that, given their exceptional execution and quality, we can attribute to the Gonzálezes, although it is extremely difficult to determine which of the paintings was made by Juan or by Miguel. They represent a St John the Baptist and a Virgin of Guadalupe. The size of both pieces is, without frame, 26.5 x 35 cm each and, with their frames, 45 x 53 cm. These works were undoubtedly commissioned and were intended, as already noted, for private religious worship. It is important to point out that the frames of these paintings also show the enconchado technique, and their decoration was done by a simple combination of flowers, petals and different birds.

The image of the Virgin of Guadalupe by the González brothers is surrounded by flowers, but it is worth noting that roses are found among them, since according to Mexican tradition, when Juan Diego showed his ayate with the stamped Virgin to Bishop Zumárraga, a cascade of roses of Castile fell to the Bishop’s feet, which were certainly not cultivated on the hill of Tepeyac.

The Virgin’s face, painted in oil and with careful strokes, faithfully resembles the original image of the Virgin of Tepeyac. At her feet the moon is portrayed, appearing between day and night, because “Metz-xic-co” means “in the center of the moon”. The angel has quetzal, pelican and macaw wings, and a robe that represents the earth with cheesecloth. The rays symbolize the sun, which in pre-Hispanic Mexico is identified with a deity. The hands are joined in prayer. Finally, it is worth pointing out the intensity and color variety of the mother- of-pearl inlay. It is, in short, a piece of exceptional quality and mastery. And we could not have expected otherwise, given its purpose – reproducing the universal patron saint of New Spain.

The Virgin of Guadalupe, as already mentioned, was not only a subject of great significance for the Gonzálezes, but also a testimony of Guadalupanism, which by then already existed in New Spain, since the Guadalupan Event in the historiographical process of New Spain saw many representations.

In the inventories of goods owned by the marchioness of San Jorge, in New Spain, and by captain Joseph Olmedo y Luján – seventeenth and eighteenth centuries –, taken together, there were more than 38 mother-of-pearl inlay paintings, some of Fig. 7 Attributed to Miguel González (second half of the seventeenth Century). Mater Dolorosa. Enconchado, oil and mother-of- them with the Guadalupan theme. pearl inlay on panel. 59 x 45 cm. Former Jaime Eguiguren Collection. 26 THE MARVELOUS ENCONCHADO PAINTINGS FROM NEW SPAIN 27

Fig. 8 Juan or Miguel González (attributed). Virgin of Guadalupe. Mexico. 17th century. Enconchado, oil and mother-of-pearl inlay on panel. 28 THE MARVELOUS ENCONCHADO PAINTINGS FROM NEW SPAIN 29

Various artistic and historical testimonies explained the Guadalupan Event in New Spain.

The oldest of these historical testimonies is the Nican Mopohua, written in 1560. It is a manuscript written in Nahuatl by Antonio Valeriano, an attentive student and professor at the school of Santa Cruz in Tlatelolco, Mexico. It is currently preserved at the New York Public Library. Its title is Nican Mopohua because these are the first two words – written in Nahuatl with Latin characters – that appear on the document containing the tradition of the Guadalupan miracle. It records the four appearances of the Virgin of Guadalupe to Juan Diego on the hill of Tepeyac.

The theme of the Virgin of Guadalupe is very common among religious enconchados. The following are known to date, meaning that others may come to light in the future, as shown in this study: four in the Museum of the Americas in Madrid; two at the Franz Mayer Museum in Mexico City, one of them signed by Agustín del Pino; and one that is kept in a private collection in Buenos Aires. And, of course, we must not forget the Virgin of Guadalupe that is currently held at the Los Angeles County Museum of Art.

To understand the true scope of this subject it is useful to review its history, highlighting some moving facts around the Guadalupan Event originating in the Hill of Tepeyac that have paved the way for the expansion of Guadalupanism in Mexico.

Although already in 1560 the Nican Mopohua described the Guadalupan miracle, we should note the gradual but steady development of the worship of this Virgin, which at the beginning of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries was already at its peak.

Some of these historical testimonies are listed below:

Fig. 9 Virgin of Guadalupe. Signed Miguel Gonzalez fec. Enconchado on panel, seventeenth century. Los Angeles, County Museum of Art. 30 THE MARVELOUS ENCONCHADO PAINTINGS FROM NEW SPAIN 31 32 THE MARVELOUS ENCONCHADO PAINTINGS FROM NEW SPAIN 33

city council, thousands of key figures of the city and the neighboring areas, brotherhoods and guilds, and the natives that could fit in the premises. Dressed in gala attire to the extent of their possibilities, they were all immortalized by Arellano’s paintbrush. That day was certainly one of the most glorious of the early eighteenth century in New Spain.

With the recognition of criollo spiritual autonomy, achieved by the inhabitants of New Spain upon the exaltation and proclamation of the Virgin of Guadalupe successively as the main patroness of Mexico City in 1737, when she was appointed advocate against the epidemics affecting the city; in 1746 as the universal patroness of New Spain; and finally, on May 25, 1754, when Pope Benedict XIV issued in Rome his brief Non est equidem confirming and acknowledging “Our Lady of Guadalupe as the universal patroness of the Kingdom of New Spain, with a special mass and office of her own for the day of her holiday, December 12”, the various social strata of New Spain felt immense joy and, for the first time since they had started seeking the unequivocal and longed-for recognition of the miracle of Tepeyac, they gained a firm footing.

Tepeyac became, after 1754, the major pilgrimage site in New Spain.

A speaker from those glorious days, Antonio Díaz del Castillo, proudly proclaimed “Paradise is in the Indies”.

The Virgin of Guadalupe had managed to join criollos, mestizos, indigenous In the afternoon of April 30, 1709, with the utmost sumptuousness and rejoicing, Fig. 10 Juan de Villegas, 1700-1710. Virgin people, mulattoes and blacks into a single Guadalupan homeland, which became . Oil on canvas. Former Jaime at the zenith of the miracle of Tepeyac in the capital of New Spain, the holy of Guadalupe the expression of the eternal and indestructible metaphysical necessity of human Eguiguren Collection image of the Virgin of Guadalupe was relocated to her new Sanctuary, whose nature. This patronage would be the favorite of criollos and other social classes construction had started in 1695. Painter Manuel de Arellano has recorded this Fig. 11 Facsimile. Coat of Arms of Mexico: and, in time, the sole and indisputable spiritual foundation of modern Mexico. event in his exceptional oil painting about the transfer of the Virgin and the [“Celestial protection of this new city, New opening of the Sanctuary of Guadalupe. Spain...”], José de Ibarra and engraving by The papal recognition became so deep-rooted in New Spanish minds that, as Baltasar Troncoso, from the cover of the book stated by historian Lucas Alamán, the liberator Miguel Hidalgo, upon going by Cayetano de Cabrera y Quintero. 1743. The Virgin of Guadalupe, the protectress of New Spain, also known as the through Atotonilco in Mexico, and having no definite plan on the best strategy “Vicereine” or the “Criollo Virgin”, triumphant, surrounded by a cloud of to lead the Revolution, saw by chance in the vestry a picture of the Virgin of incense and aromas, was carried on the shoulders of priests to her new enclosure Guadalupe, and believing that his enterprise could be supported by the devotion made of tezontle and tuff, followed by the Viceroy duke of Alburquerque, the to that holy image, had the picture hung from the shaft of a spear, thereby archbishop of New Spain, the Audiencia (high court), the tribunals, the Mexico becoming the sacred standard of his army. 34 THE MARVELOUS ENCONCHADO PAINTINGS FROM NEW SPAIN 35

With regard to the painting of St John the Baptist presented here, also showing good workmanship and resolution, with light effects, good and colorful strokes with a predominance of ocher, red and gray colors, this saint has been represented by New Spanish and European art at different stages of his life. In this painting, the mother-of-pearl inlays are obviously found in the frame and in the tree under which St John the Baptist is lying, with the Lamb of God at his feet. As an interesting detail, the enconchado in the clothes has been divided into several fragments and the folds are finely delineated with oil paint. In his left hand, St John holds the cruciform staff interlaced with a cartouche with the inscription “Ecce Agnus Dei”. The saint is about to drink water falling from a cave onto his shell, and behind him a river flows and we can see a fantastic city, resulting from the usual recreation of European cities at the time. In short, it is a painting that, despite its limited means, effectively represents the ascetic and repressed life of the one who baptized Jesus our Savior in the Jordan river.

The Gospel of St Luke tells us that St John’s birth occurred under divine circumstances, starting with the fact that his mother Elizabeth was already very old and sterile when the angel Gabriel announced to her husband Zechariah that she would have a son who should be named John.

It is also said that the Virgin Mary was the cousin of his mother Elizabeth and that she carried John when he was born. This family relationship between John and Jesus that portrays them as two children playing was painted by several artists at different times. Among the most famous, there are two versions of The Virgin of the Rocks, one by Leonardo and another one by Murillo.

St John has also been represented in a cave in the Palestinian desert, with a view of a city in the distance, as in this picture. The saint collects water from the rock into a shell, while a lamb gently rests at his feet.

St John the Baptist left his family at an early age to perform an act of atonement in the desert. He belonged to a Jewish sect called the Baptists, related to the Essenes, who attached great significance to the ritual of baptism preparing for the arrival of the Messiah. He was a leader of this group, which led an ascetic life. This aspect of St John as a preacher has been imagined by painters such as Mattia Preti, in his painting St John the Baptist Preaching. 36 THE MARVELOUS ENCONCHADO PAINTINGS FROM NEW SPAIN 37

Fig. 12 Juan or Miguel González (attributed). St John the Baptist. Mexico. 17th century. Enconchado, oil and mother-of-pearl inlay on panel. 38 THE MARVELOUS ENCONCHADO PAINTINGS FROM NEW SPAIN 39

However, the central episode of Jesus’ baptism by St John in the Jordan river has been an important theme in painting through the ages, because there, according to the Christian doctrine, the Holy Spirit descended upon Jesus in the form of a dove. A relevant work on this subject is Piero della Francesca’s The Baptism of Christ, from the early Renaissance.

The strength of his preaching led him to denounce the immoral behavior of the tetrarch of Galilee, Herod Antipas, who married his brother’s wife, so he sent John to prison. The legend goes that it was during a celebration of Herod that Salome, the daughter of his wife Herodias, performed an undulating dance, so Herod promised her anything she may ask for as a reward. As we know, Salome asked for the Baptist’s head.

The iconography of St John shows him as a child or already as a young man with a lamb and pointing towards the sky. He is repeatedly depicted amid nature and dressed in animal skins. According to the scriptures, he had a camel fur robe, carried a shepherd’s staff with a labarum that reads Ecce Agnus Dei, and it is said that he fed on grasshoppers and wild honey.

Like the Virgin of Guadalupe, this St John the Baptist was intended for private worship in New Spain. The frame shows the same technique as that ofenconchado paintings, which shows that these paintings and frames are closely connected and inseparable.

Fig. 13 a Reliquary (front). Virgin of In general, frames were highly valued in New Spain. These were made using Guadalupe with the apparitions of different techniques and materials, among which the enconchado technique stood Saint Diego. Anonymous. Mexico, out, and also marquetry, carved wood, silver and glass. The Mexican wooden eighteenth century, 8,8 x 6,2 x 1 cm. chests from the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries have inlaid tortoiseshell, Oil on mother-of-pearl, silver gilt and mother-of-pearl and bone. glass. Jaime Eguiguren Collection.

Fig. 13 b Reliquary (back). This St John the Baptist shows great similarity to a painting of St Anne and Adoration of the Magi. the Virgin that also bears an enconchado frame and is decorated with flowers. As noted above, the Gonzálezes often used European engravings. This painting shows mother-of-pearl inlays in irregular and very small pieces.

In the shade of a tree and with a medieval city in the background, the saint rests on a rock preparing to drink the water from a spring. 41 42 THE MARVELOUS ENCONCHADO PAINTINGS FROM NEW SPAIN 43

The technique of enconchado paintings in New Spain

These paintings, as we mentioned above, were made in the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries. They mark a key moment in colonial art and culture in New Spain. The Gonzálezes were not the only artists who developed this technique – works by Nicolás Correa, Antonio de Santander and Agustín del Pino have also been identified. However, it is a fact that the Gonzálezes had the largest mother-of-pearl inlay workshop in Mexico City and the one that received the highest number of commissions.

It has already been pointed out that this technique consisted in inlaying mother- of-pearl plates of different sizes and shapes adapted to a previously drawn design on a wooden support. On the panel a drawing was made that served as a basis to inlay, with glue, the small pieces of mother-of-pearl shell in the different areas, including the architectural background, the characters’ clothes, and the various decorative motifs of flowers and birds required by the scene. Then a preparation base was applied, on which a second drawing was made sketching any ornamental and iconographic motifs.

The flesh colors and surrounding landscapes and buildings, based on engravings, were made with oil paint, as were the faces of the angels or saints, people’s hands or bodies, or the different animals portrayed. In short, oil paint was used for recreating what was impossible to achieve with mother-of-pearl. Fig. 14 Juan Correa (attributed). México (1646-1716). Virgin Nuestra Señora de Aranzazu. Enconchado, Oil and mother- Finally, it is worth pointing out that the raw material of the enconchados was of-pearl inlay on panel. Former Jaime Eguiguren Collection. mother-of-pearl, also known as nacre. It is an organic-inorganic substance, already consolidated, hard, white, shiny and with iridescent reflections. The best Fig. 15 Anonymus, Mexican School, seventeenth century. San Diego de Alcalá. Enconchado, oil and mother-of-pearl mother-of-pearl came, as nowadays, from mollusks such as abalones, snails and inlay on panel. 46,4 x 38,7 cm. Former Jaime Eguiguren oysters, which in the case of Mexico were abundantly found in the California Collection. peninsula. Most probably, the mother-of-pearl used in New Spain came from that area, although other places should not be dismissed as sources of supply. Fig. 16 Box, wood, tortoiseshell with mother-of-pearl inlays, 49 x 70 x 5,5 cm. A Mexican work of Oriental influence. Anonymus, Mexico, seventeenth century. Jaime Eguiguren Collection. 44 THE MARVELOUS ENCONCHADO PAINTINGS FROM NEW SPAIN 45 46 THE MARVELOUS ENCONCHADO PAINTINGS FROM NEW SPAIN 47

NOTES

1. TN: “Alcalde ordinario” means a village magistrate exercising ordinary jurisdiction, while “corregidor” is a mayor appointed by the king.

* Manuel Toussaint. “La pintura con incrustaciones de concha nácar en Nueva España”, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Anales del Instituto de Investigaciones Estéticas, No. 20, Mexico, 1972, pp. 5-20. The technique and the subject of mother-of-pearl inlay paintings have already been addressed by different authors. We may assume that one of the first was Manuel Romero de Terreros, who in his book entitled Las Artes Industriales en la Nueva España already mentioned the series of 24 panels at the Museum of the Americas in Madrid, which he dated to 1608. Genaro Estrada followed in 1933, Alfonso Reyes in 1934, and from then on there have been many studies of enconchado paintings and the artists Miguel and Juan González: MARTHA DUJOVNE, Las pinturas con incrustaciones de nácar, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico, 1984. SONIA I. OCAÑA RUIZ, “Marcos enconchados: autonomía y apropiación de formas japonesas en la pintura Novohispana”, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Anales del Instituto de Investigaciones Estéticas, No. 92, Mexico, 2008. GABRIELA GARCÍA LASCURAIN VARGAS, “Noticias acerca de pinturas y pintores de enconchados en Oaxaca”, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Anales del Instituto de Investigaciones Estéticas, Vol. XXXIII, No. 98, 2011. SONIA I. OCAÑA RUIZ, “Enconchados: gustos, estrategias y precios en la Nueva España”, Anales del Instituto de Investigaciones Estéticas, Vol. XXXVII, No. 106, 2015. Much of this essay has taken into account these references on the art of New Spanish painting called “enconchado” (made of mother-of-pearl inlays).

** Guillermo Tovar de Teresa. “Documentos sobre ‘enconchados’ y la familia mexicana de los González”, Cuadernos de Arte Colonial, Museum of the Americas, October 1986, No. 1, pp. 97–103. 48 THE MARVELOUS ENCONCHADO PAINTINGS FROM NEW SPAIN 49

Jewelry Chest Painted by Miguel or Juan González (attributed)

Viceroyalty of New Spain (Mexico), late-seventeenth century

Nuria Lázaro Milla 50 THE MARVELOUS ENCONCHADO PAINTINGS FROM NEW SPAIN

Painted by Miguel or Juan González (attributed) Jewelry Chest

Viceroyalty of New Spain (Mexico), late-seventeenth century

Jacaranda, cedar, bone and iron (chest), oil and tempera on panel, mother-of-pearl, gold and silver (painting) 100 x 40 x 30 cm 52 THE MARVELOUS ENCONCHADO PAINTINGS FROM NEW SPAIN 53

The structure of this jewelry chest is made of cedar wood coated with jacaranda, widely used in Mexico at the time of the Viceroyalty, mostly in the capital city, a tree more widely known by the generic name of rosewood, a species from the mid-seventeenth century to the first decades of the following century. originating in American tropical and subtropical regions, including Mexico, Its defining characteristic is the inlaying of mother-of-pearl, or nacre, sheets of of pleasantly aromatic wood, which has traditionally been highly appreciated various sizes and shapes for configuring some areas of the characters’ clothing, in fine woodworking. The surface is beautifully decorated with symmetrically their architectonic background and decorative items such as the flowers, birds arranged inlays of the same material and bone: the former laid in panels that and fruits that fill the frames. Following the preliminary drawing, they would be seek contrast in the tone and direction of the streaks and, the latter, imitating the stuck with animal glue to a wooden, sometimes fabric-covered, support primed ivory in Eastern productions, shaping the perimeter of geometric forms, circular, with a layer mainly composed of gesso. The mother-of-pearl would be veiled by rectangular, rhomboidal and triangular plates engraved with stylized vegetable fine oil or tempera strokes, albeit letting its iridescent brightness show through its volutes, floral motifs and vases, as well as nice eight-ray, human-faced suns. Also surface. This luminosity would be commonly emphasized by applying powdered in bone, in the middle of the lid a semicircular arch stands out, divided into gold and silver, and by the subtly gilded finish produced by varnishing with a four parts representing a winged heart in flames, a triple tiara, a triple-barred yellow resin. Greens, reds and ochers prevail in the color palette, clearly defined cross ferula and St Peter’s keys, the last three of which are papal symbols. The among marked strokes. ornamental delicacy lies also in the ironwork, such as the abstract interlaced design in the lock. It is worth noting that the original key has been preserved. But the most interesting feature in enconchado paintings is that they are a unique expression of the exuberant New Spanish Baroque, resulting from the However, the importance of this piece lies in what is inside. It is called enconchado combination of artistic traditions from three continents: Asia, Europe and (i.e., mother-of-pearl inlay) painting, a current term that refers to a type of painting America. 54 THE MARVELOUS ENCONCHADO PAINTINGS FROM NEW SPAIN 55

Enconchado or mother-of-pearl inlay painting may undoubtedly be considered vases and angels lie on rocky soil. The birds and butterflies fluttering around the a formal, rather than a technical, appropriation of Japanese lacquers (urushi) flower vases, merely golden sketches, show exquisite grace. expressly made for exportation to the Western market, called Nanban, which blossomed from the late sixteenth to the early seventeenth centuries during Japanese lacquers arrived in Mexico with the Manila Galleons, or China Ship, the Momoyama period, after the contact initiated by Spanish and Portuguese which between 1565 and 1815 caused the landing in Acapulco of treasures never missionaries. From these they drew solutions such as the black backgrounds, thought of before. Mexico became, then, the meeting point between the East and the inlaying of mother-of-pearl fragments (raden), the use of powdered gold and the West, the hub of the first trade route on a global scale. This cosmopolitan silver (maki-e), the motley decoration of vegetation and birds or the emphasis of atmosphere was perfectly depicted by Bernardo de Balbuena in his work Grandeza the line. Even a linguistic appropriation took place, since from the word maki-e mexicana (Mexico City: Melchior de Ocharte, 1604): the term “maque” was derived, to refer to Mexican lacquers, which are similar to Japanese ones only in their polished, bright finish. “¡Oh, ciudad rica, pueblo sin segundo, / más lleno de tesoros y bellezas / que de peces y arena el mar profundo! The aspects referred to above are perfectly identifiable in the enconchado under ¿Quién podrá dar guarismo a tus riquezas, / número a tus study, predominantly in the ornamentation surrounding the central motif. famosos mercaderes, / de más verdad y fe que sutilezas? Over the jet black-colored base there stands out a profusion of flowers, leaves, ¿Quién de tus ricas flotas los haberes, / de que entran llenas branches, sprouts, fruits and bunches of grapes that some birds seem to be y se van cargadas, / dirá, si tú la suma dellas eres? pecking at, lighted up by the gloss of the mother-of-pearl. The gold and silver En ti están sus grandezas abreviadas; / tú las abasteces de powder enriches the characters’ clothing, and helps to create the illusion that the oro y plata fina / y ellas a ti de cosas más preciadas 56 THE MARVELOUS ENCONCHADO PAINTINGS FROM NEW SPAIN 57

Besides the Manila Galleon imports, the settlement of Japanese exiles in New Spain because of the persecution to which Catholic converts had been subjected and the Japanese embassies that visited the territory in 1610 and 1614 also played a key role in the appropriation, and later adaptation, involved in the emergence of enconchado paintings, just as Japan was closing itself to the West. A similar phenomenon is that of blue and white enameled ceramics made in Puebla imitating Chinese porcelain.

As regards subject matters, enconchado painters took as models the engravings brought from the Old World that served to reinforce the religious education of novices or to kindle political propaganda. Many enconchados were made in large series of copies, but the one we are examining seems rather to have been individually commissioned for a specific purpose. The scene shows the investiture of St Ildephonsus (607-667), archbishop of Toledo and Father of the Church. His Marian devotion, advocated in works such as On the Perpetual Virginity of Holy Mary Against Three Infidels, was rewarded in the night of December 18, year 665, when the Mother of God, sitting in the bishop’s chair and surrounded by a choir of virgins, invested him, while claiming: “You are my chaplain and faithful notary. Come and receive from me this chasuble I have picked from my Son’s treasury”. On this occasion, the architectonic setting and the heavenly escort have been simplified, and instead we can see a portion of the church wall and an angel substituting for the maidens. Another two, outside the frame, hold items connected with the saint: the angel on the right, the bishop’s crosier and his cruets and tray as the

Fig. 1 Namban Portable Oratory, Japan and Virgin’s chaplain, and the one on the left the bishop’s miter and, oddly México (1580-1630). Central painting: The enough, a triple-barred cross ferula, a papal symbol that might refer here coronation of de Virgin with Saints, oil on to his role as a Father of the Church. In addition, amid the side vegetation copper. In the interior and exterior decoration we find, on the left, a chalice and, on the right, the Holy Scriptures. of this Oratory we can see elements from the

Nipponese flora and fauna commonly used in Elaborating upon the European legacy, the magnificent vases and the Namban ornamental grammar, such as citrus En ti se junta España con la China / Italia con Japón, y leaves, wild cherrys, maple trees, camelias, overwhelming frame of flora and fauna of the religious subject matter finalmente / un mundo entero en trato y disciplina herons, birds and gazelles, made of mother- inevitably recall the Flemish paintings of flower vases and wreaths around En ti de los tesoros de Poniente / se goza lo mayor; en ti la of-pearl and gold on black lacquer. 49 x 70 x devotional images that were prolifically produced during the seventeenth nata / de cuanto en su luz cría el Oriente.” 5,5 cm. Jaime Eguiguren Collection. century. 58 THE MARVELOUS ENCONCHADO PAINTINGS FROM NEW SPAIN 59 60 THE MARVELOUS ENCONCHADO PAINTINGS FROM NEW SPAIN 61 62 THE MARVELOUS ENCONCHADO PAINTINGS FROM NEW SPAIN 63 64 THE MARVELOUS ENCONCHADO PAINTINGS FROM NEW SPAIN 65

Fig. 2 Detail of the Fig. 4 Jan Brueghel the Elder, Also, the butterflies and birds fluttering in the enconchado reproduce enconchado showing the Flower Vase, first quarter of the the small insects, reptiles and amphibians which are common in those investiture of St Ildephonsus. seventeenth century, Madrid, European productions. Even the tulips have been copied, a species alien to Prado National Museum. Fig. 3 Hieronymus the Mexican environment, which had been enthusiastically grown since the Wierix, St Ildephonsus of Fig. 5 Erasmus Quellinus and early seventeenth century in the Netherlands, causing a true fever that moved Toledo, 1616, Amsterdam, Daniel Seghers, Garland of people to run into debt and sell their possessions. The speculative rush gave Rijksmuseum. Flowers with the Virgin, the Christ rise to an economic bubble and a financial crisis in 1636-1637 that led many Child and St John, first half of people into ruin, and proved to be one of the earliest developments of this the seventeenth century, Madrid, kind we are aware of. Prado National Museum.

Precisely the orchard making up the framework helps to build parallelisms with other enconchados, such as the following: 66 THE MARVELOUS ENCONCHADO PAINTINGS FROM NEW SPAIN 67

Fig. 6 b Detail of the top left -hand corner and side of the left panel depicting flowers and birds.

Fig. 6 a Juan and Miguel Gonzalez. Mexico, ca. 1690. Enconchado, Oil and mother- of-pearl inlay on panel. Two panels from a folding screen with the battles of Alexander Farnese. Rodrigo Rivero Lake Collection.

The Gonzálezes took advantage of the purplish gloss of the mother-of-pearl as a base for the color of the bunches of grapes, a technique also found in the Fig. 6 c Detail of the left panel depicting a medallion with the inscription " Victoria de enconchado under study. Lepanto" 68 THE MARVELOUS ENCONCHADO PAINTINGS FROM NEW SPAIN 69

Finally, concerning the hybridization process, some authors defend the pre-Hispanic substratum in the use of mother-of-pearl, mentioned in chronicles and letters by the conquistadors, for example in mosaics composed of tesserae made of this material and stones, stuck with copal resin mixed with other vegetable substances. Criollos, the major enconchado consumers, may have recovered the use of mother-of-pearl and favored its hybridization as a means for defining their idiosyncrasy and establishing themselves as a social class in the map of a vast empire. In fact, according to the documentation, most enconchados owned by Spanish kings and noblemen were gifts directly sent from New Spain rather than commissions.

Ultimately, paraphrasing Octavio Paz, enconchados in particular and New Spanish art in general, “like the very society which created it, did not want to be new; it wanted to be another [...] The art of New Spain is not an art of invention but of free use of the fundamental elements of imported styles. It is an art that combines and mixes motifs and manners” (foreword to Jacques Lafaye’s Quetzalcóatl y Guadalupe. La formación de la conciencia nacional de México. Mexico: Fondo de Cultura Económica, 1977).

Although the painting is not signed, it may be associated with Miguel and Juan González, a family that, according to the limited documentation available, specialized in enconchados, and with whose superb work both the emergence and the height of this type of painting is connected. Cleaning has evidenced careful workmanship: color bases (usually for backgrounds) in tempera, and flesh-colored tints and covers of mother- of-pearl with oil or with an oil-tempera emulsion. On the mother-of- pearl there are quite faded remains of yellow glazes of an oleoresinous nature, which originally contributed the typical gilded finish. The mother-of-pearl tesserae have been meticulously prepared and inlaid so that they are merged with the base; together with the gold lines and the powdered gold and silver they make the painting pour out a special brightness, and it is easy to imagine how it should have excited Fig. 7 Circular table, wood, tortoise shell with mother-of-pearl inlays, 49 x 70 x 5,5 the viewers’ eyes when it flickered by the light of candles. The artist’s cm. Anonymus, Hispanic Colonial work of technical mastery equally shows in the skill at combining the limited oriental influence, seventeenth century. color palette without repetition, and at playing with it and the iridescent Jaime Eguiguren Collection. orient of the mother-of-pearl. 70 THE MARVELOUS ENCONCHADO PAINTINGS FROM NEW SPAIN 71

Attribution hypothesis

The analysis of certain decorative motifs allows us to surmise that this jewelry chest was made for a member of the Order of Saint Augustine. The winged heart on fire might be a sign of this, as the most recognizable attribute of the saint is precisely a flaming heart, because from his prolific written work a whole philosophy of the heart can be derived, where the heart is deemed as the essential core of man, joining body and soul. In fact, the order’s motto is anima una et cor unum in Deum (“one heart and one soul in God”) and its emblem represents a heart in flames lying on a book, pierced by the arrow of charity.

Emblem studies also point toward this pious interpretation. For Cesare Ripa, author of the famous book Iconologia (Rome: 1593), the allegory of Charity is a woman holding in her right hand a burning heart while with her left hand she embraces a child, meaning the emotion produced in it by the love of God and the compassion for His creatures. Juan de Horozco y Covarrubias, in turn, explains in his Emblemas morales (Segovia: Juan de la Cuesta, 1589) that a winged heart above ecclesiastical symbols should be understood as the Church’s obligation to watch over the faithful.

The presence of the heart along with the three papal symbols might refer to a religious order of canon law, that is, directly under the Pope, which must however work in communion with the bishops of the dioceses where it operates. The Order of Saint Augustine meets this description: it is a mendicant order established by Innocent IV in 1244 for the purpose of unifying a number of eremite communities that emerged under St Augustine’s monastic Fig. 8 Bartolomé Esteban experience and his fourth-century Rule. Later, by the mid-thirteenth century, Murillo, Saint Augustine in Alexander IV freed it from the bishops’ jurisdiction. Popes have shown a Ecstasy, ca. 1664-1667, great deal of deference to the Order of Saint Augustine throughout history. private collection. In 1490, Innocent VIII granted all its churches similar indulgences to those Inscription in the top left- that could be gained from praying Stations in Rome. In the late thirteenth hand corner: “INQUIETUM century it was ruled that the sacristan of the Apostolic Palace should always Finally, the religious subject matter portrayed could hint that the original owner’s EST COR MEUM DONEC be an Augustinian friar, whose duties also included being the guardian of PERVENIAT AD TE” (my name might have been Ildefonso, Alfonso or Alonso, derived from the same the tabernacle, the Pope’s confessor and his librarian, a mission ensured in heart will be restless until it Germanic root. The commission to make such extraordinary piece as this one perpetuity by Alexander VI through a bull promulgated in 1497. rests in you). places it in connection with a wealthy family of the Mexican society at the time. 72 THE MARVELOUS ENCONCHADO PAINTINGS FROM NEW SPAIN 73

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Arisa, M., Enconchados: political, cultural and social implications of a new art in Seventeenth-Century New Spain, Doctoral Dissertation. New York: The City University of New York, 2012.

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García Sáiz, M. C., La pintura colonial en el Museo de América. Los enconchados, volume II. Madrid: Ministerio de Cultura, Dirección General del Patrimonio Artístico, Archivos y Museos, Patronato Nacional de Museos, 1980.

García Sáiz, M. C., “Aportaciones al catálogo de enconchados”, in Cuadernos de Arte Colonial, issue 6, 1990, pp. 55-87.

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Ocaña Ruiz, S. I., “Nuevas reflexiones sobre las pinturas incrustadas de concha y el trabajo de Juan y Miguel González”, in Anales del Instituto de Investigaciones Estéticas, volume XXXV, issue 102, 2013, pp. 125-176.

Ocaña Ruiz, S. I., “Enconchados: gustos, estrategias y precios en la Nueva España”, in Anales del Instituto de Investigaciones Estéticas, volume XXXVII, issue 106, 2015, pp. 75-112.

Réau, L., Iconografía del arte cristiano. Iconografía de los santos: de la “g” a la “o”, book II, volume IV. Barcelona: Ediciones del Serbal, 1997.

Ripa, C., Iconología, volumes I and II. Madrid: Akal, 2002.

Rivas Díaz, E., “El empleo de la concha nácar en la pintura virreinal: estudio radiográfico de la colección de pintura enconchada del Museo de América de Madrid”, in Espacio, tiempo y forma, issue 15, 2002, pp. 147-168.

Rivero Lake, R., El arte namban en el México virreinal. Mexico: Estilo México Editores [Madrid]: Turner, 2005.

Tovar De Teresa, G., “Documentos sobre enconchados y la familia mexicana de los González”, in Cuadernos de Arte Colonial, issue 1, 1986, pp. 97-103. 74 THE MARVELOUS ENCONCHADO PAINTINGS FROM NEW SPAIN 75 Photocredits

The marvelous enconchado paintings from New Spain by the painters González in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries

© Photo SCALA (Figs. 2, 3, 9)

© Smithsonian American Art Museum (Fig. 4)

© Joaquín Cortés Noriega and Román Lores Riesgo (Figs. 6, 7, 8, 10, 12, 13a, 13b, 14, 15, 16)

Jewelry Chest

© Joaquín Cortés Noriega and Román Lores Riesgo (Figs. 1, 2, 7)

© Rijksmuseum Amsterdam (Fig. 3)

© Photo SCALA (Figs. 4, 5)

© Michel Zabé Thiriat (Figs. 6a, 6b, 6c)

Jaime Eguiguren Arte y Antiguedades Posadas 1232 Buenos Aires 1011 Argentina

[email protected] 78 79