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Chapter: TROUMASSOID STONE ARTIFACTS IN : 29 ROCK TYPES AND SOURCE AREAS

Arie Boomert and Cassandra T. Rogers

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This paper discusses the rock types used for the various stone artifacts encountered at the Troumassoid sites of Golden Grove (TOB-13) and Lovers’ Retreat (TOB-69) in Tobago. It concludes that the late-prehistoric Tobagonian Amerindians ZHUH JRRG JHRORJLVWV DV WKH\ PXVW KDYH FDUHIXOO\ WHVWHG DQG VHOHFWHG VSHFL¿F URFN PDWHULDOV IRU GLIIHUHQW IXQFWLRQDO classes of implements, including cutting, grinding, pounding, rubbing, and polishing tools, as well as ornaments. Besides, investigation of the provenance areas of the various rock types used indicates that the variety of rock sources in Tobago ZDVVXI¿FLHQWO\ODUJHWRSURYLGHWKH7URXPDVVRLG,QGLDQVZLWKDOOWKHUDZPDWHULDOVWKH\QHHGHGIRUWKHPDQXIDFWXUHRI the entire spectrum of utilitarian implements they employed. This applies to most ornaments as well. In fact, it appears 282 that Tobago formed a major manufacturing site of beads made of local Tobagonian diorite throughout Troumassoid times. The few beads and pendants made of exotic rock materials recovered from the late-prehistoric sites in the island may have derived from the South American mainland.

Esta ponencia trata de los tipos de roca utilizados para los diversos artefactos de piedra encontrados en los sitios WURXPDVVRLGHVGH*ROGHQ*URYH 72% \/RYHUV¶5HWUHDW 72% HQ7REDJR,QGLFDTXHORVDPHULQGLRVWREDJXHQVHV GHOSHUtRGRSUHKLVWyULFRWDUGtRHUDQEXHQRVJHyORJRVTXHGHELHURQKDEHUH[DPLQDGR\VHOHFFLRQDGRFXLGDGRVDPHQWHORV PDWHULDOHVURFRVRVSDUDGLIHUHQWHVFODVHVGHXWHQVLOLRVIXQFLRQDOHVLQFOX\HQGRKHUUDPLHQWDVSDUDFRUWDUD¿ODUJROSHDU IULFFLRQDU\SXOLUDVtFRPRRUQDPHQWRV$GHPiVODLQYHVWLJDFLyQGHODViUHDVGHSURFHGHQFLDGHORVGLYHUVRVWLSRVGH URFDXVDGRVLQGLFDTXHODYDULHGDGGHODVIXHQWHVGHURFDHQ7REDJRIXHORVX¿FLHQWHPHQWHH[WHQVDFRPRSDUDSURYHHU DORVLQGLRVWURXPDVVRLGHVGHWRGDVODVPDWHULDVSULPDVTXHQHFHVLWDEDQSDUDODIDEULFDFLyQGHODJDPDFRPSOHWDGHORV XWHQVLOLRVXWLOLWDULRVTXHHPSOHDEDQ(VWRWDPELpQVHDSOLFDDODPD\RUtDGHORVRUQDPHQWRV'HKHFKRSDUHFHTXH7REDJR IXHXQVLWLRLPSRUWDQWHGHIDEULFDFLyQGHFXHQWDVKHFKDVGHGLRULWDORFDOHQWRGRHOSHUtRGR7URXPDVVRLGH/DVSRFDV FXHQWDV\FROJDQWHVKHFKRVGHPDWHULDOHVURFRVRVH[yWLFRVUHFXSHUDGRVGHORVVLWLRVSUHKLVWyULFRVWDUGtRVHQODLVODSXHGHQ haber provenido del continente sur americano.

Cette communication discute les types de roches utilisées dans les divers artéfacts en pierre retrouvés sur les sites WURXPDVVRwGHV GH *ROGHQ *URYH 72%  HW /RYHU¶V 5HWUHDW 72%  j 7REDJR2Q D FRQFOX TXH OHV $PpULQGLHQV WREDJRQLHQVGHODUpFHQWHSpULRGHSUpKLVWRULTXHpWDLHQWGHERQVJpRORJXHVLOVRQWG€HVVD\HUHWVpOHFWLRQQHUDYHFVRLQ OHPDWpULHOURFKHX[VSpFL¿TXHSRXUGLIIpUHQWHVVRUWHVG¶XVWHQVLOHVVHORQOHXUVIRQFWLRQV\FRPSULVGHVRXWLOVSRXUFRXSHU PRXGUHFRJQHUGXUIURWWHUHWSROLUGHPrPHTXHGHVRUQHPHQWV(QRXWUHGHVUHFKHUFKHVVXUODSURYHQDQFHGHVGLIIpUHQWV W\SHVGHURFKHVXWLOLVpHVLQGLTXHQWTXHODGLYHUVLWpGHVVRXUFHVGHURFKHVj7REDJRpWDLWDVVH]JUDQGHSRXURIIULUDX[ ,QGLHQVWURXPDVVRwGHVWRXWHVOHVPDWLqUHVSUHPLqUHVGRQWLOVDYDLHQWEHVRLQSRXUIDEULTXHUODODUJHJDPPHG¶XVWHQVLOHV TX¶LOVXWLOLVDLHQW&HFLV¶DSSOLTXHDXVVLjWRXVOHVRUQHPHQWV(QIDLWLOVHPEOHTXH7REDJRDpWpXQVLWHSULQFLSDOGH IDEULFDWLRQGHSHUOHVIDLWHVHQGLRULWHORFDOHGH7REDJRSHQGDQWWRXWHODSpULRGH7URXPDVVRwGH/HVTXHOTXHVSHUOHVHW SHQGHQWLIVIDLWVHQSLHUUHH[RWLTXHTXHO¶RQDUpFROWpVGHVVLWHVGHODUpFHQWHSpULRGHSUpKLVWRULTXHVXUO¶vOHRQWG€SURYHQLU GXFRQWLQHQWGHO¶$PpULTXHGX6XG ______Introduction

In the Caribbean, systematic and comprehensive petrographic analyses of pre-Columbian stone DUWLIDFWVZHUH¿UVWFRQGXFWHGLQWKHVQRWDEO\E\5RRERODQG/HH  DQGVXEVHTXHQWO\E\ Boomert and Kroonenberg (1977) on materials from Jamaica and Suriname, respectively. Since then, studies involving macroscopical and microscopical investigation of the samples as well as thin-section DQDO\VHVDQGJHRFKHPLFDOVWXG\WKURXJK;UD\ÀXRUHVFHQFH ;5) VSHFWURPHWU\DQGRWKHUPHWKRGV have been pursued in the region by Fandrich (1991) on prehistoric stone implements from Grenada. Watters and Scaglion (1994), Haviser (1999), Murphy et al. (2000) and Knippenberg (2004) have also conducted research on various materials, including utilitarian and non-utilitarian artifacts from the Leeward Islands. The analytical methods used and procedures followed in these and comparable VWXGLHVRIOLWKLFLGHQWL¿FDWLRQDQGVRXUFLQJDUHVXPPDUL]HGE\7\NRW   This paper discusses the Troumassoid stone artifact categories from Tobago and the rock types used for their manufacture. It has two major aims. Firstly, it seeks to establish the provenance areas RIWKHYDULRXVURFNPDWHULDOVHPSOR\HGVRDVWRJHWLQVLJKWLQWRWKHH[WHQWRIORFDOSURFXUHPHQWDQG TXDUU\LQJYHUVXVH[FKDQJHDQGDFTXLVLWLRQRIIRUHLJQUDZPDWHULDOVRU¿QLVKHGSURGXFWV6HFRQGO\WKH SDSHUVHHNVWRGHWHUPLQHWKHSRVVLEOHDVVRFLDWLRQVEHWZHHQVSHFL¿FDUWLIDFWFODVVHVDQGURFNW\SHVLQ relation to the stone implements and ornaments in prehistoric Suriname. As Boomert & Kroonenberg (1977) were able to show, during late-prehistoric times, the Amerindian communities of the stoneless FRDVWDOSODLQRI6XULQDPHGHSHQGHGRQVWRQHD[HKHDGVDQGRWKHUFXWWLQJWRROVH[FKDQJHGZLWK,QGLDQV RIDGLVWLQFWFHUDPLFFRPSOH[FRQFHQWUDWHGLQWKHFHQWUDOHDVWHUQSDUWRIWKHFRXQWU\7KLV%URZQVEHUJ 283 FRPSOH[DSSDUHQWO\VSHFLDOL]HGLQWKHPDQXIDFWXUHRIVXFKLPSOHPHQWVXVLQJDQHVSHFLDOO\VXLWDEOH LJQHRXVURFNW\SHLHPHWDEDVDOWZKLFKLVRIUHVWULFWHGRFFXUUHQFHLQWKHUHJLRQ7KHVRFLDOFRQWH[WV RIPHWDEDVDOWTXDUU\LQJD[HKHDGSURGXFWLRQDQGGLVWULEXWLRQPD\EHFRPSDUHGWRWKRVHRIVLPLODUO\ highly valued rock types among tribal peoples elsewhere in the world (e.g., Bradley & Edmonds 1993; McBryde 1984; ToUUHQFHņ:KLWH 0RGMHVND 

Geological Make-up of Tobago

7KHVDPSOHRI7REDJRQLDQVWRQHDUWLIDFWVH[DPLQHGFRQVLVWVRIVSHFLPHQVHQFRXQWHUHGDWWKH Troumassoid settlement sites of Golden Grove (TOB-13) and Lovers’ Retreat (TOB-69) respectively, both situated in the southwest of the island (Figure 1). The Golden Grove site yielded ceramics of the ROGHVW7URXPDVVRLGDVVHPEODJHRI7REDJRZLWKWKH*ROGHQ*URYHFRPSOH[LQLWVXSSHUOHYHOVLH 6WUDWD,9ņ9 GRZQWRDGHSWKRIFPEHORZWKHSUHVHQWVXUIDFH VXSHULPSRVLQJ6DODGRLGUHIXVH 7KHVSHFLPHQVVWRQHDUWLIDFWVDQDO\VHGZHUHH[FDYDWHGDWWKHVLWHLQDQGE\3HWHU2¶% +DUULVDQGWKH¿UVWDXWKRUUHVSHFWLYHO\ +DUULV%RRPHUW±QG 7KHVLWHRI/RYHUV¶ 5HWUHDW6HFWLRQ&\LHOGHGLQDWRWDORIDUWLIDFWVDVVRFLDWHGZLWKWKH3O\PRXWKFRPSOH[LHWKH \RXQJHVW7URXPDVVRLGFRPSOH[RIWKHLVODQG7KH\ZHUHUHFRYHUHGIURPWKHVLWHE\3HWHU2¶%ULHQ +DUULVLQDQGE\WKHDXWKRULQņDQG %RRPHUWņ+DUULV  7KH WRWDO VDPSOH RI  DUWLIDFWV DSSHDUHG WR HQFRPSDVV DOO ¿IWHHQ URFN W\SHV LQFOXGLQJ metamorphic, igneous and sedimentary rocks. All of these are locally available in Tobago which JHRORJLFDOO\VKRZVDQXPEHURIGLVWLQFW]RQHVFKDUDFWHUL]HGE\VSHFL¿FFODVVHVRIURFNVDQGPLQHUDOV The island forms part of the northeasternmost corner of the present-day South American continental VKHOI,WKDVDI¿QLWLHVZLWKD&UHWDFHRXVRFHDQLFDUFV\VWHPDQGLVSDUWRIDQDOORFKWKRQRXVWHUUDQH within the South American-Caribbean plate boundary zone to which North and the Venezuelan Coastal Cordillera also belong. Tobago consists of two major physiographic units, i.e., the Main Ridge, a heavily dissected central dorsal ridge of highland, which forms the backbone of the island, and the Coral Lowlands, an elongated coral limestone platform adjoining the foothills of the Main Ridge to the southwest. The Main Ridge is Tobago’s major divide, reaching up to 565 m above Mean Sea Level (MSL). Three east-west striking lithologic belts, dating from Cretaceous times, transect Tobago’s Main Ridge IURPQRUWKWRVRXWKDVIROORZV¿UVWO\WKH1RUWK&RDVW6FKLVWVHFRQGO\DQXOWUDPD¿FWRWRQDOLWKLF plutonic suite, and, thirdly, the Tobago Volcanic Group (Figure 2). The North Coast Schist comprises low-grade, metamorphosed volcanogenic rocks such as metatuffs, tuffs, tuff breccias, argillites, greenschists, sericite schists, phyllites, and metacherts. The south and east of this belt of metamorphic URFNVDUHÀDQNHGE\FRPSOH[HVRIXOWUDPD¿FWRWRQDOLWKLFLQWUXVLYHVDGMRLQHGE\DQH[WHQGHGEDWKROLWK of sheared and weathered diorite which outcrops as a broad zone across the central and eastern part of Tobago. The foothills of the Main Ridge, south and east of the diorite belt, are made up of igneous volcanic rocks, including tuffs, breccias, dacites, andesites and basalts (Snoke et al. 2001). Towards the southwest, the Tobago Volcanic Group is bounded by Quaternary coralline limestone deposits, at a few locations displaced by the soft sedimentary rocks, including fossiliferous clays, marls and sands, of the Pliocene Rockly Bay Formation and Plio-Pleistocene sandstones, conglomerates and limestones (Persad 1984; Snoke et al. 2001). Coral limestone is found from a low bench at the seashore to about 35 m above MSL on top of a diorite sea cliff at Culloden on Tobago’s ZHVWFRDVW/LYHFRUDOJURZVRIIVKRUHHYHU\ZKHUHDURXQGWKHLVODQGH[FHSWIRUWKHHDVWHUQ ZLQGZDUG  shore. The Coral Lowlands, consisting of two level platforms situated at 3.5 and 7.5 m respectively above MSL, represent two stages in the Pleistocene uplift of the island (Niddrie 1980: 27, 30–32).

284 Troumassoid Rock Types and Source Areas

Both the Golden Grove and the Lovers’ Retreat sites yielded artifacts predominantly comprising igneous rocks, i.e., rhyolite, andesite, basalt, dolerite, and diorite (77.3% and 48.3%, respectively), and fewer specimens of metamorphic rocks, i.e., greenstone, greenschist, sericite schist, serpentinite, quartzite, and metaconglomerate (14.7% and 36.2%). Only a small number of artifacts are manufactured from sedimentary rocks, i.e., sandstone, mudstone, and breccia (4.0% and 12.1%). In addition, a few pieces of quartz have been found (4.0% and 3.4%). At both sites, artifacts made of diorite are most numerous while andesite and greenschist respectively are the second and third most commonplace (Tables 1 and 2). Clearly, the Troumassoid Indians of Tobago utilized all of the various rock categories available on the island for manufacturing implements and ornaments. At both Golden Grove and Lovers’ Retreat, artifacts made of rocks from almost all geological zones in Tobago, including the North Coast Schist, the plutonic suite, the Tobago Volcanic Group, and the Rockly Bay Formation, have been encountered. This suggests that the local Amerindians either had free access to all parts of the island or KDGHVWDEOLVKHGH[FKDQJHUHODWLRQVKLSVZLWKWKHFRQWHPSRUDU\7URXPDVVRLGFRPPXQLWLHVGRPLQDWLQJ WKHVRXUFHDUHDVRIWKHURFNW\SHVWKDWZHUHH[SORLWHG )LJXUH 2EYLRXVO\WKHYDULRXVUDZVWRQH PDWHULDOVZHUHFROOHFWHGDWORFDOLWLHVZKHUHWKH\FRXOGEHSLFNHGXSIURPWKHVXUIDFHIRUH[DPSOHLQ river valleys and mountain gullies or from coastal cliffs where the rock boulders being sought after had EHHQH[SRVHGE\ERWKZDWHUDQGZLQGHURVLRQ None of the rock types encountered at the Troumassoid deposits of the Golden Grove and Lovers’ Retreat sites appear to be foreign to Tobago, indicating that the variety of rock sources in WKHLVODQGZDVVXI¿FLHQWO\ODUJHWRSURYLGHWKHODWHSUHKLVWRULF,QGLDQVZLWKDOOWKHUDZPDWHULDOVWKH\ needed for the manufacture of the entire spectrum of their utilitarian artifacts. This appears to apply WRWKHRUQDPHQWVIRXQGDWWKHWZRVLWHVH[DPLQHGDVZHOO,WPD\EHQRWHGKRZHYHUWKDWWKH6XD]DQ Troumassoid site of Great Courland Bay (TOB-23), situated less than 2 km south of Lovers’ Retreat on Tobago’s leeward coast (Figure 1), has yielded a small number of ornaments made of quartz crystal, WXUTXRLVHDQGMHWDOORIZKLFKZHUHSUREDEO\H[FKDQJHLWHPVRULJLQDWLQJRXWVLGHRIWKHLVODQG )LJXUH 3). Interestingly, the turquoise and jet artifacts might have originated from the mainland of South America, possibly through Trinidad (Boomert & Kameneff 2003; Kameneff 1999: 42–43). 6SHFL¿FURFNW\SHVDSSHDUWRKDYHEHHQXVHGE\WKH7REDJRQLDQ,QGLDQVIRUPDQXIDFWXULQJ particular implements and ornaments. A similar conclusion was reached by Boomert & Kroonenberg (1977) in a study of 815 prehistoric stone artifacts from Suriname. According to these authors, the Amerindians of Suriname were apparently good geologists, who must have carefully tested and VHOHFWHGVSHFLDOURFNVIRUGLIIHUHQWWRROVIRUFXWWLQJVXFKDVD[HVDG]HVDQGFKLVHOVIRUJULQGLQJ such as metates and manos; for pounding, such as pestles, hammerstones and anvils; for rubbing DQGSROLVKLQJVXFKDVZKHWVWRQHVSROLVKLQJWRROVDQGUXEELQJVWRQHVDQG¿QDOO\IRURUQDPHQWVVXFK as beads and pendants. Clearly, the Indians were aware of the mechanical properties of the various URFNW\SHVDQGXWLOL]HGWKLVLQIRUPDWLRQLQFKRRVLQJUDZPDWHULDOVIRUVSHFL¿FVWRQHLPSOHPHQWVRU ornaments. The artifact types utilized during Troumassoid times in Tobago are quite comparable to those of the prehistoric Indians of Suriname.  7ZRFDWHJRULHVWKDWZHUHLGHQWL¿HGWKHSLWWHGVWRQHVDQGOLGVQHHGVRPHH[SODQDWLRQDVWKH\ DUHUDUHO\HQFRXQWHUHG7KH¿UVWJURXSRIDUWLIDFWVLQFOXGHUHODWLYHO\ODUJHERXOGHUVVKRZLQJVHULHV RIFXSPDUNOLNHFDYLWLHV7KHLUIXQFWLRQLVXQNQRZQ/LGVDUHÀDWVWRQHGLVFVSRVVLEO\XVHGDVYHVVHO covers. The choice of a rock type for the manufacture of stone tools appears to have been dependent on three main factors. Firstly, its suitability for the purpose in mind; secondly, the ease with which it could be worked into the required shape and thirdly, its availability (Cummins 1983). In Tobago, as well DV6XULQDPHWKHSUH&ROXPELDQ,QGLDQVSULPDULO\VHOHFWHGTXDUW]IUHH¿QHJUDLQHGPHWDPRUSKLFRU 285 metamorphosed igneous rocks such as greenstone and greenschist (less serpentinite) for manufacturing FXWWLQJ WRROV QRWDEO\ D[H DQG DG]H KHDGV 7DEOH   ,Q IDFW VXFK URFNV ZHUH KLJKO\ IDYRXUHG IRU PDNLQJVWRQHD[HVZRUOGZLGH &XPPLQV 7KH7URXPDVVRLGJULQGLQJVWRQHVZHUHPDGHPDLQO\ of quartz-bearing, coarse-grained sedimentary rocks, especially sandstone. Again, comparable rock materials were used for manufacturing milling stones by prehistoric peoples elsewhere in the world (Moore 1983). In Tobago, igneous rocks of various characteristics were predominantly used for making both pounding tools and ornaments. By far most of the latter were manufactured from diorite, while a minority were made from metamorphic rocks such as greenschist. In this respect, it is noteworthy that the ratio between utilitarian and non-utilitarian artifacts within the total sample is 48.1% vs. 51.9%. While the Troumassoid Indians of Tobago apparently did not have to obtain any raw stone PDWHULDOVRU¿QLVKHGLPSOHPHQWVIURPRXWVLGHWKHLVODQGIRUWKHLUVWRQHWRRONLWWKHUHYHUVHLVFOHDUO\ the case with their contemporaries in neighbouring Trinidad. It was noted long ago that the latter LVODQGODFNVWKHVSHFL¿FURFNVRXUFHVVXLWHGWRWKHPDQXIDFWXUHRIFXWWLQJWRROVZKLFKQHFHVVLWDWHG the importation of these raw materials by local Amerindians living in Trinidad. Bullbrook (1953: ±±± HVWLPDWHGWKDWDERXWKDOIRIWKHVWRQHD[HVIRXQGDWWKH7ULQLGDGVLWHV known to him, i.e., primarily those along the island’s southwest coast, were made from schists or schistose diabase, originating from outcrops of the Guiana Shield in Northwest Guyana, while the other half consisted of what he called tuffs and trachytes from the Antilles. No systematic investigation KDVEHHQPDGHLQWRWKLVPDWWHUEXWLWLVQRWHZRUWK\WKDWPRVWVWRQHD[HKHDGVIRXQGDWWKH6DODGRLG Atagual (VIC-30) and San Fernando-Carib Street (VIC-15) sites of Central and Southwest Trinidad, respectively, represent pieces made from metamorphic rocks, which most likely originated from ’s Coastal Cordillera and the (Harris 1972; John B. Saunders personal FRPPXQLFDWLRQE\3HWHU2¶%ULHQ+DUULV>@  It is possible that such differences in opinion regarding the presumed areas of origin of stone raw materials for cutting tool manufacture in Trinidad may be related to the geographical locations of the sites previously discussed. Both Atagual and San Fernando-Carib Street are to be found close to the Gulf of Paria and are therefore oriented towards northeast Venezuela, while the sites on Trinidad’s south and southeast coasts face the Orinoco Delta which merges into the coastal plain of northwest Guyana. Also, it is likely that Tobago played an important role in the distribution of stone materials used for the manufacture of cutting tools in Trinidad. It may be possible that a number of the greenschist D[HDQGDG]HKHDGVHQFRXQWHUHGDWWKHFHUDPLFVLWHVRI7ULQLGDGGRQRWUHSUHVHQWH[FKDQJHSLHFHVIURP northwest Guyana, as Bullbrook believed, but in fact diffused from the island from Tobago. Further petrographic research of thH7ULQLGDGVWRQHD[HVVKRXOGFODULI\WKLVPDWWHU

Troumassoid Bead Manufacture in Tobago

About half of the stone artifacts encountered in the Troumassoid deposits of Golden Grove and Lovers’ 5HWUHDWUHODWHWRERGLO\RUQDPHQWVSUHGRPLQDQWO\¿QLVKHGDQGXQ¿QLVKHGEDUUHODQGEXWWRQVKDSHG beads primarily made of diorite. Indeed, Tobago must have formed a major bead-manufacturing site WKURXJKRXW/DWH6DODGRLGDQG7URXPDVVRLGWLPHV'LRULWHZKLFKLVH[FHOOHQWO\VXLWHGWREHDGPDNLQJ is a white-and-black mottled rock type which combines feldspar and hornblende. Most of the diorite beads encountered, out of a total of 51 specimens, are leucodiorites in which hornblende dominates over feldspar. Such diorite beads are already numerous in the Late deposits of the Friendship FRPSOH[IRUH[DPSOH*ROGHQ*URYHZKLFK\LHOGHGLQDOO¿QLVKHGDQGXQ¿QLVKHGSLHFHV %RRPHUW 2000: 410–412). The continuation of bead manufacturing from Saladoid to Troumassoid times at this site and elsewhere in Tobago suggests strong cultural continuity between both culture-chronological episodes. 286 The Troumassoid levels at Golden Grove yielded 45 diorite beads, including 40 blanks and 5 ¿QLVKHGVSHFLPHQVZKLOHIURP/RYHUV¶5HWUHDW6HFWLRQ&EHDGVLQDOOZHUHUHFRYHUHGFRPSULVLQJ EODQNVDQG¿QLVKHGSLHFHV$OOWRJHWKHUEHDGVFDQEHFODVVL¿HGDVEHLQJPDGHIURPOHXFRGLRULWH It is noteworthy that the majority of beads registered as blanks are unperforated but often show well-polished sides. Diorite beads have also been found, in modest numbers, at other Saladoid and Troumassoid sites in Tobago (see Boomert, 2000: 411–412). Late-prehistoric settlement sites at which ¿QLVKHGDQGXQ¿QLVKHGVSHFLPHQVRIVXFKEHDGVKDYHEHHQHQFRXQWHUHGLQFOXGH*UHDW&RXUODQG%D\ (TOB-23) and Minister Bay (TOB-36), situated on the southwest and southeast shores of Tobago respectively (Figure 4). The latter site has yielded 21 barrel-shaped diorite beads, of which 20 were EODQNV7KHVHZHUHIRXQGLQFORVHSUR[LPLW\WREXWWRQVKDSHGSLHFHVZKLFKLQFOXGHGEODQNVDQG 2 serpentinite beads (collection of Mr. Jeremy Knott, Tobago). 'LRULWHEHDGVDQGWKUHHSRLQWHUVRIWHQLQFRUUHFWO\UHIHUUHGWRDVPDGHRIµJUDQLWH¶±FORVHO\ UHVHPEOLQJWKH7REDJRQLDQVSHFLPHQVDUHNQRZQIURPHDUO\WKURXJKODWHFHUDPLFFRQWH[WVLQWKHHQWLUH Lesser Antilles, Virgin Islands and Puerto Rico. These form conspicuous lithic artifacts relating to West Indian settlement site inventories characterized by Saladoid or Troumassoid ceramics. It is tempting to identify these diorite beads as the stone beads (cibas UHSRUWHGO\UHVHPEOLQJµPDUEOH¶RUµURWWHQWHHWK¶ /DV&DVDVFLWHGE\+RRJODQG ZKLFKSOD\HGDQLPSRUWDQWUROHLQ7DtQRH[FKDQJHDVSDUW of marriage contracts between chiefs. Tobago might have formed a major manufacturing centre of diorite beads in prehistoric times; however, given the widespread natural occurrence of diorite in the :HVW,QGLHVLWLVGLI¿FXOWWRSURSHUO\DVVHVVWKHLPSRUWDQFHRI7REDJRLQWKHLQWHULVODQGH[FKDQJHRI diorite beads throughout the Caribbean region. In any case, a number of diorite beads and unworked URFNIUDJPHQWVZHUHH[SRUWHGWR7ULQLGDGZKHUHWKH\KDYHEHHQIRXQGDWWKH6DODGRLG$UDXTXLQRLG St Catherine’s site (MAY-17) of the southeast coast (Peter O’Brien Harris, personal communication 1982). Diorite is not known to occur naturally in Trinidad. Clearly, beads made of diorite appear to have been the major category of bodily ornaments ZKLFKZHUHPDQXIDFWXUHGDQGH[FKDQJHGIURPWKHEHJLQQLQJRIHDUO\FHUDPLFWLPHVXQWLOWKHHQGRI prehistory throughout the Caribbean. This suggests that these beads had symbolic properties which ZHUHVXI¿FLHQWO\DWWUDFWLYHWRWKH$PHULQGLDQVRIWKH:HVW,QGLHVWRWKHH[WHQWWKDWWKHLUPDQXIDFWXUH XVH DQG JHQHUDO GLVWULEXWLRQ ZHUH DEOHWR VXUYLYH RYHU DQ H[WHQGHGSHULRG RI WLPH6HPLSUHFLRXV stones are generally considered by South American Indians to possess particular powers which can be used by shamans for healing purposes. The Amerindian beliefs on the symbolism of the diorite beads of the Caribbean may have been determined by similar concepts. Indeed, the colours white and EODFNSHUKDSVUHÀHFWHGWKHIHUWLOL]LQJSRZHURIWKHVXQDV\PERORIWKHPDVFXOLQH6N\:RUOGDQGWKH murky waters of the nightly and feminine Underworld respectively. Consequently, it can be postulated that in Amerindian thought these diorite beads were assumed to have incorporated the opposing yet complementary male and female principles (Boomert 2000: 471).

Acknowledgements 7KH¿UVWDXWKRU¶VUHVHDUFKDWWKH*ROGHQ*URYHDQG/RYHUV¶5HWUHDWVLWHVZDVPDGHSRVVLEOHWKDQNVWRJUDQWVIURPWKH Department of History of The University of the West Indies (UWI), St Augustine, Trinidad, AMOCO Trinidad Oil Company Ltd., Port-of-Spain, Trinidad, and the , Scarborough, Tobago. Subsequent research in was funded by travelling grants from the National Archaeological Committee of Trinidad and Tobago, Port-of-Spain, Trinidad, and the Stichting Nederlands Museum voor Anthropologie en Praehistorie, Amsterdam, 7KH1HWKHUODQGV7KLVSDSHUIRUPVWKHRXWFRPHRIUHVHDUFKFRQGXFWHGXQGHUWKHDXVSLFHVRIWKHSURMHFWµ0RELOLW\DQG ([FKDQJH'\QDPLFVRIPDWHULDOVRFLDODQGLGHRORJLFDOUHODWLRQVLQWKHSUH&ROXPELDQLQVXODU&DULEEHDQ¶IXQGHGE\7KH 1HWKHUODQGV2UJDQL]DWLRQIRU6FLHQWL¿F5HVHDUFK 1:2 DQGOHGE\GU&RULQQH/+RIPDQRIWKH)DFXOW\RI$UFKDHRORJ\ of Leiden University. The authors are indebted to Mr. Peter O’Brien Harris and Mr. Alistair J. Bright for valuable comments RQWKH¿UVWGUDIWRIWKLVSDSHU.

287 References Cited Boomert, Arie 1996 The Prehistoric Sites of Tobago: A Catalogue and Evaluation. Alkmaar. 2000 Trinidad, Tobago and the Lower Orinoco Interaction Sphere: An Archaeological/ Ethnohistorical study. Cairi Publications, Alkmaar.  *ROGHQ*URYH$/DWH3UHKLVWRULF&HUDPLF&RPSOH[RI7REDJRLeiden Journal of Pottery Studies 21: 27–59. Boomert, Arie, & Léonid Kameneff 2003 Preliminary Report on Archaeological Investigations at Great Courland Bay, Tobago. Proceedings of the Twentieth International Congress for Caribbean Archaeology, Santo 'RPLQJR,,ņ0XVHRGHO+RPEUH'RPLQLFDQR Boomert, Arie, & Salomon B. Kroonenberg 1977 Manufacture and Trade of Stone Artifacts in Prehistoric Surinam. In Ex Horreo: IPP ±edited by B.L. van Beek, R.W. Brandt & W. Groenman-Van Waateringe, SSņ8QLYHUVLWHLWYDQ$PVWHUGDP&LQJYOD Bradley, Richard, & Mark Edmonds 1993 Interpreting the Axe Trade: Production and Exchange in Neolithic Britain. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Bullbrook, John A. 1953 On the Excavation of a Shell Mound at Palo Seco, Trinidad, B.W.I. Yale University Publications in Anthropology 50, New Haven. 1960 The Aborigines of Trinidad. Royal Victoria Institute and Museum, Occasional Papers 2, Port-of-Spain. Cummins, W.A.  3HWURORJ\RI6WRQH$[HVDQG7RROV,QThe Petrology of Archaeological Artefacts, edited E\'5&.HPSH $QWKRQ\3+DUYH\SSņ&ODUHQGRQ3UHVV2[IRUG Fandrich, Judith E. 1991 Stone Implements from Grenada: Were They Trade Items? Proceedings of the Thirteenth ,QWHUQDWLRQDO&RQJUHVVIRU&DULEEHDQ$UFKDHRORJ\&XUDoDR,SSņ Harris, Peter O’Brien 1972 Early Art in San Fernando. Gayap ņ ([FDYDWLRQ5HSRUWRQWKH&HUDPLF6LWHRI*ROGHQ*URYH7REDJRProceedings of the Sixth International Congress for the Study of Pre-Columbian Cultures of the Lesser $QWLOOHV*XDGHORXSHSSņ  ([FDYDWLRQ5HSRUW/RYHUV5HWUHDW3HULRG,97REDJRProceedings of the Eighth International Congress for the Study of Pre-Columbian Cultures of the Lesser Antilles, St Kitts 1979,SSņ Haviser, Jay B. 1999 Hope Estate: Lithics. In Archaeological investigations on St. Martin (Lesser Antilles) HGLWHGE\&RULQQH/+RIPDQ 0HQQR/3+RRJODQGSSņ$UFKDHRORJLFDO Studies Leiden University 4, Leiden. Hoogland, Menno L. P. 1996 ,Q6HDUFKRIWKH1DWLYH3RSXODWLRQRI3UH&ROXPELDQ6DED ±$' 3DUW7ZR Settlements in their natural and social environment. Ph.D. Thesis, Leiden University. Kameneff, Léonid 1999 *UHDW&RXUODQG%D\±7REDJR$PHULQGLDQ6LWH$UFKDHRORJLFDO5HVHDUFK±0D\$XJXVW 288 1998. Karrek Ven Training Group, Gibraltar. Knippenberg, Sebastiaan  'LVWULEXWLRQDQG([FKDQJHRI/LWKLF0DWHULDOV7KUHHSRLQWHUVDQG$[HVIURP6W0DUWLQ In Late Ceramic Age Societies in the Eastern Caribbean, edited by André Delpuech & Corinne L. Hofman, pp. 121–137. BAR International Series 1273. Archaeopress, 2[IRUG McBryde, Isabel  .XOLQ*UHHQVWRQH4XDUULHV7KH6RFLDO&RQWH[WVRI3URGXFWLRQDQG'LVWULEXWLRQIRUWKH Mt William Site. World Archaeologyņ Moore, D.T. 1983 Petrological Aspects of Some Sharpening Stones, Touchstones, and Milling Stones. In The Petrology of Archaeological Artifacts, edited by D.R.C. Kempe & Anthony P. +DUYH\SS±&ODUHQGRQ3UHVV2[IRUG Murphy, A. Reg, David J. Hozjan, Christy N. de Mille, & Alfred A. Levinson. 2000 Pre-Columbian Gems and Ornamental Materials from Antigua, West Indies. Gems & Gemology 36: 234–245. Niddrie, David L.  7REDJR. Litho Press, Midleton/Gainesville. Persad, K.M. *HRORJLFWHFWRQLFPDSRI7ULQLGDGDQG7REDJR6FDOH. Robertson Research, n.p. (USA).

Roobol, M. J., & J. W. Lee 1976 Petrography and Source of Some Rock Artifacts from Jamaica. Proceedings of the Sixth International Congress for the Study of Pre-Columbian Cultures of the Lesser $QWLOOHV*XDGHORXSH pp. 304–313. Snoke, Arthur W., David W. Rowe, J. Douglas Yule, & Geoffrey Wadge.  3HWURORJLFDQG6WUXFWXUDO+LVWRU\RI7REDJR:HVW,QGLHV$)UDJPHQWRIWKH$FFUHWHG Mesozoic Oceanic Arc of the Southern Caribbean. Geological Society of America Special Paper 354, Boulder, CO. Torrence, Robin 1986 Production and Exchange of Stone Tools: Prehistoric Obsidian in the Aegean. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Tykot, Robert H. 2003 Determining the Source of Lithic Artifacts and Reconstructing Trade in the Ancient World. In Written in Stone: The Multiple Dimensions of Lithic Analysis edited by P. 1LFN.DUGXOLDV 5LFKDUG:

289 290

Figure1: Map of Tobago, showing the distribution of archaeological sites EHORQJLQJWRWKH*ROGHQ*URYHDQG3O\PRXWKFRPSOH[HV7URXPDVVRLGVHULHV

Figure 2: Map of Tobago showing its main geological features. Insets: histograms of the SHUFHQWDJHVRIDUWLIDFWVPDGHRIVSHFL¿FURFNW\SHVIRXQGDWWKH*ROGHQ*URYHDQG/RYHUV¶ Retreat sites. Legend: (1) North Coast Schist; (2) Volcanic Group; (3) Plutonic: diorite; (4) Plutonic: other rocks; (5) Rockly Bay Formation; (6) Pliocene-Quaternary. Geological formations adapted from snoke et al. (2001). 291 )LJXUH%HDGVHQFRXQWHUHGDWWKH*UHDW&RXUODQG%D\VLWH3O\PRXWKFRPSOH[7REDJR manufactured of (from left to right): quartz crystal (1,2), turquoise (3), and pottery (4). Length of the latter bead is 0.9 cm. Collection Tobago Museum, Scarborough.

)LJXUH%ODQNVDQG¿QLVKHGGLRULWHEHDGVIRXQGDWWKH0LQLVWHU%D\VLWH3O\PRXWKFRPSOH[ Tobago. Collection Mr. Jeremy Knott, Mount Irvine, Tobago. Artifact types Cutting Grinding & Pounding Other Ornaments Totals tools polishing tools tools tools axe adze metate mano polish.st. hammst. pestle anvil pitted st. lid bead pendant min.axe

Rock types

metamorphic greenstone 1 1 1 1 4 greenschist 1 1 4 6 ser. schist 1 1 serpentinite - 11 quartzite - 292 metacongl. - rhyolite 1 1 igneous andesite 1 2 1 1 1 6 basalt 1 1 1 3 58 dolerite 1 1 diorite 1 1 45 47

sed. sandstone 2 2 mudstone - 3 breccia 1 1 var. quartz 3 3 3 totals 52- 3641-- -4716 7 9 5 - 54 75 75 % 9.3 12.0 6.7 - 72.0 100.0

Table 1. Stone artifacts of the Golden Grove complex, found at Golden Grove (TOB-13), Strata IV─V (1974, 1985). Abbreviations: st., stone; min., miniature; ser., sericite; congl., conglomerate; sed., sedimentary; var., various. Artifact types Cutting Grinding & Pounding Other Ornaments Totals tools polishing tools tools tools axe adze metate mano polish.st. hammst. pestle anvil pitted st. lid bead pendant min.axe

Rock types

metamorphic greenstone 4 1 1 1 1 8 greenschist 4 4 8 ser. schist 1 1 serpentinite 2 2 21 quartzite 1 1 metacongl. 1 1 293 rhyolite - igneous andesite 2 2 4 1 2 11 basalt 4 4 28 dolerite - diorite 3 2 1 1 6 13

sed. sandstone 4 2 6 mudstone 1 1 7 breccia - var. quartz 2 2 2 totals 1175 5102 12 1 2 6 1 558 58 18 20 5 3 12 % 31.0 34.5 8.6 5.2 20.7 100.0

Table 2. Stone artifacts of the Plymouth complex, found at Lovers’ Retreat (TOB-69), Section C (1976, 1981-1982, 1985). Abbreviations: st., stone; min., miniature; ser., sericite; congl., conglomerate; sed., sedimentary; var., various. Rock types meta- igneous sedi- various totals % morphic rocks mentary Artifact types rocks rocks Cutting tools 14 11 - - 25 18.8 Grind. & pol. tools 2 14 8 5 29 21.8 Pounding tools 2 7 1 - 10 7.5 Other tools 1 2 - - 3 2.3 Ornaments 13 52 1 - 66 49.6 Totals 32 86 10 5 133 100.0 294 % 24.1 64.6 7.5 3.8 100.0

Table 3. Total sample of Troumassoid stone artifacts from Tobago examined. Abbreviations: grind., grinding; pol., polishing.