Sport Governance in North America, 2Nd

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Sport Governance Thomas H.SawyerLawrence W. Judge Tonya L.Sawyer in North America https://www.sagamorepub.com/products/sport-governance-north-america-2nd-ed-ebook

Policies 2 nd

Requirements Edition

Regulations

Standards Sport Governance in North America

Second Edition

Thomas H. Sawyer Lawrence W. Judge Tonya L. Sawyer

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https://www.sagamorepub.com/products/sport-governance-north-america-2nd-ed-ebook Dedication

This book is dedicated to the thousands of students the authors have had the honor to work with each and everyone one of them. We feel they have made a difference in our careers and we have made a difference in their futures.

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Dedication ...... iii Acknowledgments ...... ix Preface ...... xi Foreword by Richard J. Larue ...... xv About the Authors ...... xvii

Part 1: Sport Organization Governance, Policy Development, and Ethical Foundations

1 Introduction to Sport Organizations and Governance Chad Whitkemper, Indiana State University ...... 1

2 Management and Managers: The Building Blocks of Organizational Governance Thomas H. Sawyer, Professor Emeritus, Indiana State University ...... 21

3 Strategic Policy Development and Decision-Making in Governance Thomas H. Sawyer, Professor Emeritus, Indiana State University ...... 33

4 Planning: The Foundation of Organizational Governance Thomas H. Sawyer, Professor Emeritus, Indiana State University ...... 63

5 The Role of Compliance in Collegiate Athletics Tonya L. Sawyer, Indiana State University...... 87

6 Managing the Compliance Function in a Collegiate Athletics Department Tonya L. Sawyer, Indiana State University ...... 103

7 The Ethics of Sport Management and Governance Darrell L. Johnson, Grace College ...... 113

8 Professional Ethics for Managers and Organizations Darrell L. Johnson, Grace College ...... 123

https://www.sagamorepub.com/products/sport-governance-north-america-2nd-ed-ebook Part II: Sport Governance Organizations

9 Impact of Government Bodies and Sports Commissions on Sport-Governing Bodies Thomas H. Sawyer, Professor Emeritus, Indiana State University ...... 135

10 Adult and Youth Community Sport Governance in America Lawrence W. Judge, Ball State University ...... 147

11 Interscholastic Sport Governance in America Thomas H. Sawyer, Professor Emeritus, Indiana State University Tonya L. Sawyer, Indiana State University ...... 175

12 Intercollegiate Sport Governance in America Lawrence W. Judge, Ball State University ...... 203

13 Olympic Sport Governance in America Lawrence W. Judge, Ball State University ...... 245

14 Paralympics Sport Governance Lawrence W. Judge, Ball State University ...... 275

15 Special Olympics Governance Thomas H. Sawyer, Professor Emeritus, Indiana State University Tonya L. Sawyer, Indiana State University ...... 301

16 Senior Olympics/Games Governance Tonya L. Sawyer, Indiana State University Thomas H. Sawyer, Professor Emeritus, Indiana State University ...... 313

17 Campus, Corporate, Correctional, and Military Recreational Sports in America Lawrence W. Judge, Ball State University ...... 323

18 Professional Team Sport Governance in America Lawrence W. Judge, Ball State University ...... 349

19 Professional Individual Sports Governance in America Thomas H. Sawyer, Professor Emeritus, Indiana State University ...... 381

https://www.sagamorepub.com/products/sport-governance-north-america-2nd-ed-ebook 20 International Professional Sport Governance Lawrence W. Judge, Ball State University ...... 409

21 Motorsports Governance in America Thomas H. Sawyer, Professor Emeritus, Indiana State University ...... 431

Part III: Challenges in Governing Sports

22 Community Sport Support Structures Chad Witkemper, Indiana State University ...... 445

23 Challenges in the Future Facing Sport Managers Thomas H. Sawyer, Professor Emeritus, Indiana State University Lawrence W. Judge, Ball State University Tonya L. Sawyer, Indiana State University ...... 463

Index ...... 477

vii https://www.sagamorepub.com/products/sport-governance-north-america-2nd-ed-ebook https://www.sagamorepub.com/products/sport-governance-north-america-2nd-ed-ebook Acknowledgments

This book started out as a team project to develop a standard format for information to be covered in an undergraduate sport finance course that would meet all the standards established by the National Association for Sport and Physical Education (NASPE), North American Society for Sport Management (NASSM), and the Council on Sport Management Accreditation (COSMA). After a number of years in developing the course materials, it was obvious that the team should convert the basic work into a sport governance textbook. This book is now in its second edition. At this time, I would like to acknowledge the efforts of my co-authors Dr. Lawrence W. Judge (Ball State University), and Tonya L. Sawyer (Indiana State University). They were integral parts in the development and writing of this textbook. Without their efforts and expertise, this book would have never seen the light of day. They have been members of the sport management professoriate for over 20 years. With the aid of the staff at Sagamore–Venture Publishing this book has entered the marketplace. The editorial assistance and support has been great. I greatly appreciate their patience and willingness to work with the authors and myself. They are a great author-friendly publishing operation. All writers know how important it is to have a second set of critical eyes to read a manuscript and make sure it is reader friendly. My second set of eyes for this edition was Dr. Tonya L. Sawyer. Without her expertise, this book would not be as reader- friendly as it has become.

ix https://www.sagamorepub.com/products/sport-governance-north-america-2nd-ed-ebook https://www.sagamorepub.com/products/sport-governance-north-america-2nd-ed-ebook Preface

First Edition, 2008

Sport Governance and Policy Development: An Ethical Approach to Managing Sports in the 21st Century is designed for use in sport governance and policy development courses with upper-level undergraduate students and graduate students. It focuses on two NASPE/MASSM curriculum standards that are applicable to both the undergraduate and graduate-level curriculum. These standards are as follows: • Standard 5 (a) moral and ethical developmental theories, (b) teleological and de- ontological theories of ethics, (c) models of ethical analysis, (d)code of professional ethics, personal and management values, and (e) situational analysis, and • Standard 11 includes (a) identification of governing bodies in amateur and professional sport, (b) organizational structure of a variety of governing bodies, (c) authority, and functions of various governing bodies, (d) requirements for membership in governing bodies, sanctions, and appeals processes utilized by governing bodies, and (e) influence of governmental bodies and sports commissions on sport governing bodies. The premise behind this book is as follows: After studying from this book, the student should be familiar with the following: • Organizational theory, leadership, and policy development • Sport organizations, their authority, organizational structure, and functions, and impact issues • Ethical and moral issues related to sport governance in intrinsic and extrinsic dimensions, as well as developing a personal philosophy regarding social responsibility in sport governance settings This book focuses primarily on America sport organizations with few exceptions. It challenges students to integrate organizational theory and behavior with leadership and governance to ensure sound policy development practices. It outlines where the power rests in an organization and how individual sport organizations fit into the greater sport industry. This book is organized into three major sections including 17 chapters. The purpose of having these three sections is to establish a theoretical knowledge base related to the following: • Governance, leadership, and policy development that future sport managers need to function within sport organizations • How ethical and moral issues impact sport organizations and managers • Information relating to how sport organizations are organized and the impact issues sport managers struggle with on a regular basis

xi https://www.sagamorepub.com/products/sport-governance-north-america-2nd-ed-ebook Part I introduces the student to organizational governance and policy development in the world in general and specifically to the sport industry. Chapter 1 develops the foundation for organizational structure, theory, and behavior, and management theory, and leadership. It is followed by a discussion of the planning function within organizations in Chapter 2. The section ends with Chapter 3, which reviews the policy development process within an organization. Part II opens the door to ethical decision-making and professional ethics. Chapter 4 lays the foundation for ethical decision-making. It is followed by Chapter 5, which describes a variety of professional ethics and codes of conduct. Part III provides the student with a picture of how sport is governed at various levels of amateur and professional organizations. Chapter 6 describes the influences of governmental bodies and sports commissions on sport governing bodies in the United States. The discussion is followed by a description of youth sport governance in Chap- ter 7. The authors shed light on how interscholastic sports are managed in Chapter 8. Chapter 9 contains a discussion relating to recreational sports in America from community programs to military and collegiate programs. Chapter 10 opens the doors on how intercollegiate sports are governed from the junior colleges to the largest senior in- stitutions of higher education. Following the intercollegiate discussion, the authors provide a description of governance in professional sports in Chapter 11. Then the authors describe the governance of motorsports in Chapter 12. Chapter 13 discussions highlight amateur sport involvement in the United States by outlining the governance of Olympic sports. This discussion is followed by a detailed description of Paralympic Sports in Chapter 14. The authors then describe the Special Olympic movement in America in Chapter 15. Chapter 16 sheds light on the Senior Olympic programs nationwide. Final- ly, Chapter 17 provides a discussion relating to community sport structures, engaging the student in learning about and understanding what these not-for-profit entities do within a community to support and promote sport. We hope that instructors and students will find this book to be useful and inter- esting in learning about governance, policy development, and ethical issues in sport organizations. It is a book designed to open the door to the big picture regarding sport governance. It should assist future sport managers to better understand their roles.

Preface Second Edition, 2018

This second edition has been updated and expanded. There are now 24 chapters. The former Chapter 2 has been renamed “Management and Managers: The Building Blocks of Organizational Governance” and updated. The former Chapter 3 has been divided into two chapters and updated; new Chapter 3 is entitled “Strategic Policy Devel- opment and Decision-Making in Governance” and new Chapter 4 is entitled “Planning: The Foundation of Organizational Governance.” Other new chapters include Chapter 6,

xii https://www.sagamorepub.com/products/sport-governance-north-america-2nd-ed-ebook “Introduction to Compliance in Collegiate Athletics,” Chapter 7, “Managing the Com- pliance Function in a Collegiate Athletics department,” Chapter 19, “Professional Indi- vidual Sports Governance in America,” Chapter 20, “International Professional Sport Governance,” Chapter 23, “Challenges in the Future Facing Recreation and Sport Man- agers, and Chapter 24, “Change Management: A Constant in Sport Management.” The book remains with three sections—Section I: Sport Organizations, Policy De- velopment, and Ethical Foundations, which contains Chapters 1-8. Section II, Sport Governance Organizations, contains Chapters 9-21, and Section III: Challenges in Governing Sports, contains Chapters 22-24. The book will have the following supplementary documents found online: instructor’s manual, PowerPoints, and a test bank with 460 true and false and multiple-choice questions and appendices.

xiii https://www.sagamorepub.com/products/sport-governance-north-america-2nd-ed-ebook https://www.sagamorepub.com/products/sport-governance-north-america-2nd-ed-ebook Foreword by Richard J. Larue Professor, NAS Fellow University of New England

The underpinnings of sport governance can help ensure quality participant experiences. This includes the ability for leaders to create an environment where sport experiences are valued and serve to enhance the quality of life for those who participate as players, officials, and/or spectators. In recent years, nearly all levels of sport have faced challenges that were either predictable or unanticipated. Therefore, it falls to the knowledge and experience of our sport leaders, to ensure that sport serves a positive role, in the lives of those involved! In the 21st century, sport governing organizations have both offered solutions and created more issues and challenges. Clearly, for organized sport to flourish, there must be a broad-based commitment to those characteristics and goals we aspire to achieve; as well as, a passion for always seeking to do what is right! This second edition of Sport Governance in North America provides the critical underpinnings for students as they acquire new ideas and establish a better understanding of governance and policy development in sport. The authors of this book are all experienced professionals who clearly understand the importance of sport governance and policy development. To that end, they have worked together to create a second edition that has evolved in a manner that will serve the reader well! Particularly important to active learning and knowledge acquisition, is the approach applied to learning. This book is organized in a manner that students are first introduced to the critical skills and attributes of good leaders in sport. The book then provides an overview of sport, sport organizations, and sport governance. What follows next are the elements of governance and the essential knowledge regarding policy development, decision making and planning, compliance, governing bodies (their influence on sport), and ethics. After this critical introduction, the book serves to create in the reader both a basis of understanding and the tools for implementation. The chapters that follow address governance that is specific to sport and sport programs, across the lifespan. These chapters challenge students to look in-depth at the range of sport and specific organizational structures. And these chapters offer opportunities for the reader to value both the attributes of governance and the quality ensured, based directly on the programmatic goals and passions of the respective leadership. Completing the text are two capstone chapters. These chapters offer a unique opportunity for the reader, to consider the essential value of community support and the challenges (realized and unknown) facing sport managers in the (their) future. Here the authors have combined their ideas as they anticipate the respective needs and challenges of the future.

xv https://www.sagamorepub.com/products/sport-governance-north-america-2nd-ed-ebook xvii https://www.sagamorepub.com/products/sport-governance-north-america-2nd-ed-ebook About the Authors

Thomas H. Sawyer, EdD NAS Fellow; AAHPERD Honor Fellow Professor Emeritus of Kinesiology, Recreation, and Sport Indiana State University

Dr. Sawyer is a 48-year veteran of higher education. He began as an instructor of health and physical education, and has been

• a director of recreational sports, • department head, • department chair, • associate athletic director, • director of articulation and transfer, • director of a college prison education program, • executive director of regional education centers, and • an interim dean of continuing education.

He is ending his career at Indiana University, by choice, as a full professor teaching sport management theory to undergraduate and graduate students. He continues to teach in an adjunct role for Ball State University, Grace College, and Ivy Tech Community College through distance education. He has written over 280 peer-reviewed articles for notable professional journals, made over 250 state, regional, national, and international presentations, and written 12 professional books and over 32 chapters in other publications. Further, he has served as a state AHPERD president (Indiana), district vice president (Midwest), association president (AAALF), chaired numerous district and national committees, been editor of the Indiana AHPERD journal and newsletter, chaired the JOPERD editorial and policy boards, and is a member of the AAHPERD BOG. He has been an AAHPERD member since 1964 (47 years). Dr. Sawyer has also been active in the community serving as a volunteer for the American Red Cross since 1964. He has been a first aid, CPR, and water safety instructor (over 30 years), a chapter board member (off and on for 30 years, chapter chairperson (off and on for eight years), chair of a state consortium (three years), chair of numerous regional committees, and currently serves as chair of the Great Lakes Region, Service Area 5, Resource Council. Finally, Dr. Sawyer has received numerous awards for his leadership and service to the American Red Cross, YMCA, a regional alcohol and drug consortium, Council on Facilities and Equipment, Indiana AHPERD, American Association for Active Lifestyles and Fitness, American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation, and Dance, and Indiana State University. Further, Sawyer xvii https://www.sagamorepub.com/products/sport-governance-north-america-2nd-ed-ebook has received Caleb Mills Outstanding Teaching Award, Faculty Distinguished Service Award, and Distinguished Research and Service Award from Indiana State University and the Howard Richardson’s Outstanding Teacher/Scholar Award from the School of Health and Human Performance at Indiana State University.

Lawrence W. Judge Professor of Physical Education Ball State University

Professor Lawrence Judge is in his 12th year at Ball State University. He serves as the associate chair and coordinator of the Athletic Coaching Education program. He has also served as the undergraduate advisor for the Sport Administration program. As both an associate head coach and head coach, Larry has a total of 18 years work experience coaching Division I track and field/cross country. In addition to field experience (training nine Olympians, 12 NCAA Champions, and coaching over 100 All-Americans), Judge has firsthand knowledge of NCAA rules and current issues in amateur, intercollegiate, and professional athletics. Widely recognized as the premiere track and field throws coach in the USA, Larry Judge completed his collegiate coaching career with the University of Florida in 2005. In 2005, Judge capped off a stellar career at the University of Florida with four former Gator athletes competing in the world championships in Helsinki. Judge served as an assistant coach for Trinidad and Tobago. Judge has guided nine athletes in four different Olympic Games and eight athletes in two Paralympic Games. As a scholar, Dr. Judge has co-authored 147 peer-reviewed publications in prestigious journals such the International Review for the Sociology of Sport, Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, and the International Journal of Sports Science and Coaching. Dr. Judge has also been active in the area of textbook publishing, contributing 12 textbook chapters. In 2008, Dr. Judge coauthored the textbook, Sport Governance and Policy Development: An Ethical Approach to Managing Sport in the 21st Century and authored the books The Complete Track and Field Coaches’ Guide to Conditioning for the Throwing Events and The Shot Put Handbook. He is currently a contributing author for a resource book in the design and planning of Sport and Recreational Facilities (13th edition). He has also given 200 peer-reviewed academic presentations at a wide variety of state, national, and international conferences, while also acquiring nearly $500,000 in grant funding that have primarily focused on cultivating healthy lifestyle habits for children through physical activity and the study of fair play as a social construct in sport. Dr. Judge has held the following positions:

xviii https://www.sagamorepub.com/products/sport-governance-north-america-2nd-ed-ebook • President of the Indiana Association for Health, Physical Education, Recreation, and Dance Sport Council • Past President for the National Council for the Accreditation of Coaching Education • Past Chair for the American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation, and Dance Council on Facilities and Equipment • National Chairman of the United States Track and Field Coaches Education for the Throwing Events Dr. Judge serves as a level II and level III instructor in the IAAF coach’s education program and also lectures in the Professional Figure Skaters Association nationwide coach’s education program. • Indiana State Director for the National Strength and Conditioning Association

Tonya L. Sawyer, PhD Compliance Coordinator Indiana State University

Dr. Sawyer received her bachelor of science degree (2003) in elementary education from Saint Mary-of-the Woods College, a master of science in recreation and sport management (2009) with a concentration in sport management, and a PhD in curriculum and instruction with an emphasis in sport management from Indiana State University. She currently works in the Department of Intercollegiate Athletics as the NCAA Compliance Coordinator. Dr. Sawyer has served as an adjunct faculty member in the Department of Kinesiology, Recreation, and Sport, as well as in Athletic Academics. Dr. Sawyer has given over 10 presentations at professional conferences and authored 18 articles found in professional journals concentrating on sport management. She is an active community member, volunteering with the local American Red Cross and United Way. Further, she was awarded the Young Professional Award by the Indiana Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation, and Dance.

Contributors Darrell L. Johnson, EdD Professor of Sport Management Chairperson, Department of Sport Management Grace College

Darrell Johnson earned his EdD in physical education at The University of Alabama. He completed his BS at Grace College and his MA at Kent State University.

xix https://www.sagamorepub.com/products/sport-governance-north-america-2nd-ed-ebook He has taught at Grace College for 28 years and currently serves as Chair of the Sport Management Department. He previously taught, coached, and was athletic director on the high school and collegiate level. He also has experience in event management and merchandizing in the golf industry. Dr. Johnson has published in the Sport Behavior Journal, Journal of Sport Administration, and the Journal of Physical Education, Recreation, and Dance. He has served on state and national committees. He was president of the Indiana Association for Health, Physical Education, Recreation, and Dance in 1994. Dr. Johnson has been very active in volunteering at major sporting events having worked at Super Bowl XLVI, NCAA Men’s and Women’s Final Fours, The Memorial Golf Tourney, and The President’s Cup.

Chad Witkemper, PhD Assistant Professor of Kinesiology, Recreation, and Sport Indiana State University

Dr. Witkemper has written and had published numerous scholarly articles in state, regional, and national professional journals. He has made numerous presentations at state, regional, and national professional meetings. He specializes in organizational behavior and leadership research with a focus on leadership characterizations and generational behaviors. Other areas of interest include social media and emerging technology in sports.

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Part I: Sport Organization Governance, Policy Development, and Ethical Foundations Introduction to Sport Organizations and Governance

Chad Whitkemper Indiana State University

Introduction

Governance is critical in all industry and sport is no exception. The purpose of a governing body is to achieve its stated mission within the environment in which it operates. The success of any governing body is dependent on the ability to function with consistency and stability through its life cycle while adapting to the changing market. At the individual level, a thorough understanding about how a governing body is organized and operates could assist a sport manager to identify why some bodies are more effective than others. Organizational theory is one area of study that attempts to understand the structure and design of organizations and their interrelationship within the setting in which they function. Indeed, organizational theory has greatly evolved over the years. Its storied history includes Max Weber’s (1964) seven essential elements of a bureaucracy to the rise of strategic management and today into transformational and strengths-based leadership. Scholars analyze organizations to identify opportunities in a multitude of areas such as organizational behavior, organizational design, leadership, management, or policy. This is not an exhaustive list of the areas scholars can study but through organizational theory, scholars aim to provide knowledge to organizations to influence their behaviors to become more efficient. Now the process of organizing is essentially the same for any type of organization, and establishing a

https://www.sagamorepub.com/products/sport-governance-north-america-2nd-ed-ebook 2 Sport Governance in North America mission and goals is fundamentally a first step. Once these critical components have been established, sport managers must develop a systematic plan to combine the necessary human capital and physical resources to achieve their mission and goals. Organizations often seek opportunities to evolve the way they govern as industry and people change. From this perspective, sport governing bodies exist to make group decisions within a particular segment of the sport industry to advance their organizations. When analyzing governance systems in sport, the sport manager can examine two primary perspectives. First, the micro approach; a governing body is itself an organization and is established to achieve goals. For example, the internal operations of the Boys & Girls Clubs of America headquarters can be analyzed. From a macro approach, the governing body may be considered as just a minor portion of the organization as a whole. This can be analyzed by identifying how the headquarters interacts with all the community Boys & Girls Clubs. The purpose of this chapter is to introduce the sport industry and outline the components of a sport organization. Next, an overview of how governing bodies acquire legal authority and jurisdiction is presented. Finally, governance is defined and contrasted with management and leadership in sport organizations.

What is the Sport Industry?

An industry is generally any grouping of businesses that share common methods of generating revenue, such as the “movie industry,” the automobile industry,” or the “cattle industry.” Similarly, the “sport industry” exists and can be divided into a variety of segments: youth sport, interscholastic, intercollegiate, Olympic, professional, manufacturing, retailing, consulting, marketing, facility management, tourism, and many more. Each segment is comprised of a variety of individual organizations. For example, consider participation in a single sport such as track and field. There is a number of organizations providing governance and input, including high schools, high school athletic associations (i.e., AAU), and single sport (i.e., USATF). Further, there are collegiate sport governing bodies (i.e., NCAA, NAIA), collegiate recruiting services, sporting goods retailers, media outlets (i.e., Track & Field News), and tourism (i.e., Tourism London–Sport Tourism). While this again is not an exhaustive list, it provides a foundation upon which one can identify how a single sport segment can have numerous governing bodies. Now include all sports, sport products, and services across the various segments, and one can begin to appreciate how expansive in nature the sport industry has become.

What is an Organization?

An organization is an entity that allows for a group of two or more people to interact for the purpose of achieving common objectives. Further, a sport organization is a social entity operating in the sport industry (Baloga & Lazar, 2011). Effective organizations follow stipulations as set by a governing body. According to Slack and Parent (2006), a governing body in sport is an organization with five crucial elements:

https://www.sagamorepub.com/products/sport-governance-north-america-2nd-ed-ebook Introduction to Sport Organizations and Governance 3 social identity, involvement in sport industry, goal-directed focus, consciously structured activity system, and identifiable boundaries. In other words, a governing body is a discernible object apart from its individual members that is structure in a way to achieve identified objectives within a specific jurisdiction in the sport industry. Specific descriptions about governance systems of various sport organizations (see Figure 1.1) are discussed further in the third section of this textbook. Table 1.1 Categories of Sport Organizations

Sport Industry Amateur Professional Sport Services Youth Sports National Basketball Association Athletic Foundations

Basketball Women’s National Basketball Arena and Stadium Association Operators Baseball Continental Basketball Athletic Foundations Association Bowling USA Basketball League Cable Sports Cheerleading Major League Baseball Network Sports Field Hockey Minor League Baseball Race Tracks Football National Hockey League Horse Tracks Golf National Football League Sport Agency Gymnastics Arena Football League Sport Media Lacrosse Major League Soccer Sport Sponsorship Agencies Soccer Major Indoor Soccer League Sport Events Agencies Softball NASCAR Sport Facility Management Swimming Indy Racy League Sport Commissions Wrestling F1 Racing Sport Fundraisers High School Associations Track and Field Sport Museums Interscholastic Sports AVP Pro Beach Volleyball Sport Libraries USA Olympic Committee Tennis Sport Hall of Fames National Governing Bodies Professional Golf Association Sport Architects for Olympic Sports Special Olympics Ladies Professional Golf Concessions and Food Association Agencies Paralympics Professional Bowling Association Sport Ticket Services Senior Olympics Professional Rodeo State games National Women’s Football Association Military sports Professional Disc Golf Association Recreational sports National Women’s Soccer League Campus recreation North American Soccer League Community recreation Professional Figure Skating

Organizing involves analyzing, identifying, and defining the work to be performed. When considering organizing in relation to governing bodies, a sport manager should take into account several factors. First, sport managers should deliberate on the unity of purpose which is an agreement about the work to be performed. Another consideration is the division of labor. This entails how tasks are divided and what authority will be given to individuals. A fundamental component to any organization

https://www.sagamorepub.com/products/sport-governance-north-america-2nd-ed-ebook 4 Sport Governance in North America is the staff. Staffing requires decisions about the type, number, and experience of individuals who will perform the tasks. Finally, organizational framework is the structure that will allow for effective cooperation among individuals (i.e., chain of command, flow of information, etc.). Organizational context refers to the structural dimensions that influence the governing body (Daft, 2003). Sport managers must consider various determinants that can influence the organizational structure, which includes age, size, strategy, technology, sociopolitical, and economical factors found in the external environment. Decisions made here directly influence the organizational design, which is the pattern of structural elements in a governing body (i.e., complexity, formalization, specialization, etc.). Design is dependent on the mission in addition to the organizational context. Going deeper into the organizational design, the sport manager will determine how jobs are broken down and assigned to members, communication and reporting relationships among individuals, and the coordination of the governing body. This all falls under the organizational structure and becomes important to study as it shapes how sport managers interact, how decisions are made, how tasks are completed, and whether the atmosphere is casual, formal, or reserved. Often a visual representation of how a governing body is structured is referred to as the organizational chart. The organizational chart (see Figure 1.1) may reflect many components of the organization such as levels of management, reporting lines, subunits, division of labor, and communication channels. Division of labor’s primary purpose in an organization is to achieve some objective that individuals cannot accomplish on their own. The cornerstone of organizing any governance system is the division of labor. It is the principle that dividing tasks and assigning them to specific individuals or a group can achieve more than if each individual attempted to perform the task on his or her own. In order for the division of labor to be successful, there must be specialization, which is the concept that managers and employees each operate in the areas they are most qualified for. Fundamental to the success of the division of labor is thechain of command. Chain of command flows from the chief executive down to the lowest level of employment. It dictates reporting lines that determine who each individual is and who the employee is accountable to. It should be noted that the formal chart may not always be able to accurately reflect the important relationships that exists in governing bodies. Informal relationships may significantly influence what and how tasks are performed to achieve state goals. Each aspect of the organizational design can influence how individuals work together, and it is through successful management of employees that an organization can achieve goals.

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Member State Associations General Committee National Council Appeal

Board of All Related Directors Subcommittees

Executive Director NIAAA Certified Athletic Administrators Support Staff Program

17 Sports Rules General and Activity Special Educational Committeees Publications Committees Mtgs/Events Services Annual Mtg Ct/Fld Diagram Baseball Debate Topic NFHS Coach Ed AD Advisory Forensic Quart. Basketball HOF Induction Citizenship Curr Citizenship HS Sports Reebk Field Hockey Legal Mtg Rules Exams/Int Equity IAA Magazine Football Nat. HS Act. Wk Rules Posters HOF Screening Line-Doug Debate Gymnastics Conf. AD Sports Trans/PP National Records NFHS Annual Rpt Ice Hockey NFHS Sum Mtg Sportsmanship NFHS Coach Ed NFHS Brochure Lacrosse G/B NFHS Win Mtg Materials Sports Med Adv NFHS Coaches Q Music NFHS Summit NFHS Handbook Soccer Prof. Dev. NFHS New Softball Conferences NFHS Official Q Professional Special Speech State Music Conf NFHS State Manual Organizations Committees Spirit Stud. Leadership NFHS Catalog NFCA Hall of Fame Swimming/Diving Rules Pub 17 Sports NFMA Selection Track and Field Speech/Debate Bks NFOA Volleyball Videos Sports Med Handbk NFSA Water Polo Misc. Videos NFSDA Staff Committee Wrestling Music Videos Sports Rules Speech/Deb Vid Rules Exams Review Sports Videos Resource Ctr Legal Interpreters Mtg Rules/Question Resource Nat. Iss Citizenship Pro Ath Sanctions Other Sevices Particip. Survey Advertising Off. Equip. Ctr. Rules Interp Mtg NFHS Website Cor. Partner Pro. Rules Interpret Teleconf. Critical Auth. Mark Pro

Figure 1.1. National Federation of State High School Associations (NFHS)

Organizational Behavior and Organizational Culture Organizational behavior research has been moving toward an increased focus on human capital (i.e., employees) and more specifically on increasing motivation for the workforce to perform at higher levels of production (Dixon & Warner, 2010). Therefore, organizational behavior is the study of how individuals and small groups

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function within an organization and the characteristics of the environment in which people work (Robbins & Judge, 2012). Leadership traits and styles are often identified as an area that can influence team building, job satisfaction, communication, and motivation. The consensus among management behaviors implies that leadership does matter (Wasserman, Anand, & Nohria, 2010). There have been several different management styles and theories identified that can influence organizational behavior. Each style of management falls along a spectrum ranging from extreme employee focus, to extreme organizational focus (See Figure 1.2). Management style, organizational behavior, and design all have implications on the overall organizational culture. Organizational culture refers to the shared values, beliefs, and behavior patterns that form the organization’s core identity. As individuals within the organization interact, they become familiar with the manifestations of the culture. Included are the formal or explicit norms of the organizations, which could be dress code, breaks, and reporting lines. Further informal or implicit norms also influence the culture. Items that fall into this category could be rewards, myths or stories, jargon, and inside jokes. Sport managers exhibit their values through actions, non-actions, and signals that express their values. This can directly influence the organizational culture. Regardless of formal documentation, how individuals behavior and interact in the workplace is a representation of the organizational culture.

Organizational Individual Needs Needs

Behavioralist Bureaucratic Management Scientific Management

Figure 2.2 Operations Research Management by Objectives New Behavioralist

Social Responsibility Strategic Management

Transactional Leadership

Transformational Leadership

Strengths-Based Leadership

Figure 1.2. Organizational Theory: Individual vs. Organizational Needs

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Introduction to Sport Organizations and Governance 7

Organizational Design Structural elements that are arranged to create a governing body establish the organizational design. These elements are referred to as complexity, departmentalization, formalization, centralization, specialization, standardization, and size. It is important to note that no two governing bodies will be identical, as each organizational design reflects the mission and environment in which the organization operates. Complexity. Complexity is the extent to which a sport organization is horizontally, vertically, and spatially (geographically) differentiated. Sport organizations are horizontally differentiated when work is divided into narrowly defined tasks, when professionals or trained specialists are employed, and when the organization is departmentalized. Vertical complexity refers to the number of levels in the organizations represented by the hierarchy of authority. Structure typically falls into one of two vertically complex categories, tall or flat. A tall structure is characterized as one with multiple levels of authority with a relatively narrow span of control. A flat structure has fewer levels of authority in the hierarchy with a relative wide span of control. Spatial complexity can be either vertical or horizontal. Vertical spatial complexity occurs when different levels of the organizations are dispersed geographically. Horizontal spatial complexity is when different functions or the organizations take place in different locations. Another way to think about spatial complexity is to determine the footprint the organization makes in the world. The larger the footprint, the more spatially complex the organization will be. Complexity as a whole will increase as the organization increases in size, whether that is through more departmentalization or geographic expansion. Departmentalization. Departmentalization establishes groups of people into manageable work units to achieve common objectives in the most effective and efficient manner possible (Griffin, 2013). This process involves placing individual positions within departments as well as locating entire departments within the overall organization. Departments may be coordinated based on their function, product, market, division, customer, geographic area, or matrix which is multiple approaches to emphasize cross-functional teams. Dependent upon the amount of departments an organization will establish a set of principles to control the amount of discretion individuals or groups have when performing tasks. Formalization. This is commonly referred to as formalization. This includes written documents that establish items such as a code of conduct, job descriptions, and policy and procedure manuals. These documents complement the organizational chart by describing the tasks, responsibilities, and decision authority within a governing body. As with other characteristics of an organization, formalization can vary across hierarchical levels or departments. This decision-making process becomes the next core component of an organization, centralization. Centralization. Centralization is focused on who makes decision and at what level. In general, in centralized governing bodies, few individuals at the higher levels

https://www.sagamorepub.com/products/sport-governance-north-america-2nd-ed-ebook 8 Sport Governance in North America of the hierarchy make the decisions. In a decentralized governing body, decisions are made by a greater number of individuals at lower levels of the organization. A new trend in centralization is being referred to as “holacracy.” Within this incipient organizational structure, there is virtually completely decentralization. Formal job titles, managers, and the traditional hierarchy one would see in a typical organization are not recognized. Therefore, decision-making and accountability lie at the hands of all employees working together. Zappos, a Las Vegas-based retailer and part of Amazon, announced that by the end of 2014 his organization would follow this emerging organizational structure. Such a structure could be dependent upon the specialization of the organizational activities. Specialization. Specialization is the extent to which jobs are divided into separate activities. Another term for this is the division of labor, as previously mentioned. For example, the production of one pair of Nike shoes involves 34 operations and approximately 170 workers. Some researchers have argued that specialization maximizes productivity by increasing workers’ skills, saving time lost when changing tasks, and by creating labor-saving inventions and machinery (Cusumano, 2013). Standardization. Another primary method governing bodies use to coordinate interdependent tasks is standardization. As sport organizations become more complex, new oversight systems that specify roles, plan work, and monitor activities have been introduced. Specifically, standardization refers to the process of building uniform practices for tasks to be completed and the extent to which uniformities are documented. Increased standardization creates the potential for an adaptable workplace as individuals are provided with specific direction as to how to complete a specific task. Size. Finally, organizational size is a critical factor that can have implications on an organization. There are numerous ways to measure size: total assets, market share, number of clients, number of employees, number of members, or net profits. While scholars debate the impact of size on the organizational structure, the majority recognize that the two concepts are related. While not technically a structural element of organizational design, an important aspect of organizational structure is the distinction between line departments and staff departments. Line department refers to those departments of an organization that perform the activities most closely associated with its mission or purpose. A good example is the military where the line department consists of the combat units— infantry, artillery, MASH, and so on. Staff department is an organization structure in which staff positions are added to serve the basic line departments and help them accomplish the organization’s objectives more effectively. For example, ordinarily, maintenance is considered a staff function in a sporting goods manufacturing facility. The organization is not in the business of providing maintenance. However, with a sport venue (i.e., arena or stadium), facility maintenance is critical to the spectators; it is considered a line activity. Remember, line activities are the organization’s fundamental reason for existence.

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Organizational Strategy As previously mentioned, no two governing bodies are exactly the same because the organizational design reflects the mission and environment. From this, organizational strategy can be developed, which will have a direct impact on the structure. Decisions about structure come from an analysis of activities, decisions, and relations. Strategy can be determined through activity analysis, which considers what work has to be performed, what kinds of work belong together, and the emphasis each task should be given within the overall organization. Decisions analysis determines which decisions are needed in order to obtain desired performance to achieve goals and at what level in the organization decisions should be made. Relations analysis reviews with whom individuals in an organization must work and the nature of contribution to complete specific job tasks (Velciu, Drăgoiu, & Mladen, 2010).

Legal Authority and Jurisdiction

As discussed already, the number of different types of organizations in the sport industry in vast. Businesses that provide sport products and services may be classified as public, private (for-profit), and nonprofit sectors. Each of these businesses takes different legal forms: sole proprietorship, partnership, and corporation. Often governing bodies are a corporation. To classify as a corporation, a business must be incorporated according to the laws of a particular state, province, or national government. This entails filing legal documents (i.e., articles of incorporation) and paying a fee. Generally, businesses are referred to as associations, organizations, or limited liability companies (LLC). Corporations can be either for-profit or nonprofit entities. In for-profit companies, the owners can be a single individual to groups of individuals, stakeholders, or shareholders. Revenue generated that exceeds operating expenses is distributed back to the owners or shareholders in for-profit environments. For example, the NFL and its teams, such as the Indianapolis Colts, are registered as for-profit corporations. This practice is quite different for nonprofit organizations. Revenue that exceeds operating expenses must be reinvested back into the organization. For example, the Boys & Girls Club of America are registered as nonprofit entities. Often such a business is referred to as a 501(c)3, which directly relates to the section of the IRS code that outlines tax exemptions. One major sport governing body that has faced battles against the federal government and their nonprofit status is the NCAA. Their financial structure and how the NCAA distributes their operating profit to its member organizations has been reviewed to determine if it in fact meets the IRS code for a nonprofit organization. The board of directors (sometimes referred to as executive committee or management council) is responsible for governing the affairs of a corporation. The powers a board of directors has is directly related to the corporations governing documents: articles of incorporation, constitution and bylaws, and shareholder agreements. The articles of incorporation specify the nature of the organization,

https://www.sagamorepub.com/products/sport-governance-north-america-2nd-ed-ebook 10 Sport Governance in North America such as name, purpose, registered office, authorized capital, duration, and board of directors. The constitution and bylaws govern the routine internal affairs of the corporation. Shareholder agreements can vary depending on the history, size, and type of business the corporation seeks to operate. For example, the NCAA Division I institution members elect the executive committee. As the primary governing body for intercollegiate athletics, the NCAA’s governing documents specifies its authority and jurisdiction as well as membership requirements, sanctioning, and appeals processes. Typically, the board of directors delegates, either formally or informally, decision- making authority to elected officers to operate the corporation on a day-to-day basis The number of officers depends on the organization and may include the chief executive officer (CEO), chief financial officer (CFO), chief technology officer (CTO), president, vice-president, and many more. For example, Mark Emmert is the current president of the NCAA as of late 2017.

What is Governance?

Governance refers to how governing bodies are directed and controlled. The governance mechanism (e.g., formal documents, organizational structure) specifies how rights, authority, and responsibility are distributed among individuals in order to monitor performance and achieve goals. The test of effective governance is the degree to which any organization is achieving its stated purpose. Governance describes methods a governing body uses to ensure that its constituents follow established protocol. It has been suggested that the term sport involves concepts of direction, control, and regulation (Ferkins & Shilbury, 2010). Further governance in sport can be seen as the responsibility for the inclusive direction of the sport organization which is institutionalized within all clubs, national governing bodies, government agencies, sport service organizations and professional sport team (Kikulus, 2000). A proper governance strategy implements a system to monitor organizing, power, and control of sport. This could include but is not limited to monitoring and recording what is happening within the governing body’s jurisdiction, ensuring compliance with established policies, or providing corrective action in the event rules have been misconstrued or ignored. There is a dichotomy between a governing body’s role as an advocate within the sport industry, widening market share and building profits, and its requirement to regulate members, rating players, and behavior constraints (Smith & Stewart, 2010). To simplify, the governing body must make decisions to promote sport, but in order to promote sport, the governing body must make decisions about what members can and cannot do. For example, Major League Baseball wants players to hit home runs to increase attendance at games. Therefore, they have policies in place that allow teams/cities to build stadiums at varying dimension. At the same time, they have a policy prohibiting performance-enhancing drugs for players in order to gain more strength to potentially hit more home runs. There is no perfect organizational structure associated with good governance. The challenge is to design a governance structure capable of being proactive to

https://www.sagamorepub.com/products/sport-governance-north-america-2nd-ed-ebook Introduction to Sport Organizations and Governance 11 determine mission, strategy, and policy and be responsive to the internal and external environment, as well as the needs of members.

Governance and Management: What is the Difference?

A governing body is an organization dedicated to achieving a specific mission. Governance is the means to coordinate and control the organization’s actions and resources. Management involves translating the system of governance into performance. Both governance and management involve four functions: planning, organizing, leading, and controlling human and physical resources to achieve organizational objectives. Management scholars (Koontz, 2010; Mosley, Peitri, & Megginson, 1996; Pillay, 2010; Rodenz, 2006; Williams, 2007) have defined each of these four items as described below. Planning is the management function of determining an organization’s mission and then shaping the courses of action to achieve them. Organizing is the management function of determining resources and activities required to achieve the organization’s objectives, combining those into a formal structure, assigning responsibility, and delegating authority to carry out responsibilities. Leading is the management function of influencing employees to accomplish objectives, which includes leadership style and power as well as communication, motivations and discipline. Controlling is the management function of devising ways of ensuring that planned performance is actually attained. In governance, the board of directors plan by outlining the mission and goals. They organize by structuring the organizations to implement a specific strategy and delegate authority and responsibility to accomplish tasks. Leading comes in the form of guidance and support. Finally, controlling is the means to ensure planned performance is achieved.

Management: Why is it Needed by Organizations?

The Zappos organization example previously mentioned expresses a new trend in organization where managers do not exist. So why is management important? First, the recurring theme discussed throughout this chapter is a primary reason why organizations need management; all businesses are not the same. There are three reasons why organizations need management: to establish objectives, to maintain balance among stakeholders, and to achieve efficiency and effectiveness. The initial task for management is to develop objectives consistent to the overall mission of the organization. Once the objectives have been established, the organization’s human, financial, and physical resources can attempt to achieve them. While working to achieve objectives, managers must also take into consideration the potential conflicting objectives of stakeholders. The stakeholders are all those having a vested interest in the organization’s success, which can include employees, owners, customers, government authorities, and creditors, to name a few. The varying groups of stakeholders all potentially could have different objectives in mind

https://www.sagamorepub.com/products/sport-governance-north-america-2nd-ed-ebook 12 Sport Governance in North America and attempting to balance their desires could be quite challenging. For example, management may perform the function of stewardship on behalf of the owners who are seeking a satisfactory return on investment (ROI). The ROI may be profits (as in a business) or service (as in local, state, or federal governments). Finally, management must also consider the interests of its employees who seek good pay, safe and comfortable working conditions, fair and equitable treatment, the greatest possible job security, and more time off. The last reason for management is achieving effectiveness and efficiency. The concept of effectiveness relates to the extent to which goals are achieved. Efficiency is management’s ability to optimize resources when achieving goals. Their organization had a budget of around $41 million dollars as compared to the New York Yankees who spent $125 million on player salaries the same year.

Leadership

Organizations have evolved over the years through a process of trial and error, creating many different styles of leadership in order to compensate for desired outcomes. Even more difficult is finding a standard definition for leadership. Therefore, for the purpose of this text book, leadership is defined as a set of qualities that causes people to follow. Leadership requires at least two parties, a leader and a follower. Many experts have argued over what exactly causes a group of people to follow an individual or not, but this decision often can be attributed to one or more of the traits found in Table 1.2.

Table 1.2 Ten Characteristics of a True Leader

Eager Cooperative Cheerful Altruistic Honest Courageous Resourceful Supportive Persuasive Assertive

Leaders have the ability to inspire people to go beyond what they think they are capable of doing, making it possible for them to achieve goals previous thought to be unattainable. Leaders propel their followers by inspiring their trust, acting consistently, motivating them through words or deeds, and providing hope. Leadership begins with the willingness to embrace responsibility. Leaders accept accountability for their actions. One of the realities about placing the needs of others above your own is that you cannot blame other people. If you are the type of person who looks outward for an excuse instead of inward for a reason, you will have a hard time earning the trust of

https://www.sagamorepub.com/products/sport-governance-north-america-2nd-ed-ebook Introduction to Sport Organizations and Governance 13 others. An absence of trust makes eliciting their cooperation more difficult, which, in turn, makes it more difficult for you to lead, even if you have been given the title of leader. On the other hand, the leader receives most of the accolades and rewards when things go well. No matter how hard your followers worked, no matter how modest you are, no matter how much you attempt to deflect credit to your entire team, yours is the name that people will remember. That is the great benefit of being the leader. Leaders are able to elicit cooperation, to listen to the needs of others, and to put other people’s needs ahead of their own with great consistency. After you decide that you can and want to embrace responsibility, leadership requires that you be able to do three things very well: • Elicit the cooperation of others. You must be able to get others to buy into your vision of the future and the right way to get there. • Listen well. You have to be able to gather many kinds of information from others in order to lead; doing so requires that you hone your listening skills. The old adage, “Listen and HEAR before you speak,” is very important when dealing with people. • Place the needs of others above your own needs. Leadership requires that you be willing to sacrifice for a greater good. John F. Kennedy once said, “Leadership and learning are indispensable to each other.” Learning about the job, the employees, and yourself is very important to a leader and his/her leadership ability. There are a number of leadership traits that need to be developed by the leader. The remainder of this section will discuss these traits: • Learning to use what you have. Intelligence is critical to leadership, because synthesizing information is often necessary in order to create a vision. • Responding to situation flexibly. Gathering new information and adjusting a response to a particular situation requires intelligence. Instead of responding in a knee-jerk way, an intelligent person responds flexibly based on circumstances and needs. • Taking advantage of fortuitous circumstances. You not only have to be smart enough to adapt to new information with flexibility, but you also have to have the courage to seize opportunities when they present themselves. • Making sense of ambiguous or contradictory messages. A good leader listens to all the information and then sorts through it. You test contradictory messages by asking for more information in order to find the truth. • Ranking the importance of different elements. • Finding similarities in apparently different situations. One of the normal characteristics of intelligence is a talent for analogies. Analogous intelligence in leaders is the ability to draw on prior experience, no matter how tenuous the connection is, to find a similarity that you can use to solve a problem. • Drawing distinctions between seemingly similar situations. You can find differences among situations just as often as you can find similarities, and a good leader learns to recognize when A is not like B and emphasize the differences over what the two have in common.

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• Putting concepts together in new ways. Along with analogies, one of the components of intelligence is the ability to synthesize new knowledge by putting together time-tested concepts in new ways. • Coming up with novel ideas.

Leadership Versus Management

Leadership is based on a person’s ability to influence others to work toward achieving personal and organizational goals. Leadership is often defined as a process of influencing individual and group activities toward goal setting and achievement. However, management involves much more. While leadership is a part of management, management also includes performing the other functions: planning, organizing, and controlling. Keep in mind that effective managers must be effective leaders and the successful leader is one who succeeds in getting others to follow. A leader is not a manager, and a manager is not a leader. There are enormous differences between leaders and managers including: Manager Leader

Administers Innovates Copy Original Maintains Develops Focuses on systems and structure Focuses on people Short-range view Long-range perspective Relies on control Inspires trust Asks how and when Asks what and why Eye always on the bottom line Eye on the horizon Imitates Originates Accepts status quo Challenges status quo Classic good soldier His/her own person Does things right Does the right thing Learn through training Learn through education Deductive Inductive Firm Tentative Static Dynamic Memorizing Understanding Facts Ideas Narrow Broad Surface Deep Direction Initiative Left brain Whole brain Common sense Imagination Rules Risk Rigid Flexible Reactive Active

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While there could be some debate over items listed here, in general this list would follow that of the types of leaders and leadership theories presented in the next section of the chapter.

Types of Leaders

A leader has to work effectively with many individuals, including superiors, peers, subordinates, and outside groups. However, the qualities of leadership are seen especially in a manager’s relationship with subordinates (Brown & Mitchell, 2010). Leaders are often classified by their approach (i.e., autocratic, democratic or participative, or laissez-faire) or their orientation toward getting the job done (i.e., task- or production-oriented or people-oriented or employee-centered). These approaches have been defined by a variety of scholars (Ismail & Ford, 2010; Rodenz, 2006, & Williams, 2007) as follows: • Autocratic leaders are often called authoritarian leaders who make most decisions themselves instead of allowing their followers to participate in making them. They are also characterized as “pushers” or “drill instructors.” • Democratic or participative leaders involve their followers in groups who are heavily involved in the decision process. • Laissez-faire leaders are often called free-rein leaders who are “loose” or permissive and let followers do what they wish. • Task-oriented or production-oriented leaders focus on getting the job done. They emphasize planning, scheduling, and processing work and they exercise close control of quality. • People-oriented or employee-centered leaders focus on the welfare and feelings of followers, have confidence in themselves, and have a strong need to develop and empower their team members. In general, leaders should be able to find themselves in one of the above categories. However, leadership theories have identified more specific characteristics of leaders that have over time been shown to improve employee performance.

Leadership Theories

The quest to identify such behaviors that increase a leader’s effectiveness has been a major concern of practicing managers and leadership researchers alike for the past several decades (cf. Bass, 1981; Doherty & Danylchuk, 1996; House, 1971; Kent & Chelladurai, 2001; Stogdill, 1974; Yukl, 1989a; 1989b). Sport management literature has primarily focused on coaching leadership behaviors in regard to transactional and transformational management styles (Doherty & Danylchuk, 1996; Doherty, 1997; Charbonneau, Barling, & Kelloway, 2001; Rowald, 2006). Theoretical literature suggests that behavior of employees within the organization have significant implications for performance and that human resource management practices can influence individual employee performance, turnover, and productivity (Huselid, 1995).

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Historically there have been seven major different management styles/theories identified. Each falls in a different place along the sport management spectrum, ranging from extreme employee focus, to the opposite, extreme organizational focus. They include; scientific management, behavioralist, operations research, management by objectives, new behavioralist, social responsibility, strategic management. Additional leadership theories could fall into one of the above categories. Some additional leadership theories sport managers should be aware of include the following: • Theory Xsuggests that workers dislike work and must be coerced, controlled, and directed in order to achieve company objectives. • Theory Y indicates that workers accept work as natural, seek responsibility, and will exercise self-direction and self-control to achieve company objectives. • Theory Zis a theory of leadership that emphasizes long-range planning, consensus decision-making, and strong mutual worker-employer loyalty. • Life-Cycle Theory is a theory that the leader’s style should reflect the maturity level of employees and that draws heavily on previous leadership research. • Servant-Leaders are leaders who serve the people he/she leads, which implies that they are an end in themselves rather than a means to an organizational purpose or bottom line. The servant leader devotes him/herself to serving the needs of organization members, focuses on meeting the needs of those they lead, develops employees to bring out the best in them, coaches others, and encourages their self- expression, facilitates personal growth in all who work with them, and listens and builds a sense of community. • Transformational Leadership. When leaders broaden and elevate the interests of their employees, generate awareness of their purpose and the groups, and create an environment where employees look beyond their own self-interest for the good of the group (Bass & Avolio, 1990). Transformational leaders can further be identified through the following: – Idealized influence. Leaders who have high ethical and moral standards and conduct themselves accordingly, they are held in high regard, and engender follower loyalty (Bono & Judge, 2004) – Inspirational motivation. Leaders with a strong vision for the future based on their values, they stimulate enthusiasm, build self-confidence in others, and can be persuasive (Bono & Judge, 2004) – Intellectual stimulation. Leaders who challenge organizational norms, encourage divergent thinking, push innovative developments (Bono & Judge, 2004) – Individual consideration. Leaders who recognize the unique needs of followers, coach followers, and use them to consult (Bono & Judge, 2004) • Transactional Leadership. Leadership based on transactions between manager and employee where interactions only occur when standards for accomplishing tasks are not being met (Bass & Avolio, 1990). Transactional leaders can be further categorized through the following:

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– Contingent reward. Leader behaviors focused on exchanging resources in exchange for followers efforts and performance (Bono & Judge, 2004) – Management-by-exception-active. Leaders who focus on setting standards and monitoring abnormalities from those set standards taking action as necessary (Bono & Judge, 2004) – Management-by-exception-passive. Leaders who focus on setting standards and monitoring abnormalities from those set standards taking action only when issues become serious (Bono & Judge, 2004). • Laissez-faire. Leaders who are nonexistent, nonleadership, those who avoid leadership responsibilities (Bono & Judge, 2004). • Strengths-based leadership extends the literature on leadership styles in relationship to follower performance. This style of leadership devotes its energy into focusing on follower strengths instead of their weaknesses. The primary component to strengths-based leadership is to learn individuals’ natural talents and help guide them in their work environment to turn their natural talents into strengths (Rath, 2007). Organizational behavior research has long examined management style and leadership of individuals in position to lead. As previously stated, organizations have changed the focus of their attention from a management perspective. An organizational model (See Figure 1.2) is offered to provide context to the history of organizational theory as previously discussed. Additionally, a conceptual model of sport management is offered based on the literature review encompassing concepts derived from the organizational theory literature as well as the organizational leadership behaviors literature (See Figure 1.3).

Management defined: Process Management Functions Technical Task of working with and through other people to accomplish the 1. Planning objectives of both the 1. Public Relations 2. Organizing organization and its members. 2. Financial 3. Staffing management 4. Coordinating 3. Supervision CHAPTER5. Motivating THREE 4. Risk management Core ManagementMETHODOLOGY Processes: 6. Leading 5. Personnel Negotiation 7. Evaluating Decision Making management 8. Providing Feedback Communicating 6. Operations 9. Controlling management Management Constraints: 7. Managing 1. External Environments Organizational a. Ex. Sociological/Political Changes

2. Internal Environments 8. Managing a. Ex. Human Resources Information Systems 3. Corporate Culture 4. Ethics 9. Facility management

Figure 1.3. Conceptual Management Model: This model provides a more comprehensive detailing of the functions of management. Managers will interact with the functions expressed here differently

based onhttps://www.sagamorepub.com/products/sport-governance-north-america-2nd-ed-ebook their leadership characteristics. 18 Sport Governance in North America

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